EN8592

WASTEWATER
ENGINEERING
 UNIT I
PLANNING AND DESIGN OF
SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
UNIT I - PLANNING AND DESIGN OF
SEWERAGE SYSTEM 9
Characteristics and composition of sewage -
population equivalent -Sanitary sewage flow
estimation – Sewer materials – Hydraulics of
flow in sanitary sewers – Sewer design –
Storm drainage-Storm runoff estimation –
sewer appurtenances – corrosion in sewers
– prevention and control – sewage
pumping-drainage in buildings-plumbing
systems for drainage - Rain Water ting.
DEFINITIONS
Industrial wastewater: It is the wastewater generated
from the industrial areas. This wastewater contains
objectionable organic and inorganic compounds that
may not be amenable to conventional treatment
processes.
Night Soil: It is a term used to indicate the human and
animal excreta.
Sanitary sewage or Sewage: Sewage originated from the
residential, commercial and institutional buildings
comes under this category. This is very foul in nature.
Liquid wastes discharged from urinals, latrines,
bathrooms, kitchen sinks, washbasins etc., of the
residential, business buildings and institutions. It is also
referred as domestic wastewater or domestic sewage.
• Sewage Treatment Plant is a facility
designed
to receive the waste from domestic,
commercia and industrial sources and to
l
remove materials that damage water quality
and compromise public health and safety
when discharged into water receiving systems
or land.
• Sewer: It is an underground conduit or drain
through which sewage is carried to a point of
discharge or disposal.
• Sewerage: The term sewerage refers
infrastructure which includes the device,
equipmentand appurtenances for the
collection, transportation and pumping of
sewage, but excluding works for the
treatment of sewage.
• Storm water: It indicates the rain water of the
locality.
The runoff resulting from the rain storms was
used to be called storm drainage
• Sullage: This refers to the wastewater
generated from bathrooms, kitchens, washing
place and wash basins, etc. Composition of
this waste does not involve higher
concentration of organic matter and it is less
polluted water as compared to sewage.
 Sources of
Sewage
• The wastewater generated from the household
activities contributes to the major part of the
sewage.
• The wastewater generated from recreational
activities, public utilities, commercial complexes,
and institutions is also discharged in to sewers.
• The wastewater discharged from small and
medium scale industries situated within the
municipal limits and discharging partially treated
or untreated wastewater in to the sewers also
contributes for municipal wastewater.
EFFECT OF UNTREATED
WASTEWATER
DISPOSAL
• The daily activities of human beings produce
both liquid and solid wastes.
• If the untreated wastewater is allowed to
accumulate, it will lead to highly unhygienic
conditions.
• The organic matter present in the wastewater
will undergo decomposition with production
of large quantities of foul-smelling gases.
EFFECT OF UNTREATED
WASTEWATER
DISPOSAL
• If the wastewater is discharged without
treatment in the water body, this will result in the
depletion of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) from the
water bodies.
• Depletion of DO, the survival of aquatic life will
become difficult, finally leading to anaerobic
conditions in the receiving waters
• The nutrients present in the wastewater can
stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, leading to
problems like eutrophication.
EFFECT OF UNTREATED
WASTEWATER
• The untreated DISPOSAL
domestic wastewater usually
contains numerous pathogenic or disease
causing microorganisms, that dwell in the
human intestinal tract.
• Wastewater contains inorganic gritty
materials. The continuous deposition of this
inorganic material may reduce the capacity of
water body considerably over a period.
OBJECTIVES OF SEWAGE COLLECTION AND
DISPOSAL
• To provide a good sanitary environmental condition
of city protecting public health.
• To dispose the human excreta to a safe place by a
safe and protective means.
• To dispose of all liquid waste generated from
community to a proper place to prevent a favorable
condition for mosquito breeding, fly developing or
bacteria growing.
• To treat the sewage, as per needs, so as not to
endanger the body of water or groundwater or land
to get polluted where it is finally disposed off.
• To protects the receiving environment from
degradation or contamination.
 What is safe disposal of
Forsewage?
safe disposal of the sewage generated from a locality
efficient collection, conveyance, adequate treatment and
proper disposal of treated sewage is necessary. To
achieve this, following conditions should be satisfied:
1. Sewage should not pollute the drinking water source,
either surface or groundwater, or water bodies that
are used for bathing or recreational purposes.
2. The untreated sewage during conveyance should not
be exposed so as to have access to human being or
animals and should not give unsightly appearances or
odour nuisance, and should not become a place for
breeding flies.
3. It should not cause harm to public health and adversely
 Quantity Estimation of
Sewage
• The sewage collected from the municipal
area consists of wastewater generated from the
residences,
commercial centres,
recreational
activities, institutions
and
industrial wastewaters discharge into sewer
network from the permissible industries
located within the city limits.
 Quantity Estimation of
Sewage
• Before designing the sewer, it is necessary to
know the discharge i.e., quantity of sewage,
which will flow in it after completion of the
project. Accurate estimation of sewage
discharge is necessary for hydraulic design of
the sewers.
• Far lower estimation than reality will soon
lead to inadequate sewer size after
commissioning of the scheme or the sewers
may not remain adequate for the entire
design period.
 Quantity Estimation of
Sewage
• Very high discharge estimated will lead to
larger sewer size affecting economy of the
sewerage scheme
• Lower discharge actually flowing in the sewer
may not meet the criteria of the self cleansing
velocity and hence leading to deposition in
the sewers.
• Since sewers are design to serve for some
more future years, engineering skills have to
be used to accurately estimate the sewage
discharge.
 Sources of Sanitary
Sewage
1.Water supplied by water authority for
domestic usage
2.Water supplied to the various industries for
various industrial processes by local authority.
3.The water supplied to the various public
places such as, schools, cinema theatres,
hotels, hospitals, and commercial complexes.
4.Water drawn from wells by individuals to
fulfil domestic demand.
 Sources of Sanitary
Sewage
5.The water drawn for various purposes by
industries, from individual water sources
such as, wells, tube wells, lake, river, etc.
6.Infiltration of groundwater into sewers
through leaky joints.
7.Entrance of rainwater in sewers during rainy
season through faulty joints or cracks in
sewers.
 Dry Weather
Dry Flow
weather flow is the flow that occurs
in sewers during dry seasons.
This flow indicates the of sanitary
flow sewage.
This depends upon the
rate of water
supply, type of
area served,
economic conditions of the
infiltration of groundwater
people, weather in the sewers,
conditions and
if sewers are laid below groundwater table.
 Evaluation of Sewage
Discharge
Correct estimation of sewage discharge is necessary. Otherwise
sewers may prove inadequate resulting in overflow or may prove
too large in diameter, which may make the system uneconomical
and hydraulically inefficient.
Apart from accounted water supplied by water authority that will
be converted to wastewater, following quantities are considered
while estimating the sewage quantity

a. Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies

b. Addition due to infiltration

Storm water drainage may also infiltrate into sewers. This inflow
is difficult to calculate. Generally, no extra provision is made for
this quantity. This extra quantity can be taken care of by extra
empty space left at the top in the sewers, which are designed for
running ¾ full at maximum design discharge.
 Evaluation of Sewage
Discharge
c. Subtraction due to water
losses
d. Subtraction due water not entering the
to sewerage system
Net quantity of sewage:

Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied

is considered as quantity of sewage produced
 Design
period
The future period for which the provision is made in
designing the capacities of the various components
of the sewerage scheme is known as the design
period.
The design period depends upon the following:
• Ease and difficulty in expansion,
• Amount and availability of investment,
• Anticipated rate of population growth, including
shifts in communities, industries and commercial
investments,
• Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
• Life of the material and equipment.
 Design
period
Following design period can be
considered for different components
S.Noof Typesewerage
scheme and name of Reason for the selected period Design Period
the component in years
. structure
1 Laterals less than 15 Requirements may Full
cm diameter change faster in developmen
limited area t
2 Trunk or main sewers Difficult & costly to enlarge 40 to 50 years

3 Treatment Units Growth and interest rates 15 to 20 years

being high to moderate

4 Pumping plant Additional unit can be easily 5 to 10 years

installed in short notice of time
 Design Discharge of Sanitary
Sewage
• The total quantity of sewage generated per day is
estimated as product of forecasted population at the
end of design period considering per capita sewage
generation and appropriate peak factor.
• The per capita sewage generation can be considered
as 75 to 80% of the per capita water supplied per
day.
• The increase in population also result in increase in
per capita water demand and hence, per capita
production of sewage also will increase.
• This increase in water demand occurs due to
increase in living standards, betterment in
economical condition, changes in habit of people,
and enhanced demand for public utilities.
 Variation in Sewage
Flow
Variation occurs in the flow of sewage over
annual average daily flow. Fluctuation in
flow occurs from hour to hour and from
season to season. The typical in hourly
variatio the sewage flow is shown
n
 Variation in Sewage
The peakFlow
will defer if the sewage has to travel long distance.
This is because of the time required in collecting sufficient
quantity of sewage required to fill the sewers and time
required in travelling.
As sewage flow in sewer lines, more and more sewage is
mixed in it due to continuous increase in the area being
served by the sewer line.
This leads to reduction in the fluctuations in the sewage flow
and the lag period goes on increasing.
The magnitude of variation in the sewage quantity
varies from place to place and it is very difficult to
predict.
For smaller township this variation will be more
pronounced due to lower length and travel time before
sewage reach to the main sewer and for large cities this
 Variation in Sewage
For Flow
estimating design discharge following relation can be
considered:
Maximum daily flow = Two times the annual average daily flow

Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow

= Three times the annual averagedaily
flow
As the tributary area increases, peak hourly flow will decrease.
For smaller population served (less than 50000) the peak factor
can be 2.5, and as the population served increases its value
reduces.
For large cities it can be considered about 1.5 to 2.0.

Even for design of the treatment facility, the peak factor is

considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow.
 Variation in Sewage
Flow
The minimum flow passing through sewers is also
important to develop self cleansing velocity to avoid
silting in sewers.
This flow will generate in the sewers during late night
hours. The effect of this flow is more pronounced on
lateral sewers than the main sewers.
Sewers must be checked for minimum velocity as
follows:
Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow
Minimum hourly flow = ½ minimum daily flow
= 1/3 Annual average daily flow
The overall variation between the maximum and
minimum flow is more in the laterals and less in the
main or trunk sewers. This ratio may be more than 6
for laterals and about 2 to 3 in case of main sewers.
 Quantity of Storm
water
The surface run-off resulting after precipitation contributes
to the storm water. The quantity of storm water reaching
to the sewers or drains is very large as compared with
sanitary sewage.
The factors affecting the quantity of storm water flow are
as below:

i. Area of the catchment

ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv.Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens,
etc.
 The factors affecting the quantity of stormwater flow are
as below:

v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.

vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall

vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity

viii. Number and size of ditches present in the area

 Measurement of
Rainfall
The rainfall intensity could be measured by using
rain gauges and recording the amount of rain
falling in unit time. The rainfall intensity is usually
expressed as mm/hour or cm/hour. The
gauges used can be manual recording rain
automatic recording rain gauges. type or
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
1. Rational Method

2. Empirical formulae method

In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is
considered as function of intensity of rainfall, coefficient of
runoff and area of catchment.

Time of Concentration(Tc): The period after which the entire

catchment area will start contributing to the runoff is called
as the time of concentration.

The rainfall duration lesser than the time of concentration

will not produce maximum discharge.
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
Inlet Time(Ti): The time required for the rain in falling on the
most remote point of the tributary area to flow across the
ground surface along the natural drains or gutters up to inlet
of sewer is called inlet time.

The inlet time ‘Ti’ can be estimated using relationships

similar to following.

These coefficients will have different values for different

catchments.

Ti = [0.885 L3/H]0.385
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
Where, Ti = Time of inlet, minute
L = Length of overland flow in Km from critical
point to mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to
mouth of drain, m
Time of Travel(Tf): The time required by the water to
flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the point
under consideration or the point of concentration is
called as time of travel.
Time of Travel (Tf) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
Runoff Coefficient(K or C): The total precipitation
falling on any area is dispersed as percolation,
evaporation, storage in ponds or reservoir and
surface runoff.
The runoff coefficient can be defined as a fraction,
which is multiplied with the quantity of total rainfall
to determine the quantity of rain water, which will
reach the sewers. The runoff coefficient depends
upon the porosity of soil cover, wetness and ground
cover.
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
The relationships between rainfall intensity (P) and
Water
duration (T) are developed based on long experience in
field. Under Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall in
design is usually in the range 12 mm/h to 20 mm/h.
For T varying between 5 to 20 minutes

For T varying between 20 to 100

minutes
T a b
5 to 20 mins. 75 10
20 to 100 mins. 100 20
Methods for Estimation of Quantity of Storm
Water
The overall runoff coefficient for the
catchment area can be worked out as
follows:
Overall runoff
coefficient

Where, A1, A2, ….An are types of area

with C1, C2, …Cn as their coefficient of
runoff, respectively.
The typical runoff coefficient for the different ground cover is provided
in the below table

Runoff coefficient for various sources

Sno Type of Surface Value of K or C

1 Water Tight Roof surface 0.70 - 0.95
2 Asphalt Pavement 0.85 – 0.90
3 Stone, brick, wood-block pavement 0.75 - 0.85
with cemented joints
4 Stone, brick, wood-block pavement with 0.50 - 0.70
uncemented joints
5 Water bond Macadam roads 0.25 - 0.60
6 Gravel road and walks 0.15 – 0.30
7 Unpaved streets and vacant lands 0.10 – 0.30
8 Parks, Lawns, gardens, meadows etc., 0.05 – 0.25
9 Wooden lands 0.01 – 0.20
 (1) Rational method
Storm water quantity,
Q = K.PC.A / 36

Q = Quantity of storm water,

3
m /sec K = Coefficient of runoff
PC = intensity of rainfall (cm/hour) for
the duration equal to time of
concentration
A = Drainage area in hectares
 (2) Burkli Ziegler
Storm water
formula
quantity

Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec

= Coefficient of runoff

p = intensity of rainfall (cm/hour) for the duration equal to time

of
concentration

A = Drainage area in hectares

S0= The slope of the ground surface in metres per
thousand metres
(3) Dicken’s
formula
Peak Discharge in cumecs

QP = Peak Discharge
in cumecs
M = Catchment area in
Km2 C = a constant
depending upon all those
fifteen to twenty factors
which affect the runoff
(C=11.5)
 (4) Ryve’s
formula

QP = Peak Discharge in cumecs

M = Catchment area in Km2

C = a constant depending upon all those fifteen to twenty factors
which
affect the runoff (C=6.8)
Location of Catchment Value of C1
Areas within 24Km from the coast 6.8
Areas within 24Km – 16Km from the 8.8
coast
Limited areas near hills 10.1
 (5) Inglis
formula

QP = Peak Discharge in cumecs

M = Catchment area in Km2

(6) NAWAB JUNG BAHADUR

FORMULA

QP = Peak Discharge in
cumecs
M = Catchment area in

Km2 C2 = 48 to 60
 (7) Dredge or Burge’s
formula
Storm water
quantity

Qp = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec

L = Length of the drainage basin in
Kilometres

M = Catchment area in Km2

Estimation of Quantity of Sewage and Storm
Water Problem 1:Determine designed discharge
for a combined system serving population of
50000 with rate of water supply of 135 LPCD. The
catchment area is 100 hectares, the duration of
rainfall is 30 minutes and the average coefficient
of runoff is 0.60.
Given
Population = 50,000
Rate of water supply = 135 lpcd
Catchment Area = 100 Hectares, Duration of
rainfall
= 30 min.,Average coefficient of runoff =0.60
To Find
Estimation of Quantity of Sewage and Storm
Water
Solution
Estimation of sewage quantity
STEP 1
Assumption 1: Considering 80% of the water supplied
will result in wastewater generation
Quantity of sanitary sewage Q
Q = Population x Quantity of water supply x 0.8
= 50000 x 135 x 0.80
= 5400 m3/day = 0.0625 m3/sec
STEP 2
Assumption 2: Considering peak factor of 2.5
Design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.0625 x 2.5
= 0.156 m3/sec
Estimation of Quantity of Sewage and Storm
Water
Estimation of storm water discharge
STEP 3
Intensity of rainfall, PC

Therefore, PC = 100/(30 + 20) = 2 cm/h

Storm water runoff, Q = K.PC.A /36

Q = 0.6 x 2 x 100/(36) = 3.33 m3/sec

Design discharge for combined sewer

3
Estimation of Quantity of Sewage and Storm
Water
Problem 2:
The catchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface
cover in the catchment can be classified as given below:
S.No. Type of Cover Coefficinet Percentag
of runoff e of
(K) area
1 Roof s 0.90 15
2 Pavements and yards 0.80 15
3 Lawns and gardens 0.15 25
4 Roads 0.40 20
5 Open Ground 0.10 15
6 Single Family dwelling 0.50 10
 Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm
water runoff, if intensity of rainfall is 30 mm/h for rain
with duration equal to time of concentration. If
population density in the area is 350 persons per hectare
and rate of water supply is 200 LPCD, calculate design
discharge for separate system, partially separate system,
and combined system.
Given
Population density in the area = 350 persons per
hectare Catchment Area = 300 hectares
Rate of water supply = 200 lpcd
Intensity of rainfall = 30mm/h =
3cm/h To Find
1) Average coefficient of runoff
2) Quantity of storm water runoff
Solution
1. Estimation of storm water discharge for storm
water drain of separate system
STEP 1
Overall runoff coefficient

Where, A1, A2, ….An are types of area with C1, C2, …Cn
as their coefficient of runoff, respectively.

C = 0.44
Estimation of storm water discharge
STEP 2
Storm water runoff, Q = K.PC.A /36
Q = 0.44 x 3 x 300/(36) = 11 m3/sec
Estimation of sewage discharge for separate
system sanitary sewer
STEP 3
Assumption 1: Considering 80% of the water supplied
will result in wastewater generation
Quantity of sanitary sewage Q
Q = Population density x Area x Quantity of water supply
x 0.8
= 350 x 300 x 200 x 0.80
= 16800 m3/day = 0.194 m3/sec
 Assumption 2: Considering peak factor of 2
Design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.194 x
2
= 0.388 m3/sec
2. Estimation of discharge for partially separate system
STEP 4
Storm water discharge falling on roofs and paved
courtyards will be added to the sanitary sewer.
Average coefficient of runoff = (0.90 x 45 + 0.80 x 45) / 90
= 0.85
Discharge = 0.85 x 3 x 90 / 36 = 6.375 m3/sec
Total discharge in the sanitary sewer of partially
separate system = 6.375 + 0.388 = 6.764 m3/sec
Discharge in storm water drains = 11 – 6.375 = 4.625 m3/sec
3. Design discharge for combined
sewer Storm water runoff, Q = 11
m3/s
Design discharge for sanitary sewage =0.388
m3/sec Discharge for combined sewer = 11 +
0.388
= 11.388 m3/sec
 TYPES OF SEWERAGE
SYSTEM
• Combined
System
• Separate System
• Combined
system
 Combined
• Combined System
system: In combined system along
with domestic sewage, the run-off resulting from
storms is carried through the same conduit of
sewerage system. In countries like India where
actual rainy days are very few, this system will
face the problem of maintaining self cleansing
velocity in the sewers during dry season, as the
sewage discharge may be far lower as compared
to the design discharge after including storm
water.
 Separate
• Separate
System
System: In separatesystem, separate
conduits are used; one carrying sewage and other
carrying storm water run-off. The storm water
collected can be directly discharged into the water
body since the run-off is not as foul as sewage and
no treatment is generally provided. Whereas, the
sewage collected from the city is treated adequately
before it is discharged into the water body or used
for irrigation to meet desired standards. Separate
system is advantageous and economical for big
towns.
 Partially Separate
System
• Partially separate system: In this system part
of the storm water especially collected from
roofs and paved courtyards of the buildings is
admitted in the same drain along with sewage
from residences and institutions, etc. The
storm water from the other places is collected
separately using separate storm water
conduits.
 Advantages of combined
system
• In an area where rainfall is spread throughout
a year, there is no need of flushing of sewers,
as self cleansing velocity will be developed due
to more quantity because of addition of storm
water.
• Only one set of pipe will be required for
house plumbing.
• In congested areas it is easy to lay only one
pipe rather than two pipes as required in
other systems.
Disadvantages of combined
system
• Not suitable for the area with small period of rainfall in
a year, because dry weather flow will be small due to
which self cleansing velocity may not develop in
sewers, resulting in silting.
• Large flow is required to be treated at sewage
treatment plant before disposal, hence resulting in
higher capital and operating cost of the treatment
plant.
• When pumping is required this system is
uneconomical.
• During rains overflowing of sewers will spoil public
hygiene.
 Advantages of separate
system
• As sewage flows in separate pipe, hence the
quantity to be treated at sewage treatment
plant is small, resulting in economy of
treatment.
• This system may be less costly as only
sanitary sewage is transported in closed
conduit and storm water can be collected
and conveyed through open drains.
• When pumping is required during disposal,
this system is economical due to less flow.
 Disadvantages of separate
system
• Self cleansing velocity may not be developed
at certain locations in sewers and hence
flushing of sewers may be required.
• This system requires laying two sets of pipe,
which may be difficult in congested area.
• This system will require maintenance of two
sets of pipelines and hence maintenance cost
is more.
Advantages of partially separate
system
• Economical and reasonable size sewers
are required.
• Work of house plumbing is reduced as rain
water from roofs, sullage from bathrooms
and kitchen, etc. are combined with
discharge from water closets.
• Flushing of sewers may not be required
as small portion of storm water is
allowed to enter in sanitary sewage
 Considerations For The Type
Of System
• The separate system requires laying of two
sets of conduits whereas in combined system
only one bigger size conduit is required.
• Laying of two separate conduits may be
difficult in the congested streets.
• In combined system sewers are liable for
silting during non-monsoon season, hence
they are required to be laid at steeper
gradients.
 Considerations For The Type
Of System
• Steeper gradients for the sewers may require
more number of pumping stations,
particularly for flat terrain, which may make
the system costly.
• Large quantity of wastewater is required to
be treated before discharge in case of
combined system. Hence, large capacity
treatment plant is required.
 Considerations For The Type
Of System
• In separate system, only sewage is treated
before it is discharged into natural water body
or used for irrigation. No treatment is generally
given to the rainwater collected before it is
discharged in to natural water body.
• In case of separate system pumping is only
required for sewage. Pumping can be avoided
for storm water lines, as they are not very deep
and normally laid along the natural slopes.
• In combined system large capacity pumping
station is required to safely handle the flow
that is likely to be generated during highest
design storm considered.
• Based on site conditions the economy of the
system needs to be evaluated and selection is
made accordingly
Open
Sewer
Open
Sewer
OPEN
SEWER
Man Hole and Cover
 Factors affecting
Characteristics and
composition of sewage and
their significance
 Sewage
Characteristics
SEWAGE
CHARACTERISTICS

BACTERIOLOGICA
PHYSICAL CHEMICAL
L (BIOLOGICAL)
PHYSICAL
• TURBIDITY
• COLOUR
• ODOUR
• TEMPERATURE

CHEMICAL
• Total Solids
• pH value
• Chloride
• Nitrogen
• Fats, Grease & Oil
• Sulphides, Sulphates and H2S gas
• Dissolved oxygen
• BOD (Biochemcial Oxygen Demand)
• COD (Chemcial Oxygen Demand)

BACTERIOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
 Sewage
• Characterization of wastes is essential for an
Characteristics
effective and economical waste management
programme.
• It helps in the choice of treatment methods
deciding the extent of treatment, assessing
the beneficial uses of wastes and utilizing the
waste purification capacity of natural bodies
of water in a planned and controlled manner.
• While analysis of wastewater in each
particular case is advisable, data from the
other cities may be utilized during initial stage
of planning.
 Sewage
• Domestic sewage comprises spent water from kitchen,
Characteristics
bathroom, lavatory, etc.
• The factors which contribute to variations in
characteristics of the domestic sewage are daily per
capita use of water, quality of water supply and the
type, condition and extent of sewerage system, and
habits of the people.
• Municipal sewage, which contains both domestic and
industrial wastewater, may differ from place to place
depending upon the type of industries and industrial
establishment.
• The important characteristics of sewage are discussed
here.
Sewage
Characteristics

COMPOSITION OF
SEWAGE
Composition of
Sewage
 Temperatur
• Affects Bio-chemical
e reactions and reaction rates
• Higher temperature –biological Activity more
means demand of oxygen more but solubility of
DO at higher temp. Decrease
• Low temperature: low methanogenic activity
and low hydrolysis rate.
• Temperature measured by
• thermometers.
In general, under Indian conditions the
temperature of the raw sewage is observed to
be between 15 and 350C at various places in
different seasons.
 pH
• The hydrogen ion concentration expressed as
pH, is a valuable parameter in the operation of
biological units.
• The pH of the fresh sewage is slightly more than
the water supplied to the community.
• However, decomposition of organic matter may
lower the pH, while the presence of industrial
wastewater may produce extreme fluctuations.
• Generally the pH of raw sewage is in the range
5.5 to 8.0.
 Colour and Odour
• Fresh sewage brown & yellowish colour
• With the passage of time it become septic
• Color of WW & biological treatment:
light brown-gray => fresh, aerobic
dark brown-black => old,
anaerobic
• Soluble dyes (stains) also cause coloring,
very difficult to remove (eg: textile)
 Odour
• Fresh sewage not offensive odour
•Stale sewage – offensive odour ( All the oxygen
disappeared from the sewage)
•Often very small amounts cause nuisance (eg.
H2S approx.10 ppb)
 Solids
• Though sewage generally contains less than
0.5
percent solids, the rest beingwater, still the
nuisance caused by the solids cannot be
overlooked, as thesesolids are highly
degradable and therefore need proper disposal.
• The sewage solids may be classified into dissolved
solids,suspended solids volatile suspended
and
solids.
solid, which decomposes,
• Knowledge of volatile becomes
or organicnecessary,
fraction as
this constitutes the load on biological of
the treatment
units or oxygen resources of a stream when
sewage is disposed off by dilution.
 Solids
• The estimation of suspended solids, both
organic and inorganic, gives a general
picture of the load on sedimentation and
grit removal system during sewage
treatment.
• Dissolved inorganic fraction is to be
considered when sewage is used for land
irrigation or any other reuse is planned.
 Nitrogen and
• The principal nitrogen compounds in domestic sewage are proteins,
Phosphorus
amines, amino acids, and urea.
• One or more of the following form
• Free amonia – First stage of decomposition
• Organic Nitrogen – Total Organic nitrogen
• Nitrite – Partly decomposition of organic matter
• Nitrate – fully decomposition of organic matter
• Ammonia nitrogen in sewage results from the bacterial
decomposition of these organic constituents.
• Nitrogen being an essential component of biological protoplasm, its
concentration is important for proper functioning of biological
treatment systems and disposal on land.
• Generally, the domestic sewage contains sufficient nitrogen, to take
care of the needs of the biological treatment.
 Nitrogen and
• For
Phosphorus
industrial wastewater if sufficient nitrogen is not
present it is required to be added externally. Generally
nitrogen content in the untreated sewage is observed to
be in the range of 20 to 50 mg/L measured as TKN.
• Phosphorus is contributing to domestic sewage from food
residues containing phosphorus and their breakdown
products.
• The use of increased quantities of synthetic detergents
adds substantially to the phosphorus content of
sewage.
• Phosphorus is also an essential nutrient for the biological
processes.
 Nitrogen and
Phosphorus
• The concentration of phosphorus in
domestic sewage is generally adequate to
support aerobic biological wastewater
treatment.
• The concentration of PO4 in raw sewage is
generally observed in the range of 5 to 10
mg/L.
 Chlorides
• Chlorides are generally found in sewage and are derived
from kitchen wastes, human feces and urinary discharges.
• The normal chloride content of sewage is 120 mg/lit,
whereas the permissible limit of chloride content in water
is 250 mg /lit.
• However, large amount of chlorides may enter from
industries like ice cream plants, meat salting etc..
• Hence, when the chloride content of a given sewage is
found to be high, it indicates the presence of industrial
wastes or infiltration of seawater, thereby indicating
strength of sewage.
• It can be determined by titrating the wastewater with
standard silver nitrate solution using potassium chromate
as indicator.
 Fats, Oils and
• Fats, oils andGreases
greases are derived in sewage from the
discharge of animals and vegetable matter, or from
the garages, kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc..
• Such matter form scum on top of
sedimentatio tanks clogs the the the of
media
n , the diffusion
and affects voids theThey
of oxygen. filter
thus
interfere with the normal treatment methods. Hence
these detection and removal is important.
• Oils and greases are soluble in ether. Hence for their
determination, a sample of sewage, sample is first of
all evaporated, leaving behind the oil and grease as a
residue, which is then weighed.
Fats, Oils and
Greases
 Toxi
c
• Copper, lead, silver, arsenic
phenols, boron,chromium,
cyanides, etc.. are,
someof
the toxic compounds affecting the
microorganisms resulting in malfunctioning
from industrial waste.
Toxic
Waste
 Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen
• Sulphides and sulphates areformed due to the
Gas
decomposition of various sulphur containing substances in
sewage. This decomposition also leads to evolution of
hydrogen sulphide gas, causing bad odours, besides causing
corrosion of concrete sewer pipes.
• In aerobic digestion of sewage, the aerobic and facultative
bacteria oxidizes the sulphur and its compounds present in
the sewage to initially form sulphides, which ultimately
breakdown to form sulphates ions, which is a stable and
unobjectionable end products.
• In digestion of sewage the anaerobic
an-aerobic and reduce the sulphur and its compounds
facultative bacteria
into sulphides, with evolution of H2S gas along with
methane and carbon dioxide, thus causing very obnoxious
odours.
 Dissolved
• Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen in the dissolved
Oxygen(DO)
state in the wastewater.
• Through the wastewater generally does not have DO, its
presence in untreated wastewater indicates that the
waste water is fresh.
• Similarly, its presence in treated wastewater effluent
indicates that the considerable oxidation has been
accomplished during the treatment stages.
• While discharging the treated wastewater into receiving
waters, it is essential to ensure that at least 4 mg/l of DO
is present in it.
• If DO is less, the aquatic animals like fish etc. are likely to
be killed near the vicinity of disposal.
 Dissolved
• The presence of
Oxygen(DO)in is desirable
wastewater because it preventsthe of obnoxious
DO
formation
odour. DO determination also to find
helps
efficiency of biological treatment. the
• The actual quantity of DO is governed by
- Solubility of Oxygen
-Partial Pressure of oxygen in atmosphere.
-Temperature
-Purity ( Salinity, suspended solids etc.) of water
• The DO of wastewater decreases as the
temperature increases.
• DO content of sewage is determinedby Winkler's
method.
 Organic
•
Material
A large variety of microorganisms (that may be present
in the sewage or in the receiving water body) interact
with the organic material by using it as an energy or
material source.
• Theutilization of the organic material by
microorganisms is called metabolism.
• The conversion of organic material by microorganism to
obtain energy is called catabolism and the incorporation
of organic material in the cellular material is called
anabolism.
 Organic
• Material
In environmental engineering there are two standard
tests based on the oxidation of organic material: 1) the
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and 2) the
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) tests. In both tests,
the organic material concentration is measured during
the test.
• The other method for measuring organic material is the
development of the Total Organic Carbon (TOC) test as
an alternative to quantify the concentration of the
organic material.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD)
• The COD gives the measure of the oxygen required for
chemical oxidation.
• It does not differentiate between biological oxidisable and
nonoxidisable material.
• However, the ratio of the COD to BOD does not change
significantly for particular waste and hence this test could
be used conveniently for interpreting performance
efficiencies of the treatment units.
• In general, the COD of raw sewage at various places is
reported to be in the range 200 to 700 mg/L.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand
•(COD)
COD test is widely used as a means of measuring the
amount of organic matter in the waste.
• It can be used to measure both biodegradable and non
biodegradable organic matter.
• COD test, takes 3 hours in comparison to 5 days for BOD
test, In COD test, a strong chemical oxidizing agent like
potassium dichromate is used in acidic medium to oxidize
the organic matter present in the waste.
• Almost all type of organic matter with a few exceptions
can be oxidized by the action of strong oxidizing agents
under acidic conditions.
• COD can be defined as amount of oxygen required to
chemically oxidize organic matter using a strong oxidizing
agent like potassium dichromate under acidic condition.
• The COD /BOD ratio for the sewage is around 1.7.
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
• (BOD)
There are two types of organic matter
(i) Biodegradable or biologically active
(ii) Non biodegradable or biologically inactive
• Organic matter is often assessed in terms of oxygen required
to complete oxidize the organic matter to CO2, H2O, and other
end products of Oxidation.
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is defined as the amount
of oxygen required by the microorganisms (mostly bacteria) to
carry out decomposition of biodegradable organic matter
under aerobic conditions.
• The general range of BOD observed for raw sewage is 100 to
400 mg/L.
• Values in the lower range are being common under average
Indian cities.
 BOD
• The BOD test is widely used to determine the
pollution strength of domestic and industrial
wastes in terms of the oxygen that they will
require if discharged into natural watercourses.
It is the one of the most important test in stream
pollution control activities.
• This test is of prime importance in regulatory
work and in studies designed to evaluate the
purification capacity of receiving bodies of water.
• It is also usefu in design of wastewater
treatment l plant and also to measure
the
efficiency of some treatment
 Biochemical Oxygen
• TheDemand
organic matter present in the wastewater
may belong to two groups:
Carbonaceous matter
Nitrogenous matter.
• The ultimate carbonaceous BOD of a waste is the
amount of oxygen necessary for microorganisms
in the sample to decompose the biodegradable
carbonaceous material.
• This is the first stage of oxidation and the
corresponding BOD is called as first stage BOD.
• In the second stage the nitrogenous matter is
oxidized by autotrophic bacteria, and the
corresponding BOD or nitrification demand.
• In fact, polluted water will continue to absorb
oxygen for many months, and it is not practically
feasible to determine this ultimate oxygen demand.
• Hence the 5 days period is generally chosen for the
standard BOD test, during which oxidation is about
60 to 70 % complete, while within 20 days period
oxidation is about 95 % to 99 % complete. A constant
temperature of 200 C is maintained during
incubation.
• The BOD value of 5 Day incubation period is
commonly written as BOD or simply as
• Another reason for selecting 5 days as standard
duration is to avoid interference of nitrification
bacteria. Nitrification starts after 6th or 7th
day.
• Now a day BOD test is also done at 27 0C and
duration of 3 days (BOD3 27), results can be
obtained faster and it is more nearer to the
actual field conditions in INDIA
1% Diluted sample means 1mL of sewage is diluted
to make 100mL of test sample
 Biological
• The sewage contains many microorganisms like bacteria,
Characteristics
algae, fungi, protozoa, etc. bacteria being the most
predominant. Most of the bacteria found in the sewage
are harmless non-pathogenic bacteria. They are helpful
in oxidation and decomposition of sewage.
• A little no. of bacteria, however, are disease producing
pathogens, which are the real danger to the health of
the public.
• In case of sewage samples, the routine bacteriological
tests, as performed for water samples, are generally not
performed, because of the high concentration of
bacteria present in it. But at the time of outbreak of
epidemics, certain tests may be done to find the type of
pathogens
BACTERIOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Each person discharges about 100 to 400 billion
coliform bacteria per day.
Infectious Agents = pathogenic organisms.
Water-borne diseases from infectious agents include
typhoid, cholera, bacterial and amoebic dysentery,
polio, infectious hepatitis, guinea worm and
schistosomiasis.

Analyze coliform
bacteria (E. coli).
Presume if coliform
bacteria are
present, infectious
pathogens are also
present.
 Bacterial
contamination
•Separate determination of Total Coliform (TC),
Fecal Coliform (FC) and Fecal Streptococci (FS)
is now possible.
•Presence of FC and pathogenic organism
together is well established and FC is the
widely used bacterial parameter as indicator
of fecal pollution.
 Chemical analysis of
Sewage
Constituents Strong Medium Weak

Solids Total 1000 500 200

Volatile 700 350 100
Fixed 500 150 80
Suspended Total 500 300 100
Volatile 400 250 70
Fixed 100 50 30
Dissolved Total 500 200 100
Volatile 300 100 80
Fixed 200 100 50
Settleable 12 8 4
(ml/l)

BOD 5days @20° C 300 200 100

DO - 0 0
 Chemical analysis of
Sewage
Constituents Strong Medium Weak

Nitrogen Total 85 50 25

Organic 35 20 10

Free Ammonia 50 30 15

Nitrates 0.1 0.05 0

Nitrites 0.4 0.2 0.10

Chlorides 175 100 15

Alkalinity 200 100 50

Fats 40 20 0
Typical composition of
Sewage
 Effluent Discharge
Standards
As per schedule VI of the environmental
protection rules 1986, The effluent discharge
standards is framed
 Legislation
Requirements
Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act
1974 Environmental protection Act 1986
• Protecting and improving the quality of
the environment
• Preventing, controlling the
environmental pollution

Pollution Control Boards – CPCB & SPCB

under Water Act
1. Water (Prevention and control of pollution)
Act 1974 amended in 1988
2. Air (Prevention and control of pollution) Act
1987 amended in 1987
3. Environmental protection Act 1986
4. Hazardous Waste (Management and
Handling Rules) amended in 2004
 TYPES OF SEWERAGE
SYSTEM
The sewerage system can be of following
three types:
• Combined system
• Separate System
• Partially separate system
SEPARATE
SYSTEM
COMBINED
SYSTEM
 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION
SYSTEM
• The network of sewers consists of house
sewers discharging the sewage to laterals.
The lateral discharges the sewage into
branch sewers or sub-mains and sub-mains
discharge it into main sewer or trunk sewer.
The trunk sewer carries sewage to the
common point where adequate treatment is
given to the sewage and then it is discharged.
 PATTERNS OF COLLECTION
SYSTEM
The patterns of collection system depend upon:
1. Topographical and hydrological features of the area.
2. Location and methods of treatment and
disposal works.
3. Type of sewerage system employed
4. Extent of area to be served.

Types of pattern
a. Perpendicular pattern
b. Interceptor pattern
c. Radial Pattern
d. Fan Pattern
e. Zone Pattern
 a. Perpendicular
• The pattern
shortest possible path
is maintained for the rains
carrying storm water and
sewage
• It is suitable for separate
system and partially
separate system for storm
water drains.
• This pattern is not suitable
for combined system,
because treatment plant is
required to be installed at
many places; otherwise it
will pollute the water body
where the sewage is
discharged.
 b. Interceptor
pattern
• Sewers are intercepted with large size sewers
• Interceptor carries sewage to a common
point, where it can be disposed off with or
without treatment.
• Overflows should be provided to handle very
large flow.
 c. Radial
• It is Pattern
suitable for
land disposal.
• In this pattern sewers
are laid
outwards radialyfrom
the centre,
pattern is
hencethis
radial
called pattern.
as
• Thedrawback in
this
pattern is more
number of disposal
works are
required.
 d. Fan
• This pattern is suitable for a city situated at one side of the natural water
Pattern
body, such as river.
• The entire sewage flows to a common point where one treatment plant
is located
• In this number of converging main sewers and sub-mains are used
forming a fan shape. Single treatment plant is required in this pattern.
• The drawback in this pattern is that larger diameter sewer is required
near to the treatment plant as entire sewage is collected at a common
point.
• In addition, with new development of the city the load on existing
treatment plant increases.
 e. Zone
Pattern
• More numbers
this pattern
of interceptors are provided in

• This pattern is suitable for sloping area than

flat areas.
Factors Considered for Selecting
Material for Sewer
Following factors should be considered before selecting
material for manufacturing sewer pipes:
a. Resistance to corrosion
• Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S.
This gas in contact with moisture can be converted into
sulfuric acid. The formation of acids can lead to the
corrosion of sewer pipe.
• Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is must
for long life of pipe.
b. Resistance to abrasion
• Sewage contain considerable amount of suspended solids,
part of which are inorganic solids such as sand or grit.
These particles moving at high velocity can cause wear and
tear of sewer pipe internally. This abrasion can reduce
thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of the
sewer by making the interior surface rough.
Factors Considered for Selecting
Material for Sewer
c. Strength and durability
• The sewer pipe should have sufficient strength to
withstand all the forces
• Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of
backfill material and traffic load, if any.
• They are not subjected to internal pressure of water.
• To withstand external load safely without failure,
sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is
essential.
• In addition, the material selected should be durable
and should have sufficient resistance against natural
weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.
Factors Considered for Selecting
Material for Sewer
d. Weight of the material
• The material selected for sewer should have less
specific weight, which will make pipe light in
weight. The lightweight pipes are easy for
handling and transport.
e. Imperviousness
• To eliminate chances of sewage seepage from
sewer to surrounding, the material selected for
pipe should be impervious.
f. Economy and cost
g. Hydraulically efficient
• The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to
have less frictional coefficient.
 Materials for
Sewer
1) Asbestos Cement Sewers
2) Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced
Cement Concrete
3) Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers
4) Brick Sewers
5) Cast Iron Sewers
6) Steel Pipes
7) Ductile Iron Pipes
8) Plastic sewers (PVC pipes)
9)High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipes
10)Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pipes
11)Lead Sewers
 1) Asbestos Cement
• These Sewers
are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos
fibers, silica and cement. Asbestos fibers are thoroughly
mixed with cement to act as reinforcement.
• Size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0
m.
• These pipes can be easily assembled without skilled
labour with the help of special coupling, called ‘Ring Tie
Coupling’ or Simplex joint.
• The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion and the
joints are flexible to permit 12o deflection for curved
laying.
• These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For
example, transport of rainwater from roofs in
multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to
grounds, and for transport of less foul sullage i.e.,
 Asbestos Cement
Sewers Advantages
• These pipes are light in weight and hence,
easy to carry and transport.
• Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
• Interior is smooth (Manning’s n = 0.011)
hence, can make excellent hydraulically efficient
sewer.
Disadvantages
• These pipes are structurally not very strong.
• These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric
acid. When bacteria produce H2S, in presence of
water, H2SO4 can be formed leading to corrosion
of pipe material.
2) Plain Cement Concrete or
Reinforced Cement
Concrete
• Plain cement concrete(1: 1.5: 3) pipes are
available up to 0.45 m diameter and

• Reinforcement Cement pipes are available up to

1.8 m diameter. These pipes can be cast in situ
or precast pipes.

• Precast pipes are better in quality than

the cast in situ pipes.
 2) PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE OR REINFORCED CEMENT
• C ONCRETE
The reinforcement in these pipes can be different
such as
• single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal
pressure < 0.8 m;
• double cage reinforced pipes used for both
internal and external pressure > 0.8 m;
• elliptical cage reinforced pipes are used for larger
diameter sewers subjected to external pressure
• and Hume pipes with steel shells coated with
concrete from inside and outside. Nominal
longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25% is provided in
these pipes.
 Plain Cement Concrete or
Reinforced Cement
Advantages
Concrete
• Strong in tension as well as compression.
• Resistant to erosion and abrasion.
• They can be made of any desired strength.
• Easily moulded, and can be in situ or precast
pipes.
• Economical for medium and large sizes.
• These pipes are available in wide range of size
and the trench can be opened and backfilled
rapidly during maintenance of sewers.
 Plain Cement Concrete or
Reinforced Cement
DisadvantagesConcrete
• Thesepipescan get corroded and pitted
by the action of H2SO4.
• The carrying capacityof the pipe reduces with
time because of corrosion.
• The pipesare susceptible to erosion by
sewage containing silt and grit.
3) Vitrified Clay or Stoneware
Sewers
Thesepipesare used for house
connections as well as lateral sewers.

• The size of the pipe available is 5 cm to 30 cm

internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2 m.
• Thesepipesare rarely manufactured for
diameter greater than 90 cm.
• Theseare joined by bell and spigot
flexible compression joints.
3) Vitrified Clay or Stoneware
Sewers
Advantages
• Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying
polluted water such as sewage.
• Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically
efficient.
• The pipes are highly impervious.
• Strong in compression.
• These pipes are durable and economical for
small diameters.
• The pipe material does not absorb water more than
5% of their own weight, when immersed in water
for 24 h.
3) Vitrified Clay or Stoneware
Sewers
Disadvantages

• Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult

to transport.
• These pipes cannot be used as pressure
pipes, because they are weak in tension.
• These require large number of joints as
the individual pipe length is small.
 4) Brick Sewers
• This material is used for construction of large
size combined sewer or particularly for storm
water drains.
• The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid
entry of tree roots and groundwater through
brick joints.
• These are lined from inside with stone ware
or ceramic block to make them smooth and
hydraulically efficient.
• Lining also makes the pipe resistant to
corrosion.
 5) Cast Iron
Sewers
• These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand
greater tensile, compressive, as well as bending
stresses.
• However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used
for outfall sewers, rising mains of pumping stations,
and inverted siphons, where pipes are running
under pressure.
• These are also suitable for sewers under heavy
traffic load, such as sewers below railways and
highways.
• They are used for carried over piers in case of low
 5) Cast Iron
Sewers
• They 100% leak proof sewer line to avoid
form
groundwater contamination.
• They are less resistant to corrosion; hence, generally
lined from inside with cement concrete, coal tar paint,
epoxy, etc.

• These are joined together by bell and spigot joint.

• IS:1536-1989 and IS:1537-1976 the
specifications provides for spun and pipes,
respectively. vertically cast
 6) Steel Pipes
• These are used under the situations such as pressure
main sewers, under water crossing, bridge crossing,
necessary connections for pumping stations, laying
pipes over self supporting spans, railway crossings,
etc.
• They can withstand internal pressure, impact load
and vibrations much better than CI pipes.
• They are more ductile and can withstand water
hammer pressure better.
 6) Steel Pipes
• These pipes cannot withstand high external
load and these pipes may collapse when
negative pressure is developed in pipes.
• They are susceptible to corrosion and are not
generally used for partially flowing sewers.
• They are protected internally and externally
against the action of corrosion.
 7) Ductile Iron
• Ductile iron Pipes
pipes can also be used for conveying the sewers.
• They demonstrate higher capacity to withstand water
hammer. The specifications for DI pipes is provided in
IS:12288-1987.
• The predominant wall material is ductile iron, a spheroidized
graphite cast iron. Internally these pipes are coated with
cement mortar lining or any other polyethylene or poly wrap
or plastic bagging/ sleeve lining to inhibit corrosion from the
wastewater being conveyed, and various types of external
coating are used to inhibit corrosion from the environment.
• Ductile iron has proven to be a better pipe material than cast
iron but they are costly.
 7) Ductile Iron
• Pipes
Ductile iron is still believed to be stronger and more
fracture resistant material.
• However, like most ferrous materials it is susceptible
to corrosion.
• A typical life expectancy of thicker walled pipe could
be up to 75 years, however with the current thinner
walled ductile pipe the life could be about 20 years in
highly corrosive soils without a corrosion control
program like cathodic protection.
 8) Plastic sewers (PVC
• pipes)
Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are
used for internal drainage works in house.
• These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external
diameter and used in drainage works.

• They offer smooth internal surface.

• The additional advantages they offer are resistant to
corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying,
jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough and rigid, and
ease in fabrication and transport of these pipes.
 9) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
Pipes
• Use of these pipes for sewers is recent development.
• They are not brittle like AC pipes and other pipes and
hence hard fall during loading, unloading and handling do
not cause any damage to the pipes.
• They can be joined by welding or can be jointed with
detachable joints up to 630 mm diameter (IS:4984-1987).
• These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial
wastewater.
 9) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
Pipes
• They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes.
• PVC pipes offer very little flexibility and normally
considered rigid; whereas, HDPE pipes are flexible
hence best suited for laying in hilly and uneven
terrain.
• Flexibility allows simple handling and installation of
HDPE pipes. Because of low density, these pipes are
very light in weight.
• Due to light in weight, they are easy for handling, this
reduces transportation and installation cost.
• HDPE pipes are non corrosive and offer very smooth
inside surface due to which pressure losses are
minimal and also this material resist scale formation.
 10) Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Pipes
• This martial is widely used where corrosion resistant
pipes are required.
• Glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP) can be used as a lining
material for conventional pipes to protect from internal
or external corrosion. It is made from the composite
matrix of glass fiber, polyester resin and fillers.
• These pipes have better strength, durability, high tensile
strength, low density and high corrosion resistance.
• These are manufactured up to 2.4 m diameter and up to
18 m length (IS:12709-1989).
• Glass reinforced plastic pipes represent the ideal solution
for transport of any kind of water, chemicals, effluent and
sewage, because they combine the advantages of
corrosion resistance with a mechanical strength which
can be compared with the steel pipes.
 10) Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Pipes
Advantages
• Light weight of pipes that allows for the use of
light laying and transport means.
• Possibility of nesting of different diameters of
pipe thus allowing additional saving in transport
cost.
• Length of pipe is larger than other pipe materials.
• Easy installation procedures due to the kind
of mechanical bell and spigot joint.
• Corrosion resistance material, hence no
protections such as coating, painting or cathodic
 10) Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Pipes
Advantages
• Smoothness of the internal wall that minimizes
the head loss and avoids the formation of
deposits.
• High mechanical resistance due to the
glass reinforcement.
• Absolute impermeability of pipes and joints
both from external to internal and viceversa.

• Very long life of the material.

 11) Lead Sewers

• They are smooth, soft and can take odd

shapes.
• This pipe has an ability to resist sulphide
corrosion.

• However, these pipes are very costly.

• These are used in house connection.

 Shapes of Sewer Pipes
• Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level,
slopping continuously towards the outfall. These are
designed to flow under gravity. Shapes other than circular
are also used.
Other shapes used for sewers are
a. Standard Egg-shaped sewer
b. New egg-shaped sewer
c. Horse shoe shaped sewer
d. Parabolic shaped sewer
e. Semi-elliptical section
f. Rectangular shape section
g. U-shaped section
h. Semi-circular shaped sewer
i. Basket handled shape sewer
a. Standard Egg-shaped
sewer b. New egg-shaped sewer
c. Horse shoe shaped
sewer d. Parabolic shaped sewer
 f. Rectangular
e. Semi-elliptical section shape
section
g. U-shaped section h. Semi-circular
sewer shaped sewer
i. Basket handled shape
 Shapes of Sewer Pipes
• Standard egg-shaped sewers, also called as ovoid shaped
sewer, and new or modified egg-shaped sewers are used in
combined sewers.

• These sewers can generate self cleansing velocity during

dry weather flow.

• Horse shoe shaped sewers and semi-circular sections are

used for large sewers with heavy discharge such as trunk
and outfall sewers.
 Shapes of Sewer Pipes
• Rectangular or trapezoidal section is used for
conveying storm water. U-shaped section is used
for larger sewers and especially in open cuts.

• Other sections of the sewers have become

absolute due to difficulty in construction on site
and non availability of these shapes readily in
market.
 Hydraulics of flow in sewers
Comparison of Water
distribution system and
Description
Sewerage
Water
System
Distribution
Sewerage System

System
Quality of liquid Clear water 99.7% liquid with 0.3%
solids

Type of flow Pressure flow, Gravity (open

Full flow channel) Flow,
Partial flow
Velocity of flow No need for Minimum self
minimum cleansing
velocity of flow velocity is necessary
 Why sewers are design for
partial flow conditions?
• to maintain open channel flow condition, and
• to provide open space above
sewage in surface of the sewer and
atmosphere through vents fortoventilation to keep the
connect
sewer environment under aerobic condition as well as
collection and disposing of fowl gases in the event of
septicity condition.
 Hydraulic
• Manning’s formula for velocity in open channel flows
Principles
as per equation:

• Where,
V = Velocity of flow, m/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
S = Slope of the sewer, h/L
R = Hydraulic mean radius, m
• The normal values of n for S.W, R.C.C and PVC pipes
are 0.013, 0.011, and 0.01 respectively.
• This formula is used for the full flow condition.
• For partial flow conditions the velocity and discharge
are derived from the appropriate hydraulic elements.
Derivation of Hydraulic Elements for Partial
Flow
Derivation of Hydraulic
Elements
 Derivation of Hydraulic
Elements

Proportionate area

Proportionate Perimeter
 Derivation of Hydraulic
Elements
Hydraulic mean radius
of partial flow,

Proportionate
hydraulic mean
radius
 Derivation of Hydraulic
Elements
If bed slope remains
constant,

coefficient of roughness,
n is a constant,

Where θ is
expressed in
 Derivation of Hydraulic Elements
• Discharge when pipe is running full = Q = A x V
• Discharge when partial flow is in the pipe =q =
axv
• Proportionate discharge

The only variable in the above

Equation is obtained from
d/D using Eq.
 Typical Hydraulic
• different partial flow discharge to full flow, q/Q values, the
elements
hydraulic elements such as ratio of depth of partial flow to
diameter of sewer, (d/D), and ratio of velocity of flows, (v/V)
are determined and furnished below.
 Some important facts about velocity of flow in
partial-flow sewers
• Velocity of partial flow is equal to full flow velocity when
the flow is half full,
• Velocity of partial flow is more than full flow velocity
when the flow is more than half full,
• Velocity of partial flow is rapidly decreasing when flow
is less than half full,
• Velocity of partial flow has to be checked in the design
for minimum self cleansing velocity whenever the sewer
is flowing less than half full,
• Velocity of partial flow is the maximum when the depth of
flow is 0.82 D. Preferable maximum depth of flow is
0.82D.
• carrying capacity of the sewer is the maximum when
 Self-cleansing velocity
• Self-cleansing velocity may be defined as the
minimum velocity at which the solid particles
will remain in suspension without settling and
flushing any solids deposited at the bottom of
the sewer.
• Self-cleansing velocity should be maintained at
least once in a day during the peak flow at all
sewers.
• Recommended self cleansing velocity
• At present peak flow: 0.6 m/s
• At ultimate peak flow: 0.8 m/s
 Non-scouring velocity
• At higher velocity, the flow becomes
turbulent, resulting in continuous abrasion of
interior surface of the sewer by the gritty
suspended particles and erosion of pipe
material.
• Hence maximum velocity of flow, known as
non scouring velocity, should be limited to 3.0
m/s.
 Design Criteria
• The minimum size of public sewers should not be less
than 150 mm. However, for major towns and cities and
where the topography is flat, the minimum size of
sewer should be of 200 mm in diameter.
• The minimum depth of cushion over the top of the
sewer should be at least 0.9 m, while pipes laid under
roads should have a cushion of 1.20 m.
• The maximum depth of cutting for trenches for
construction of sewers is decided based on the depth
of groundwater table and sub-soil conditions. Normally
a depth of 5.0 to 6.0 m may be the upper limit
considering the difficulty in construction and economy.
Example 1: A sewer of 200mm in diameter with ‘n’
value of 0.015 laid at a slope 1/200. Find the
velocity of flow when flowing (i) at half full depth,
(ii) at 0.6 D depth and (iii) at 0.3 D depth.
Solution:
(i) At half full depth, d/D = 0.5
•Velocity of flow at full
flow condition,
•Hydraulic mean depth,
under full flow,

• Velocity at half full, v = velocity at full flow = 0.64

ii) Flow at 0.6 depth, i.e., d/D = 0.6,
iii) Flow at 0.3 depth, i.e., d/D = 0.3,

Velocity at 0.3 0.497 m/s

Example 2:Design a sewer running 0.7 times full at
maximum discharge for a town provided with the
separate system, serving a population 80,000
persons. The water supplied from the water works
to the town is at a rate of 190 LPCD. The
manning’s n = 0.013 for the pipe material and
permissible slope is 1 in 600. Variation of n with
depth may be neglected. (for d/D = 0.7, q/Q =
0.838, v/V = 1.12)
Solution
• Average water supplied = 80000 x 190 /(24
x 60 x 60 x 1000) = 0.176 m3/sec
• Sewage production per day, (considering
80% of water supply) = 0.176 x 0.8 = 0.14
m3/sec
• Maximum sewage discharge = 3 x 0.14 =
0.42 m3/sec
• Now for d/D = 0.7, q/Q = 0.838, v/V = 1.12
• Therefore, Q = 0.42/0.838 = 0.5 m3/sec
• Therefore, D = 0.78 m
• V = Q/A = 1.04 m/sec
• Now, v/V = 1.12
• Therefore v = 1.12 x 1.04 = 1.17 m/sec
• This velocity is less than limiting velocity
hence, OK
Example 3:Design a sewer for a maximum
discharge of 650 L/s running half full. Consider
Manning’s rugosity coefficient n = 0.012, and
gradient of sewer S = 0.0001.
Solution
• Q = A.V
0.65 = (πD2/8) (1/n) R2/3 S1/2
• R = A/P
• Solving for half full sewer, R = D/4
• Substituting in above equation and solving we
get D = 1.82 m.
Modeling Software for Design
and Analysis of Sanitary
Sewers
• SewerCAD
• SewerGEMS
 Laying of Sewer
Pipes
• Sewers are generally laid starting from their
outfall ends towards their starting points. With
this advantage of utilization of the tail sewers
even during the initial periods of its
construction is possible.
• It is common practice, to first locate the points
where manholes are required to be
constructed as per drawing, i.e., L-section of
sewer, and then laying the sewer pipe straight
between the two manholes.
• The central line of the sewer is marked on the
ground and an offset line is also marked
parallel to the central line at suitable distance,
about half the trench width plus 0.6 m.
 Laying of Sewer
• Pipes
This line can be drawn by fixing the pegs at 15 m
intervals and can be used for finding out center line
of the sewer simply by offsetting.
• The trench of suitable width is excavated between
the two manholes and the sewer is laid between
them. Further excavation is then carried out for
laying the pipes between the next consecutive
manholes.
• Thus, the process is continued till the entire sewers
are laid out.
• The width of the trench at the bottom is generally
kept 15 cm more than the diameter of the sewer
pipe, with minimum 60 cm width to facilitate joining
of pipes.
 Laying of Sewer
• If thePipes
sewer pipes are not to be embedded in
concrete, such as for firm grounds, then the
bottom half portion of the trench is excavated
to confirm the shape of the pipe itself. In
ordinary or softer grounds, sewers are laid
embedded in concrete.
• The trench is excavated up to a level of the
bottom embedding concrete or up to the invert
level of the sewer pipe plus pipe thickness if no
embedding concrete is provided.
• The designed invert levels and desired slope as
per the longitudinal section of the sewer should
be precisely transferred to the trench bottom.
 Laying of Sewer
• AfterPipes
bedding concrete is laid in required
alignment and levels. The sewer pipes are
then lowered down into the trench either
manually or with the help of machines for
bigger pipe diameters.
• The sewer pipe lengths are usually laid from
the lowest point with their sockets facing up
the gradient, on desired bedding. Thus, the
spigot end of new pipe can be easily
inserted on the socket end of the already
laid pipe.
 Hydraulic Testing of
•
Sewers Test for Leakage or Water Test
The sewers are tested after giving sufficient time for the
joints to set for no leakage.
• For this sewer pipe sections are tested between the
manholes to manhole under a test pressure of about 1.5 m
water head.
• To carry this, the downstream end of the sewer is plugged
and water is filled in the manhole at upper end.
• The depth of water in manhole is maintained at about 1.5m.
The sewer line is inspected and the joints which leak are
repaired.
 Hydraulic Testing of
Sewers
Test for Straightness of alignment
• This can be tested by placing a mirror at one end of
the sewer line and a lamp at the other end.
• If the pipe line is straight, full circle of light will be
observed.

• Backfilling the trench: After the sewer line has been

laid and tested, the trenches are back filled. The
earth should be laid equally on either side with layer
of 15 cm thickness. Each layer should be properly
watered and rammed.
 Sewer
• The Appurtenances
structures, which are constructedat suitable
intervals along the sewerage system to help its
efficient operation and maintenance, are called as
sewer appurtenances. These include:
(1) Manholes,
(2) Drop manholes,
(3) Lamp holes,
(4) Clean-outs,
(5) Street inlets called Gullies,
(6) Catch basins,
(7) Flushing Tanks,
(8) Grease & Oil traps,
(9) Inverted Siphons, and
(10) Storm Regulators.
 1) Manholes
• The manhole is masonry or R.C.C. chamber
constructed at suitable intervals along the
sewer lines, for providing access into
them.
• Thus, the manhole helps in inspection,
cleaning and maintenance of sewer.
• These are provided at every bend, junction,
change of gradient or change of diameter
of the sewer.
Classification of Manholes
• Depending upon the depth the manholes can be
classified as:
(a) Shallow Manholes, (b) Normal Manholes, and
(c) Deep Manholes
• Shallow Manholes: These are 0.7 to 0.9 m depth,
constructed at the start of the branch sewer or
at a place not subjected to heavy traffic
conditions (Figure). These are provided with
light cover at top and called inspection chamber.
Sewer
Appurtenances

Shallow manhole
• Normal Manholes: These manholes are 1.5 m
deep with dimensions 1.0 m x 1.0 m square or
rectangular with 1.2 m x 0.9 m. These are
provided with heavy cover at its top to
support the anticipated traffic load.
• Deep Manholes: The depth of these manholes
is more than 1.5 m. The section of such
manhole is not uniform throughout. The size
in upper portion is reduced by providing an
offset. Steps are provided in such manholes
for descending into the manhole. These are
provided with heavy cover at its top to
support the traffic load.
Sewer
appurtenances-Manholes

Rectangular manhole for depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m

 (2) Drop manholes
• When a sewer connects with another sewer,
where the difference in level between invert
level of branch sewer and water line in the
main sewer at maximum discharge is greater
than 0.6 m, a manhole may be built either
with vertical or nearly vertical drop pipe
from higher sewer to the lower one
Sewer appurtenances-(2) Drop
manholes
 Sewer
(3) Lampholes- It is an opening
appurtenances a or hole
constructed sewer purposeof
in for it.
lowering a lamp inside
(4) Clean-outs- A clean-out is generally provided at
the upper end of lateral sewers in place of
manholes. During blockage of pipe, the cover is
taken out and water is forced through the clean-
out pipe to lateral sewers to remove obstacles in
the sewer line. For large obstacles, flexible rod
may be inserted through the clean-out pipe and
moved forward and backward to remove such
obstacle.
(5) Street inlets called Gullies
sewer appurtenances
(6) Catch basins: Catch basins are provided to
sewer appurtenances
stop the entry of heavy debris present in
the storm water into the sewers.
 sewer
(9) Inverted Siphons: An inverted
appurtenances siphon or
depressed sewer is a sewer that runs full under
gravity flow at a pressure above atmosphere in
the sewer.
• Inverted siphons are used to pass under
obstacles such as buried pipes, subways, etc
Pumps
Need for Pumping in Sewerage
• Pumping of sewage is required to elevate
System
transport sewage in and a sewerage
system
continuation of gravity flow when
is no longer feasible or
uneconomical.
• In flat terrain, especially in coastal area, the depth of
the gravity sewer becomes deeper within a distance
of 1 to 1.5 km.
• Laying the sewers at depths greater than 6 m may be
difficult if the groundwater table is high or when the
sub-strata is of hard rock.
• Under such situations sewage is to be lifted to ground
level by pumping to facilitate further conveyance by
gravity.
 Types of
Pumps
• For protection against clogging all sewage
pumps shall be a non-clog design with open
impellers, capable of passing spheres of at
least 50 mm in diameter, and shall have no
less than 100 mm diameter suction and
discharge openings.
• There are two types of pumps;
• Centrifugal pumps, and
• Submersible pumps.
 Centrifugal Sewage
• SincePumps
the priming is not possible in sewage
pumping centrifugal sewage pumps are
designed with positive suction by lowering the
pumps in dry wells.
• There are two types of centrifugal pumps;
(i)horizontal axis driven pump with impeller
rotating in the vertical plane ,and
(ii)vertical driven pumps with impeller
rotating in the horizontal plane.
Horizontal axis driven centrifugal
pump
• The motor and the
pump are close
coupled and
installed in a dry
well at the same
depth as that of the
wet well
• The suction pipe is
driven horizontally
through the casing of
the well into the wet
well to facilitate
 Vertical axis driven centrifugal
• The
pumppump is
installed at lower
level while the
motor is erected
at higher level
above maximum
flood level and
connected by a
vertical shaft so
that the motor can
be protected from
flooding.
 Recommended speed of the
•pump
The pumps are available in the market
with rpm 720, 960,1440 & 2880
• For sewage handling, pumps with 720 or
960 rpm are suited in view of wear & tear
• Lower the rpm, higher is the cost but
longer life.
 Submersible
• Submersible pumps
Pumps are with integral motor and pump in a
common shaft in the same casing and assembly with
water tight motor compartment and function on vertical
axis.
• The submersible pumps require to be kept submerged
in sewage in the wet well and cooling of motor is
achieved through surrounding sewage.
• Pumps are generally of cast iron construction and if the
sewage is corrosive then the stainless steel
construction may have to be adopted.
• The pump shall be able to pass through soft solids of
minimum 80 to 100mm diameter and capable of dealing
with sewage/ sludge with specific gravity of 1.05.
• Pumps shall be of maximum speed of 1450rpm;
 Sewage Pumping
• Sewage Stations
pumping stations (SPS) are provided with
preliminary treatment facilities for the removal of
floating matter and gritty particles ahead of pumping
to protect the pump’s impeller from damage from
these particles. In the SPS a screen well to
accommodate screens, a grit well with arrangement
for grit removal, and a wet well to accommodate the
pumps are provided.
• Pumping stations require periodic inspection and
maintenance, and strain public relations if they
malfunction allow backup of sewage into
residences.
• For these reasons, they are avoided wherever
 Sanitary Plumbing
• Plumbing is the practice, materials and fixtures
used in the installation or maintenance of all
pipes in connection with both water supply
and sanitary systems within or adjacent to any
building.
• The entire system of pipes, fittings and
appurtenances are known as plumbing
system.
• Sanitary plumbing system includes the sanitary
pipes, fittings or appliances used to receive
the excreta and sullage from a building.
 Principles of Sanitary Plumbing
• Sanitary
Systempipes should be preferably laid on the side
of the building.
• Vertical pipes in buildings should be kept outside
the building and accommodated in shafts, to avoid
their bad appearance.
• All sharp bends and junctions should be avoided
and made through inspection chambers.
• The entire system should be ventilated.
• The house sewer should be connected to the street
sewer, keeping the outfall level of the house sewer
sufficiently higher than the sewage level in the
public sewer.
 Principles of Sanitary Plumbing
• The system
Systemshould contain enough number of traps
connected to the sanitary fittings, to avoid entry of
foul smells into the house.
• Laterals in the plumbing system should be laid
at sufficient slope so as to develop
self-cleansing velocities.
• The layout of the system should be such as to
permit easy cleaning in case of blockage.
• Possibilities of formation of air locks, siphonage, etc.,
should be properly studied and remedial measures
should be accommodated in the design to avoid
them.
• Rainwater from the roofs or open yards should not
 Trap
• Traps may be defined as fittings essentially
s
consists of U-tube, which retains water,
acting as a seal between the foul gases
(inside the pipe) and outside atmosphere
placed at the ends of the soil pipes or waste
pipes.
• The water seal does not allow gases to
escape to the outside of the pipe.
• The efficiency of a trap shall depend on
the depth of water in the water seal.
• The depth of water seal. generally varies
from 20mm to 75mm.
 Sanitary Plumbing
Systems
The different types of sanitary plumbing
systems buildings are as follows.
• Two pipe plumbing system
• One pipe plumbing system
• Single stack plumbing system
• Partially ventilated single stack
plumbing system.
Two pipe
• This is the best and most
system
efficient system of
plumbing.
• Two sets of vertical pipes,
one is for excreta as soil
pipe and another for sullage
as waste pipe.
• Soil pipe as well as waste
pipes shall be separately
ventilated, by providing
separate vent pipes.
• This system shall have
four vertical pipes.
One pipe
• In this system only one
system
vertical pipe shall be
provided for collecting
both excreta and
sullage.
• The main pipe shall be
ventilated at the top as
well as a separate vent
pipe shall also be
provided.
• This system shall have
two pipes.
Single Stack
• This system is
system having a
single pipe for soil, waste
and vent without any
separate vent pipe.
• It shall have only one
pipe to receive all types
of wastes and the same
pipe shall be extended
up to two metre above
roof level with a cowl to
act as vent pipe for
removal of gases.
Partially Ventilated
system
• This is an
improved form
single stack
system, where the
traps of the water
closets only shall
ventilated by a
separate vent
pipe.
• This system shall
have vertical pipes as
in pipe system.
Anti-siphon Pipes
• When wastewater is suddenly discharged
from sanitary fixture on the upper floor, it
moves rapidly through the soil (waste) pipe, it
may suck some air from the lateral pipe
connecting the soil pipe with fixtures at lower
floor.
• This sucked air causes siphon action, resulting
in the flow of water from the water seal of
the trap of the fixture connected to the soil
pipe and thus breaking its water seal.
• To overcome this difficulty, a separate pipe of
smaller diameter shall be attached to the
traps connecting to the vent pipe.
• This pipe, known as anti-siphon pipe, shall
supply air to the trap of the lower fixture, at
the time of suction of air; otherwise it shall act
as a vent pipe of the lower fixtures.
 House Sewer Connections
• The wastewater from different fixtures in a building
is collected and discharged to Building sewers
which conveys and discharges to street sewer
• Minimum size of building sewer is 100mm
• In the building sewers minimum self cleansing
velocity of 75cm/sec shall be maintained at
least once in day
• Sewers should be laid at the following grades
in order to generate self cleansing velocity.
• 100mm dia sewer: 1 in 57
• 150mm dia. Sewer: 1 in 100