Road Planning and Design Manual

22
Chapter 22

Bridges,
Retaining Walls
and Tunnels

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Table of Contents

22.1 General Introduction 22-1

22.2 Bridges 22-1

22.2.1 Definition 22-1

22
22.2.2 The Bridge Option 22-1
22.2.3 Bridge Types 22-2
22.2.4 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment for Bridges 22-4
22.2.5 General Appearance Considerations 22-6
22.2.6 Bridges Over Waterways 22-7
22.2.7 Bridges over Roadways 22-9
22.2.8 Bridges over Railways 22-9
22.2.9 Pedestrians and Cyclists 22-10
22.2.10 General Design Requirements 22-10

22.3 Retaining Walls 22-10

22.3.1 Selection of Wall Type 22-10
22.3.2 Wall Types 22-10

22.4 Tunnels 22-12

22.4.1 Definition 22-12
22.4.2 Justification for Tunnels 22-12
22.4.3 Types of Tunnels 22-14
22.4.4 General Design Considerations 22-19

References 22-34

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Chapter 22
Bridges, Retaining Walls
and Tunnels
22.1 General Introduction projected traffic growth than the initial road

Bridges and tunnels are the most costly structures

associated with road infrastructure in terms of unit
approaches. Alternatively, the design should allow
for future widening and/or raising / lowering to
accommodate expected changes in width or level.
22
cost per area of road carriageway provided.

However, there may be no viable alternative to 22.2.2 The Bridge Option

using these structures in a range of circumstances.
The alternatives to bridges are usually culverts,
The initial construction cost of a tunnel may be floodways or tunnels depending on the
more than ten times that for a bridge at the same circumstances. As floodways for waterway
location (in terms of road carriageway provided) crossings provide much lower flood immunity for
with high operating and maintenance costs. Yet a a road, there is no real comparison with a bridge
tunnel may still be the best option for the site for solution and this alternative will, therefore, not be
a range of reasons (see Section 22.3.2). considered further in the following comparisons.
This Chapter highlights the issues to be
Waterways
considered in making a decision on the
appropriate type of structure to be used. It also To achieve a reasonable degree of flood immunity
provides road design requirements and describes it is necessary to pass water under a road. Within
the characteristics of the structures. acceptable limits for such things as afflux and
potential scour, both bridges and culverts serve
this purpose.
22.2 Bridges
The largest standard box culvert used by
Queensland Main Roads is 3600 mm x 3600 mm
22.2.1 Definition in size. However, in some areas of the State,
where multi-cell culverts 3000 mm or higher are
A bridge is a structure designed to carry a road
required, a bridge may be a cheaper alternative
over a depression or obstacle. In this definition,
(the minimum span of a standard deck slab bridge
depression includes a river or body of water.
being about 8 m). Further, where the natural
The term “overpass” is used to identify a bridge surface at a proposed culvert base is soft and
spanning another road or a railway. prone to settlement requiring a special design, a
bridge may be less costly.
Bridges are relatively expensive compared to
earthworks and paving so it is important that the Placing culverts where there is permanent water at
most cost effective solution be obtained. a site is also impractical when the cost of de-
Specialist advice on the costs and suitable bridge watering is considered. Environmental effects
solutions should be obtained. must also be considered (see below).

In general, bridges have a longer economic or In tidal waterways, boats require adequate
design life than roads. Hence, the geometric horizontal and vertical clearance and culverts are
dimensions usually provide for a longer period of not an option.

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Environmental Considerations operational and maintenance costs of tunnels are

included. Other factors (see section 22.3.2) must
Traditionally, the design of both bridges and dominate the cost factor for this choice to be
culverts considers the potential scour under and made.
downstream of the proposed structure. These
considerations are very important in minimising
the environmental impact but other factors must 22.2.3 Bridge Types
also be considered.
There are four basic types of bridges, namely:
For example, in some highly sensitive

22 environmental areas, the blockage in a waterway • beam bridges;

has to be kept to an absolute minimum. In • truss bridges
addition, the extent of works in the bed and on the
• arch bridges; and
banks must be kept to a minimum. In these
circumstances, a bridge will provide the best • suspension bridges.
solution.
Table 22.1 sets out typical spans used for the
A bridge also provides opportunities for suitable different bridge types. These spans should be
fauna crossings of a road and these may be taken as guidelines only since the actual span
suitably incorporated in bridges required over adopted for a particular bridge will depend on the
waterways. In some cases, it may be necessary to circumstances of that structure.
provide a bridge to allow sufficient clear opening
for fauna such as koalas to cross a road. The Table 22.1 Typical Bridge Spans
possibility of special overpass structures to allow
the passage of fauna may need to be considered. Type of Minimum Maximum
Bridge Span Economic
(m) Span (m)
Non-Waterway Bridges
Timber girder - 12
Non-waterway crossings are usually confined to Timber truss 12 24
overpasses spanning other roads or railways Steel joist 15 20
although special cases will occur (e.g. fauna Steel plate girder 20 45
crossings, preservation of special features). Steel trough girder 20 80
Steel truss 30 Over 220
Bridges are almost always used for these purposes Steel box girder 50 Over 300
but other solutions may be suitable in certain Steel arch 60 Over 550
cases. Commercially available products such as Cable-stayed steel girder 150 Over 600
concrete arches and multi-plate steel culverts may Steel cantilever truss 150 Over 600
be adequate for short spans.
Suspension 250 Over 1500

In any case, the commercial concrete arches have Concrete slab 6 8

to be structurally designed and the limitations Concrete plank deck 6 16*
placed on their use by the manufacturers of both Concrete girder and slab 6 24
products must be strictly observed. Concrete arch 30 390
Cable-stayed concrete girder 40 Over 600
Bridge or Tunnel? Concrete bowstring arch 20 75
Prestressed concrete girder 30 Over 200
Choosing between a bridge and tunnel requires
* Called Prestressed Concrete Deck Units in
consideration of a range of factors of which cost is Queensland where experience shows that 25m can be
only one. It is often the case that the choice will be achieved economically.
made on the basis of factors other than cost.
Source: “Civil Engineering Construction” - Antill, James
M, Paul W.S. Ryan, and Graham R. Easton (Sixth
The cost of a tunnel is invariably much higher
Edition)
than a bridge alternative, particularly when

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Beam Bridges Prestressed Concrete Deck Units

Beam bridges form a very high proportion of the Prestressed Concrete Deck Units are used in
total number of bridges built throughout nearly all of the smaller span bridges in
Queensland because they are often the most cost Queensland. The range of spans constructed is
effective bridge structures. Types include: usually 8 to 22m, although spans up to 30m have
been used where traffic conditions demanded the
• simply supported beam bridges; fastest possible construction methods.
• cantilever beam bridges; and The nominally 600mm wide prestressed units are
• continuous beam bridges. post-tensioned transversely after erection and an
asphalt deck wearing surface placed on the top.
The need to waterproof the deck has led to
22
These are illustrated in Figure 22.1.
increasing use of a concrete deck on deck unit
bridges. In these cases transverse post-tensioning
is omitted.

For bridges on a skew greater than 40°, load

transfer becomes more complex as the skew
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM BRIDGE increases and additional detailing is required.

Concrete decks may also be used where Asphalt

Concrete is not readily available as a Deck
Cantilever Simply Cantilever
Wearing Surface or where an aggressive
supported environment is present.
span

Prestressed Concrete Girders (I Beams)

These types of girders are commonly used in

spans 26m to 32m and require a cast-in-situ
CANTILEVER BEAM BRIDGE concrete deck.

Super Tee Girders

These prestressed concrete girders are also

appropriate for spans 26m to 37m.

When constructed they have a centre void as

shown in Figure 22.2. There are small recesses at
CONTINUOUS BEAM BRIDGE the top of these voids to hold floor formwork for
the concrete cast-in-situ deck.
Figure 22.1
Voided Slab Beams
Beams can be I or T shaped, hollow circular
voided or hollow rectangular box(es), as shown in Voided slab beams are prestressed or reinforced
Figure 22.2. concrete cast-in-situ beams, which are most suited
to curved roadways such as ramps.
It should be noted that the spans given in the notes
below are provided as a guide only and spans The circular voids reduce the weight of the girders
outside the ranges indicated may be possible. with consequent reductions in loading and
Specialist advice is required for spans outside reduced cost.
these ranges.

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Box Girders William Jolly Bridge over the Brisbane River,

with a main span of 72.6m completed in 1932.
Prestressed concrete box girders are used for
longer spans, from 40m to 260m in Queensland, Suspension and Cable-stayed Bridges
although much longer spans have been used
elsewhere in the world. Suspension bridges become economical only for
large spans of approximately 250 metres or more.
Depending on the depth of the box, there may be Cables provide intermediate support for the
a single “rectangular” void rather than the two beams, thus avoiding additional piers and
voids shown in Figure 22.2. An asphaltic concrete

22
achieving longer clear spans.
deck wearing surface is placed on the box girders.
Figure 22.3 gives examples of a suspension bridge
Truss Bridges and a cable-stayed pedestrian overpass.

Truss bridges have been used for longer span

bridges in steel. Each truss is an independent 22.2.4 Horizontal and Vertical
frame, and these frames are connected together by Alignment for Bridges
the floor system at the level of the lower chord,
and lateral bracing between the upper chords, or In the planning of bridges, the road alignment is
vice versa. Steel truss bridges usually require usually selected and the bridge location and
falsework for erection; or they may be launched alignment designed to fit the road. The detailed
from the ends; or they may be floated into position planning and costing of the bridge is then carried
and lifted onto the piers. out. However, where significant cost savings may
be available if a different bridge solution is
Major examples of this type of bridge in adopted, the road alignment may need to be
Queensland are the Burdekin River Bridge adjusted accordingly. Early specialist advice is
between Ayr and Home Hill, and the Story Bridge required.
in Brisbane. The Story Bridge over the Brisbane
River is a steel truss cantilever bridge with a main Where there may be significant differences in
span of 281.7m. It was completed in 1940. alternative alignments, the issues described in the
following sections, 22.2.5 to 22.2.9, should be
Truss bridges are not commonly used in considered.
Queensland at this time - more economical
solutions are usually available. Where there is only scope for relatively minor
changes, selection of a suitable horizontal and
Arch Bridges vertical alignment at the bridge site can provide
savings in design and construction time and costs.
The shape of an arch bridge may be semi-circular,
Examples are:
elliptical or parabolic.
• Bridges are easier to design and construct on
Masonry, concrete and steel have been used.
straights and grades rather than on horizontal
Concrete arches are sometimes used, particularly and vertical curves.
as short overpass bridges over road and rail and as
• Carrying superelevation for the full length of a
crossings over small waterways. Longer arch
bridge avoids a superelevation change on the
bridges are not commonly adopted for
structure.
straightforward applications but may be the most
cost effective solution for some special cases. • Bridge alignment preferably should be on a
Short spans using precast products often provide a single vertical or horizontal geometric element
good solution where the area spanned has to (e.g. horizontal geometry modified such that
remain untouched. the bridge is fully on a curve) to simplify
design and construction.
The longest concrete arch in Queensland is the

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1.5% crossfall 1.5% crossfall

KERB UNIT DECK UNIT

PRESTRESSED DECK UNITS

22
GIRDERS

PRESTRESSED GIRDERS & IN-SITU DECK

400 400
3000 4100 4100 3000

60 AC DWS
60 NOM. DECK OVER 3%
CONCRETE WEARING CEMENT
TRAFFIC SURFACE STABILISED
BARRIER SAND
AS FOR DECK AS FOR DECK

SIGN SUPPORT BRACKET

CONCRETE KERB

DECK THICKNESS VARIES TEEROFF GIRDERS

150 MINIMUM AT PIERS
AND ABUTMENTS

SUPER TEE GIRDERS & IN-SITU DECK

VOIDED SLAB

BOX GRIDERS
Figure 22.2

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Suspension Cable Suspension Tower

Bridge Deck Hangers

Anchorage
SUSPENSION BRIDGE

22

CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE

Figure 22.3

• A larger radius vertical curve than the The overall form of the bridge will determine its
minimum required over a bridge may result in general appearance. Details of the design will
overall cost savings, because a cheaper type of have an effect on the perception of its
bridge may be able to provide the required attractiveness. Such issues as overall proportions,
offset from the tangent to the vertical curve. For relative size of members, slenderness ratios and
example, a larger radius curve may allow the the like will be important.
use of shorter span deck slabs with the offsets
taken up in the deck wearing surface. Larger On long bridges, it will be necessary to adopt a
span concrete girders require the offset to be long vertical curve over the length of the bridge to
taken up in the cast-in-situ deck and kerbs and ensure an appropriate appearance. All major
this costs more. bridges have this feature.

A further consideration is the drainage of the deck Overpass structures with open-end spans are more
surface. A suitable gradient on the bridge will attractive than solid abutment types. They provide
generally simplify the drainage of the surface and a sense of openness and freedom as opposed to
may be essential to avoid aquaplaning problems. enclosure and restriction. For the same reasons,
In any case, careful attention to the drainage of the overpasses with no pier in the median are usually
surface is required and appropriate measures to more attractive. However, omitting the central
accomplish satisfactory drainage must be pier may be too expensive and impractical in
adopted. many cases.

It is advisable to obtain specialist architectural

22.2.5 General Appearance advice at the early stages of the design to ensure
that the bridge will have a satisfactory
Considerations
appearance. This does not necessarily mean that
Bridges can be a dominant feature of the the bridge will cost more.
landscape, even when small and particularly when It is necessary that the appearance and function of
the viewing positions are advantageous. In other the bridge are maintained over the life of the
circumstances, the close proximity of the bridge facility. These can be marred by staining caused
to a driver or pedestrian will invite close scrutiny.

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by the flow of water over the faces of the elements

of the structure.

Consequently, control of drainage and seepage

through joints is essential. In particular, seepage
must be prevented from flowing through and over
the face of abutments and piers where staining
becomes an eyesore for passing motorists and
other users.

Particular attention to the drainage behind

abutments is required. Water must be captured and
drained to points away from the face of the
22
abutment or spill-through, preventing it passing
over the surface of any part of the structure.
While control of drainage in this way is essential
Design of the elements to collect and carry the for bridges over roadways, it is good practice to
water from the bridge must be an integral part of apply this discipline to the design of all bridges.
the design of the bridge, not an add-on. It is
important that the drainage elements required fit
in with the structure and do not detract from its 22.2.6 Bridges Over Waterways
appearance. Pipes that transfer water from the
collection point to the discharge location should Considerations for bridges over waterways
be hidden. Photographs of inappropriate design include those in the following sections.
illustrate some of the problems.
Clearances and Bridge Heights

Chapter 7 provides details of clearance

requirements for bridges.

New bridges are invariably designed to a standard

equal to or higher than that of existing bridges, in
terms of total waterway area and heights.

An extremely rare occasion may arise where a

span or spans shorter than existing ones may be
justified in non-tidal streams, but never in tidal
waters. However, even in this case, the total
waterway area of the bridge would not be smaller
than that of the existing bridge. In other words, a
new bridge has flood immunity at least equal to,
and usually higher than, that of an existing bridge
and provides at least the same clearances for boats.

In tidal waters, the Environmental Protection

Agency must approve the bridge spans and
vertical clearance for boats (including yachts, if
relevant). The Agency must also approve the final
design drawings. (Previously known as Section 86
approval under the Harbours Act 1955, and
preserved under Section 236 of the Infrastructure
Act 1994.)

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Any need for fenders to absorb impact by boats on the site.

piers must be considered in clearance
calculations. By restricting a channel (e.g. having a shorter
bridge) higher velocities will result through the
For major structures over non-tidal water, structure. Hence with firm foundations, a shorter
approval may be required from the Department of and less expensive bridge may be built without
Natural Resources in the future. scouring at the site of the bridge.

Stream Width However, this can affect the overall hydraulic

gradient of the stream with resulting

22 It is usually desirable to have one large crossing of

a stream rather than a number of smaller ones over
its tributaries.
compensating scouring at downstream bends of
the stream. Changing the characteristics of the
stream must be done with caution and generally
avoided.
At a comparatively narrow section of a stream, a
shorter and generally less expensive bridge may Stream Stability
be built.
There is a tendency for scouring to take place on
A narrower cross-section usually indicates that the the outside of a bend in a stream. This natural
banks are more stable and resistant to change and tendency may not be attributable to the presence
erosion by flood waters. of a bridge at all, but difficulties may arise if a
bridge is sited in such a location.
Higher stream velocities and, perhaps, greater
movement of the stream bed also need to be It is preferable that a bridge be sited on a straight
evaluated for these sections. stretch of a stream with uniform cross-sections
throughout. Even so, care must be taken in
A further consideration is the environmental
determining the length of the bridge to avoid
impact of the structure. It is often preferable that
changing the stream characteristics and adversely
the existing bed not be disturbed or that certain
affecting downstream scour (see also
parts of the bed be left undisturbed by the
“Foundations” above).
construction. In these cases, the span lengths and
positioning of the piers and abutments may have
A Dry Site
to be adjusted to suit.
Many of the creeks and rivers in Queensland flow
Environmental Requirements for only a few months of the year. Where isolated
pools of water exist in the "dry" season in some
In addition to the overall impact of the structure
streams, costly construction can be avoided by
(see above), runoff from the bridge deck will have
shifting the bridge site to a dry part of the stream.
to be controlled where it would otherwise impact
on a sensitive environment. In these cases, it is
A Skew Crossing
necessary to collect the water and distribute it to a
sedimentation basin, or other treatment area, The bridge piers should be aligned to the natural
before being discharged. skew of a stream to avoid deflection of flows
resulting in scours.
Using scuppers and discharging directly into the
stream may be acceptable in some cases. Savings can be made in the cost of design and
Specialist advice will be required to determine the construction by having skews no greater than 300
appropriate solution. where standard precast, prestressed concrete deck
and kerb unit superstructures are proposed.
Foundations
Whilst greater skews are possible, the detailing of
Generally where rock is at or near the surface, a the bridge becomes more difficult and expensive.
less expensive bridge substructure may be built at Specialist advice is required.

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Future Dams and Weirs waterways apply in most cases to bridges over
roadways.
During the economic life of a bridge, the
possibility of future dams, weirs, barrages, canals Horizontal Clearances
and other large hydraulic works should be
investigated. The elements of the bridge structure (parapets,
piers, abutments and associated barriers) must be
Future large dams may cause extensive relocation located to provide appropriate horizontal
of bridges and other transport infrastructure clearances from roadway elements.

Cross Section

Cross section requirements are given in Chapter 7

Horizontal clearance must allow for the following
factors: 22
- Cross Section. Guidelines for adopting full a) pavement width;
carriageway widths on “short” bridges are also
provided in that chapter. b) shoulder width or edge clearance;

Horizontal clearances (as relevant to bridges c) pier protection barriers (including allowance
discussed in this Section) to roadway elements are for deflection of flexible barriers);
as discussed in Section 22.2.7.
d) curve widening;
Span Lengths e) sight lines; and
Span lengths will be determined by a range of f) future works e.g. additional lanes, footpath,
factors including: bikeways etc.
• stream size; Values of horizontal and vertical clearances to be
provided are given in Chapter 7, Cross Section.
• relative costs of superstructure and sub-
structure; and In addition, it is necessary to ensure that the
appearance of the structure is attractive for the
• economy.
users of the facility over which the bridge passes.
Standard prestressed concrete deck units with The aesthetics of the structure and its
spans up to 25m are the most economical types of surroundings is a matter of design and the
superstructure used in Queensland. Their appropriate specialists should be consulted as
superstructure depth is also smaller giving less necessary to achieve a satisfactory result.
obstruction in waterways than other types with
larger spans. Drainage Control

They may also be erected quickly without the Drainage of water from the elements of the
need for cast-in-situ decks that are required for structure (deck drainage, flow through joints and
larger span bridges. abutments) must be controlled in a positive way
and the outlets carefully designed in accordance
In general, the longer the span, the greater the with the environmental management plan.
superstructure cost per square metre of deck area Uncontrolled flow of water from and through the
provided. bridge will also have an adverse effect on the
appearance of the structure (see Section 22.2.5).

22.2.7 Bridges over Roadways

22.2.8 Bridges over Railways
Bridges over roadways include overpasses over
roads, bikeways and pedestrian paths. The factors Advice on vertical and horizontal clearances for
discussed in section 22.2.6 for bridges over bridges over railways, and future duplication or

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electrification should be obtained from the • urban locations where the availability of land to
Manager Civil Engineering in Queensland Rail accommodate earth batters is restricted;
(see Chapter 7). In addition, the piers for these
bridges must be solid. • steep sidelong country to hold fill or control
landslides;

22.2.9 Pedestrians and Cyclists • earthworks adjacent to a stream to prevent

erosion or fill spilling into a creek; and
Detailed discussion of the needs of pedestrians
• bridge abutments and wings.

22
and cyclists is included in Chapter 5. In addition,
cross section standards are also included in
Chapter 7. The information listed below can be 22.3.1 Selection of Wall Type
obtained from these sources as well as the Bridge
Design Code (Reference 2). Factors that may influence the selection of the
type of retaining wall for a site are:
• footpath width on bridges (Sections 5.4 and
7.10). • cost;

• widths, gradients and clearances of pedestrian • available clearance to boundary fence, stream
bridges and subways (Sections 5.4 and 7.10). etc.;

• widths, gradients, and clearances of bikeways • safety - the exposed face should not be unduly
on bridges (Sections 5.5 and 7.10). hazardous to an impacting vehicle;

• foundation conditions;
22.2.10 General Design
Requirements • maintenance - ease and access;

• suitability for use adjacent to footways and

Further design considerations include:
pavements;
• relieving slabs;
• compatibility with adjacent wall types; and
• bearing replacement;
• appearance.
• expansion joints; and
Specialist structural and geotechnical advice
• painting. should be obtained before deciding on the design
of retaining walls.
Relieving slabs are required for all bridges. Where
the approach pavement is concrete, the Allowable retaining wall clearances to railway
longitudinal dimension of the relieving slab must lines should be obtained from the Manager, Civil
be not less than 5m to accommodate the paving Engineering - Queensland Rail and Chapter 7.
machine.

Designers should refer to the Bridge Design Code 22.3.2 Wall Types
(Reference 2) for details of these issues.
Examples of the most common wall types are
illustrated in Figure 22.4.
22.3 Retaining Walls Types 1 to 7 are presented without explanation
since they are well known.
Retaining walls are used in the following typical
locations: The contiguous pile wall in Figure 22.6 is a
retaining wall that may also form the wall of a

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Counterfort

Cantilever Wall Wall with Counterforts

22
1.Rubble Masonry 4. Reinforced Concrete

5.Gabions

Surface Drain

2.Mass Concrete Fill Surcharge

Water proof plug of clay

Materia
l(only necessary where
there is a fill surcharge)
r Filler
Granula

Base Type A Base Type B

General Purpose Walls O Subsoil drain

6. Crib Walls

Sill beam abutment

Base Type C Base Type D Facing Reinforcement

Boundary Walls

Footing
3.Reinforced Concrete Masonry
7. Reinforced Earth Walls

Figure 22.4 Basic Retaining Walls

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tunnel. It is described in 22.4.3 as part of a cut- The high capital cost of tunnels is well known. To
and-cover tunnel. justify expenditure on a publicly funded tunnel,
many issues other than the costs of initial
For relatively shallow bridge abutments where the construction and on-going operation and
height from the road surface to the toe is not more maintenance, have to be considered.
than 3.0m, a mass concrete or grouted rubble
masonry wall without spread footings is common. PIARC (Reference 8) suggests three types or
levels of evaluation for a tunnel or alternative
The vertical face of the wall is on the stream or structure (including alternative routes) as a
low road side under the bridge. As the embedment

22
solution.
below natural surface is shallow, it should only be
used where scours would not be significant. They are shown below with modifications for
Queensland conditions. The factors to be
Bridge spill-through types are shown on Standard considered are those:
Drawing 1117 (1/00). These are used for the
higher abutments or where significant scours are • to which a monetary value can be attributed;
expected.
• which are measurable but to which a monetary
value cannot be given; and

22.4 Tunnels • which can only be given a qualitative value.

22.4.1 Definition Criteria having a Monetary Value

A tunnel is a closed or roofed structure carrying a These criteria include both direct and indirect
road through, or under an obstacle. This obstacle costs attributable to the project. These are set out
may be anything in the path of a preferred road in detail in the following paragraphs.
alignment such as a mountain, a body of water, a
building or a complete development. Planning and design costs include:

A short tunnel is also termed an underpass, but in • surveys and field investigations including
general any covered length of road over geotechnical;
150metres long is usually classified as a tunnel.
• public consultation including any models and
displays;
22.4.2 Justification for Tunnels • planning and environmental reports; and

Constructing a tunnel may be justified: • design costs including plans, specifications and
estimates.
• on new routes under densely developed urban
areas where land acquisition costs are high;
Land Acquisition Costs include:
• through mountains to avoid steep grades and
• land costs for private, commercial and
longer routes;
industrial properties;
• under rivers and large bodies of water to keep
• relocation costs; and
shipways clear;
• accommodation works.
• to avoid impact on cultural heritage or
environmentally sensitive areas; and

• where clearance requirements or land use

prevent construction of bridges.

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Construction costs include: Indirect effects:

• cost of actual structure; • future developments on the surface (e.g. streets

closed for a pedestrian mall); and
• cost of tunnel equipment (including all traffic
control equipment associated with the tunnel); • changes to overall traffic patterns and transport
routes with consequent changes in user
• the cost of links to existing infrastructure and operating costs.
any necessary changes as a result of the effect
of the tunnel on the total traffic network; and Social costs:
• sound barriers or other noise reduction
treatment.
Building a tunnel involving a new highly
trafficked route may benefit one part of the
22
community to the detriment of another. The net
Operating costs include: benefits (costs) should be included in the analysis
of the total costs of a proposal.
• ventilation and lighting;
Other social costs difficult to quantify are
• fire services;
discussed in the section on “Qualitative Factors”
• closed circuit television surveillance; below.

• inspections; Measurable Criteria

• training of emergency services personnel; and Other criteria, which are able to be measured but
are difficult to cost, may be important in deciding
• traffic control. to adopt a tunnel solution. They may also form the
basis of objections to a proposal.
Maintenance costs include:
Some of the measurable criteria are discussed in
• road surface; the following sections.
• cleaning; and
Noise
• replacement of equipment over the life of the
tunnel (over 100 years). Tunnels provide a means of eliminating noise
from the area through which they pass. However,
User benefits: care will be needed at the portals and any
intermediate air vents to ensure that noise levels
• reduced travelling times and length of travel are satisfactory. Overall reduced noise levels may
(both passenger and commercial vehicles) be a significant reason for adopting a tunnel
offset by any toll charges (if any); solution.

• reduced number of accidents; and The Road Traffic Noise Management: Code of
Practice (Reference 40) sets out the criteria for
• reduced traffic flow on other roads. levels of noise from a road before noise
attenuation measures should be considered.
Changes to land and property values and rentals:
Air Pollution
• changes to land and property values and rentals
near and above the tunnel or surface The air pollution emanating from a section of road
alternatives; and may be measured and added to that from the
surrounding environment to establish the impact
• possible leasing back of resumed land after
of the road and assess the suitability of the
construction has been completed.
proposal.

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Air pollution is concentrated at the entrance, exit • changes to the landscape which may increase or
and intermediate ventilation outlets in tunnels. decrease the value of a site, including the
Careful siting of these features is required to effects on the community and tourism;
minimise the impact on the adjacent property.
Ventilation outlets may have to be remote from • changes in community relationships due to
the site, or disguised inside other structures, to severance or a new route;
achieve acceptable results.
• aesthetic value of the project for users and the
community;
Visual Intrusion

22
• flexibility for increasing the traffic capacity of
The degree of visual intrusion of road
the road infrastructure in the long term future
infrastructure may be a source of annoyance to
(say beyond 20 years);
some people. The extent of this effect on the
overall amenity is difficult to quantify. Tunnels • temporary disadvantages or nuisance value
have the advantage of being hidden from view but during the construction phase to the
the portals will need consideration from this point commercial and general community; and
of view.
• the impact on animal life and bio-diversity in
Vibration Effects general.

Vibration effects on buildings and other structures

should be considered for both the construction 22.4.3 Types of Tunnels
and operation stages.
Tunnels are constructed in a wide range of
Level of Service physical and operational circumstances that will
determine the type of tunnel used. Types of tunnel
PIARC (Reference 8) describes “level of service” include for example:
in the following words:
• cut-and-cover at shallow depth;
“This has to do with the users' feeling of well-
being about driving conditions and lack of • cast-in-situ in a waterway;
disturbance. Throughout the world, the notion of
• immersed tube for underwater crossings;
level of service attracts careful consideration
since it can affect the geometric standards of the • bored tunnels; and
proposed road.”
• tunnels excavated through rock.
A quantitative assessment of the traffic Level of
Service can be undertaken using the procedures of Figure 22.5 illustrates some typical tunnels.
the Highway Capacity Manual (see also Chapter
5). Cut-and-Cover Tunnel

Qualitative Factors This type of tunnel is constructed in a trench

excavated from the surface and is appropriate for
There are some factors that cannot be given shallow depths in suitable soils. Special cases of
monetary value or completely quantified. They this type of construction include:
are largely related to environmental protection or
social consequences and include: • contiguous pile wall tunnels (or variants);

• displacement of people whose homes have • “Top Down” construction; and

been resumed; • “Canopy Tube” method.
• effect on Cultural Heritage sites, buildings etc.; Factors to be considered for cut and cover tunnels

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

22

Figure 22.5 Typical Tunnel Types

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Typical height of tunnel Jet fans

when there are no jet fans Primary lining

Cast insitu secondary lining

22 Cable ladders
Vehicle clearance
envelope

Future overlay for

light rail

Stormwater drainage pipe

Driven Tunnel - Enlarged Section for Ventilation Fans

Figure 22.5 (cont.) Typical Tunnel Types

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

include: interruptions have to be kept to a minimum or

where soil types permit this method. In this form
• ease with which the soil can be excavated; of construction, the roof of the tunnel is
constructed on the ground before the material
• depth of water table below the natural surface;
below is excavated. This allows the surface to be
• availability of the surface material being reinstated while the excavation is in progress,
removed for backfilling during the construction thereby reducing the time of closure of the road on
period and the consequences for the subsequent top.
land use;

22
The “Canopy Tube” method is used where traffic
• the need to dewater/pump the excavation; interruptions cannot be tolerated for any period of
time and less costly alternatives can not be used.
• earth pressure on the sidewalls and loads and Figure 22.6 illustrates this form of construction.
surcharges on the tunnel roof; The process is:
• temporary construction loads; • establish a portal by excavating a vertical face
beside the road or other facility under which the
• uplift forces; and
tunnel is to be constructed;
• access restrictions.
• prebore holes horizontally under the surface in
In the contiguous-pile wall tunnel, each side of the the direction of the tunnel (this may have to be
tunnel is formed from contiguous bored or cast- done in stages depending on the length of the
in-place piles, with or without liners depending on tunnel);
the soil conditions, driven to below the tunnel
• insert a steel tube into the prebored hole and fill
floor. (A typical pile wall is shown in Figure
with grout;
22.4.) The space between the walls is excavated
after driving the piles, thus exposing the surface • install a steel set at the portal to support the
of the contiguous piles. (Temporary or permanent ends of the tubes (a steel set is a supporting
propping may be required.) Cladding is placed on frame constructed with steel I-beams);
the face of the piles to present a pleasing internal
appearance to the tunnel and to achieve the • excavate the material under the tubes on a front
required reflectivity of the tunnel walls. in stages and install a steel set at the end of each
stage (approximately 750mm centres);
Drainage using filter drains is essential, as the
piles are essentially earth retaining walls. • continue this process until the exit portal is
reached;
After excavation between pile walls, capping
beams are cast over the pile walls, roof slabs • shotcrete between the sets;
placed and the floor constructed.
• place reinforced concrete for floor, sides and
“Top down” construction is used where traffic roof (the extent of this will depend on the
1300 Capping beam

O 100 no fines concrete block between

grade R.L. & underside of capping beam
925 O 900 piles

Figure 22.6 Typical Contiguous Pile Wall Setout Detail

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

Canopy Tubes

Steel Sets

22 Longitudinal Section

Canopy Tubes

Steel Sets

Cross Section
Figure 22.7

overall design, the construction process and the • noise from the construction site;
intended role of the steel sets in the final
structure). • vibration effects on properties;

The design of the supports and their extent will • air pollution ; and
depend on the type and extent of the material
• settlement of buildings adjacent to the
present at the site. E.g. the location and extent of
excavation due to changes in the water table or
competent rock will affect the extent of the steel
excavation techniques.
sets and their founding level.
Cast-in-Situ Tunnel in a Waterway
Figure 22.7 illustrates the Canopy Tube concept.
The Pipe Canopy type shown in Figure 22.5 is Where permitted to block a waterway, and if
another version of this concept. practical, the tunnel may be constructed in two
halves.
In an urban environment, additional
considerations are: The first half of the tunnel is constructed within a
temporary caisson. On completion of the first
• severance effect of the removal of surface
half, the waterway above the constructed section
material, cutting off access for both vehicles
is then opened and the second half of the tunnel
and pedestrians;
constructed in a procedure similar to the first.
• cutting off and/or relocating public utilities;

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

Immersed Tube Tunnels Tunnels through Rock

For underwater crossings the immersed tube Rock tunnels are excavated in a firm, cohesive
tunnel may be appropriate where conditions are medium, which may vary from relatively soft rock
right. Precast reinforced concrete sections of the and sandstone to very hard igneous rocks such as
tunnel are manufactured in a dry dock, floated and granite. Excavation may be by drilling and
towed to their location above a dredged channel, blasting and temporary supports may consist only
sunk into position and joined to previous sections. of rock bolts. TBMs can also be used in some
circumstances.
Bored Tunnels

Bored or driven tunnels are constructed where 22.4.4 General Design 22

there is sufficient overburden. Considerations
Temporary support is required before the final
Tunnels have distinguishing characteristics such
lining is placed - precast segments, shotcrete
as:
and/or rock bolts depending on the material
excavated. The cost of liners can vary widely • the absence of junctions, parked vehicles,
depending on the soil types, presence of swelling bicycles (except for rare exceptions) and
clays, soft rock and/or water. pedestrians;
In tunnels excavated using the Tunnel Boring • an enclosed road with lateral and vertical
Machine (TBM), the liner is placed continuously restrictions;
behind the TBM as it advances. The TBM may
grip the sides of the tunnel (by expanding) or • artificial illumination; and
thrust off the liner as it advances. There are many
• artificial ventilation.
different types of TBM for various situations.
Because of these characteristics, some drivers
Under large waterways where soft ground
may be apprehensive about entering and leaving
conditions are common Earth Pressure Balance
the tunnel and become conscious of driving too
Machines (EPBM), Slurry Shield Tunnel Boring
close to tunnel walls (thus possibly reducing the
Machines (SSTBM) and shield driven tunnels
effective lane width), and misjudging the
have been used.
steepness of grades (hence misjudging braking
In these shields, the cutting head is enclosed distances). However, tunnels exhibit a better
within a watertight bulkhead containing earth or accident record than the open road, due to a
bentonite slurry, which stabilizes the face. Behind combination of factors such as:
the sealed bulkhead the rest of the tunnel remains
• drivers becoming more alert in the changed
under normal atmospheric pressure.
environment of the tunnel;
Tunnelling materials (earth, rock, clay, water,
• absence of roadside obstacles;
bentonite and other chemicals) are directed
through the TBM cutting head and out the rear • standard of construction; and
end. In addition to the TBM itself, there is a
considerable amount of material transportation • safety features incorporated in the tunnel.
equipment that removes these products, recycles
the bentonite, and delivers power and hydraulics, Where there are no Australian Standards for
water, chemicals and pre-cast segments. elements of tunnel design, and no applicable
mandatory International Standards, PIARC and
Both air and water (and lubricating chemicals) NFPA publications provide considerable
can be lost through the tunnel face. Tunnels of reference and guidance material (see References
circular cross-section are formed. at the end of this Chapter).

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Some general design considerations are: required curve widening)

• Design Speed; Shoulders 2.5 m wide to act as a

breakdown lane.
• Cross-section Elements;
Horizontal Clearance Refer to Chapter 7,
• Alignment; Section 7.10.3
• Grading; Vertical clearance Refer to Chapter 7,
Section 7.10.4

22
• Drainage;
The 2.5m shoulder provides space for broken
• Operations (including emergency ingress and
down vehicles or emergency stopping and should
egress, and maintenance requirements);
be continuous through the tunnel if possible. If
• Ventilation; this shoulder is not continuous, parking bays or
pull-off bays should be provided at intervals not
• Fire; exceeding 250m.
• Lighting; In limited lane tunnels an accident or vehicle
break down will cause traffic to stop and backup
• Communications;
if the vehicle cannot be moved quickly to a break
• Structural requirements; and down lane or a road shoulder. The stationary
traffic causes increased demand on the ventilation
• Electrical requirements. system as well as stress to drivers. It is therefore
important that adequate shoulders or emergency
Design Speed pull-off areas be provided.
For safety reasons, the maximum allowable speed For roadways with separate tunnels for each
in two-way tunnels throughout the world is direction, the shoulders next to the centre wall
between 60 and 80 km/h. should be sufficiently wide to provide the shy line
distance (see Chapter 7, Section 7.2.1).
In one-way tunnels, the speed limits are between
80 and 110 km/h, the higher speeds found in very Busway tunnels should be designed in accordance
long tunnels. Clearances at the “desirable” end of with the Busway Planning and Design Manual
the range should be provided in high-speed (Reference 39).
tunnels.
The available space in tunnels is also required to
Factors to consider in determining the design provide for ventilation, lighting, public utilities,
speed for the tunnel include: drainage, access and emergency and fire
equipment. Appropriate traffic control devices
• Speed environment on the approaches;
(extent may depend on the length and location of
• Geometric limitations in the tunnel; and the tunnel) must also be provided. The overall
cross section must provide for these services while
• Tolerable speed reduction between successive maintaining the required roadway clearances.
geometric elements
Alignment
Cross-section Elements
Alignment for highway tunnels should be straight,
The following elements of the cross-section of a if possible. Horizontal curves based on sight
typical tunnel shown in Figure 22.8 may be taken distance should be of desirable radii, rather than
as a guide for multi-vehicle use. minimum standards to alleviate the feeling of
discomfort experienced by some drivers in
Traffic lanes 3.5 m wide (plus any tunnels.

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Initial Release, December 2000
SOFFIT OF ROOF
TO FOLLOW ROAD
LEVELS

Figure 22.8 Typical Tunnel Section (6 Lanes)

6.2m 8.0m
WEEPHOLES
2.5m 3.5m 3.5m 3.5m 0.8m
REQUIRED
VERTICAL CLEARANCE
Road Planning and Design Manual

GROUND ANCHORS CLAY DRAINAGE PIPE

PERFORATED PIPE

22-21
22
 Road Planning and Design Manual

The geometric requirements for busway only • accidental rupture of a fire main or hydrant.
tunnels are set out in the Busway Planning and
Design Manual produced for the South East It may be more economical to allow some
Queensland Regional Busway Network groundwater infiltration, removing it by pumping,
(Reference 39). rather than incurring the expense of trying to
achieve a fully watertight enclosure.
Grading
To help drain water, it may be desirable to place
Driver perceptions can be affected by the the floor at a small longitudinal grade not less than
0.5% (see section on “Grading” above). A free

22
combination of the wall joints and tunnel grade.
The joints are perpendicular to the grade, not draining tunnel will deliver economies in drainage
vertical and this distorts the perception of costs.
distance. The TRRL Report (Reference 3) gives
The section on “Fire” considers whether a separate
examples of drivers’ misjudgments on gradients
drainage system should be provided for washing
between 3 and 5 percent, caused by this
down spills of dangerous goods from accidents.
phenomenon leading to accidents. It also notes
that build-up of spilt oil on gradients of 4 percent A single drainage system should meet the
or more has caused heavily laden articulated following requirements:
vehicles to lose traction.
• specified flood immunity (100 year ARI);
There is a direct relationship between grade and
the breakdown rate of vehicles in tunnels. • collection at portals and in the tunnel via gullies
at appropriate intervals, with longitudinal pipe
Grades in road tunnels should therefore be limited network to sumps - gullies and equipment must
to 3.5% in general. For long two lane tunnels with be flame proof ;
two-way traffic, a maximum grade of 3% is
desirable to maintain reasonable truck speed. • sumps sealed and vented to the atmosphere -
duty and stand-by pumps must be provided;
Where a future light rail may be placed in a
busway tunnel, 3% is the maximum permissible • sump and pump capacity designed to be
grade. compatible with the inflow rate;

In underwater tunnels or tunnels with low points, • pumps and associated control gear designed to
grades should preferably not be less than 0.5%. operate automatically via level switches;
Sumps must be provided with explosion proof
pumps and electrical equipment. • closed sumps with forced ventilation - duty and
stand-by extraction fans are required.
Drainage (Monitoring of pump operation at a Central
Control Centre is desirable);
Water and other liquids may enter a tunnel from
various sources such as: • wastewater complying with effluent standards
specified by the relevant Authorities and
• rainfall runoff from portal areas; drainage from the tunnel passed through
appropriate gross pollutant traps for capture of
• rainwater carried in by vehicles; hydrocarbons and other undesirable pollutants
• groundwater infiltration; prior to discharging into waterways; and

• wastewater effluent from wash-down activities; • the drainage system designed to be easily
cleaned and maintained. In particular, adequate
• accidental spillage of fuel from damaged space is required in all sumps to allow cleaning
vehicles and the wash-down of such products; and maintenance of pipes, pumps and all
associated equipment.
• fire system operations; and

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Operations radio re-broadcast (where provided) of emergency

instructions.
Some operational issues to be considered are:
However, fire combustion products can travel
• Bicycles and pedestrians; very quickly, thus engulfing passengers stranded
• Dangerous goods; in vehicles, eliminating visibility and means of
egress, where otherwise an escape may have been
• Control of entry in emergency (see also Section possible earlier.
on Fire below);
The ventilation system should be designed to
• Manuals; and

• Training.
draw smoke and fumes away from the danger
(accident) area. 22
Dangerous Goods
These are considered in more detail below.
Spillage of dangerous goods being transported
Bicycles and Pedestrians through a tunnel may result in fire or explosion or
other undesirable effects. In addition, crashes
Bicycle lanes are rarely provided in road tunnels.
involving vehicles carrying hazardous goods may
Where provided, they should desirably be
have disastrous consequences (explosion, toxic
separate from the vehicle lanes and protected
gas release, etc)
from vehicular traffic by a barrier.
Hazardous goods may be classified according to
In some tunnels without separate lanes, bicycles
their nature and the degree of hazard. Australia
are only permitted at night or times of low
has adopted a system based on the United Nations
vehicular traffic density.
classification, which provides for nine classes
Pedestrian walkways in vehicular tunnels are identified by a unique diamond for each class.
generally provided for exit in an emergency.
The classes of dangerous goods are:
These walkways should be not less than 1.0m
wide and level with the top of the kerb. In addition • Explosives (substances or articles used to
to serving as a walkway for emergency exit, they produce explosion or a pyrotechnic effect)
can also be used by maintenance and traffic
personnel. • Gases (gases stored in tanks or cylinders under
pressure, compressed liquefied gases)
The emergency walkway may sometimes be at a
lower level with a mountable kerb between the - Flammable Gas (e.g. acetylene, LPG -
walkway and the adjacent traffic lane so that the liquefied petroleum gas)
walkway may act as an emergency stopping place
for vehicles. It may also be provided in a separate, - Non-Flammable Non-Toxic Gases (some
enclosed combined services / escape void. of these gases have oxidizing or corrosive
effects e.g. refrigerated liquid air,
It is essential that the design provides a compressed oxygen)
pedestrian walkway accessible to impaired
road users (drivers or passengers) without - Toxic Gases (cause death or serious injury to
assistance. human health if inhaled e.g. chlorine, methyl
bromide, nitric oxide)
Pedestrian emergency escape tunnels parallel to
the vehicular tunnel and pedestrian refuge areas • Flammable Liquids (liquids whose vapours
with independent air from the surface have been ignite on contact with a source of ignition and
provided in some major tunnels (Reference 10 et having a flash point not higher than 610 C e.g.
al). In some circumstances, remaining in the petrol, kerosene, paint thinners)
vehicle may be the preferred option. This allows

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• Flammable, Spontaneously Reactive or • Radioactive Goods (materials or combination

Dangerous When Wet Solids of materials which spontaneously emit
radiation e.g. uranium)
- Flammable Solids (solids easily ignited by
external sources such as sparks and flames • Corrosive Goods (solids or liquids possessing
e.g. sulphur, red phosphorus, matches) in their original state, the common property of
being able to damage living tissue to a greater
- Spontaneously Combustible Substances or lesser extent. Many give vapours that irritate
(substances liable to heat spontaneously and the nose and eyes, some are toxic and a few
ignite, particularly when wetted by water, or

22
produce toxic products when decomposed e.g.
in contact with moist air e.g. carbon, white Hydrochloric Acid, Sodium Hydroxide)
phosphorous, calcium dithionite)
• Miscellaneous Dangerous Goods Substances
- Dangerous When Wet Substances (those and articles which present a danger not covered
evolving flammable gases when in contact by other classes e.g. Aerosols, Dry Ice,
with water e.g. calcium carbide, sodium Asbestos)
metal)
Before banning the carriage of these goods
• Oxidizing Agents (Substances which may not through a tunnel, a detailed risk assessment
be combustible in themselves, but by yielding should be carried out to assess the suitability or
oxygen or other processes increase the risk and otherwise of the route compared with the
intensity of fire in other materials with which alternatives. Alternative routes may have adverse
they come in contact) economic, social and environmental
consequences or even create a higher risk of
- Oxidizing Agent (When in contact with
accidents.
finely divided combustible materials,
oxidizers may cause fire and burn with Some studies have shown that:
almost explosive violence (e.g. Calcium
Hypochlorite- Swimming Pool Chlorine, • The total human risk can be higher on the
Sodium Peroxide) longer route;

- Organic Peroxides (Liquids or solids that • The chance of multiple fatalities is greater in
support the burning of combustible tunnels than on the alternative route;
materials. Under prolonged exposure to fire
or heat, containers of these materials may • Economic risks on the tunnel route are higher
explode. Decomposition of these substances than the alternative route if the tunnel can be
may give rise to evolution of impurities such destroyed.
as acids, toxic and flammable gases e.g.
In any risk assessment, the Dangerous Goods Unit
benzoyl peroxides, methyl ethyl ketone
of Queensland Transport should be contacted for
peroxide, MEKP)
advice. Further guidance may be obtained from
• Poisonous, Toxic, Harmful and Infectious Reference 10, which describes the cause and
Substances (Solids or liquids which are liable consequences of nine accidents involving
to cause death or serious injury to human health dangerous goods in tunnels internationally, and
if swallowed, inhaled or by skin contact. Nearly five accidents in tunnels that did not involve
all toxic substances evolve toxic gases when dangerous goods.
involved in a fire or when heated to
Although total banning of the transport of
decomposition e.g. Calcium Cyanide, Lead
hazardous goods through tunnels may seem
Arsenate.)
intrinsically desirable, such action may not be
- Toxic Substances (e.g. Industrial products) necessary as other measures may give a
satisfactory solution with an appropriate level of
- Infectious Substances (e.g. medical waste) safety.

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The following strategies have been used to Control of Entry in an Emergency

minimise the risk of accidents and the
consequences of spillage in tunnels: Traffic signals should be provided at the entrance
to tunnels to control entering traffic in an
• restricting transit times; emergency. They should be so positioned that they
can stop traffic from using one, two or all lanes in
• placing vehicles carrying dangerous goods in the tunnel as required. These signals can also be
an escorted convoy (with or without restricting used in other circumstances such as:
times of operation);
• periods of maintenance in the tunnel; and

22
• product and quantity limitations;
• times when congestion may threaten to
• speed and distance limits; overload the ventilation system and relief is
required.
• diversion to a route with lower risk;
Appropriate signals and signs remote from the
• applying load limits; and
tunnel may also be required to divert traffic to
• inspection of vehicles before entry. alternative routes in times of closure of the tunnel.

Risk can also be reduced by limiting the For busway tunnels, direct communication with
consequences of a crash by passive measures such buses should be available to control their
as: movements (e.g. diverting them to alternative
routes when excessive delays in the tunnel occur
• fire resistance of the structure and facilities; for whatever reason).
• explosion resistance;
Manuals
• road surfaces not likely to burn; and
It is essential that detailed operating and
• drainage systems directed into collector tanks. maintenance manuals be kept for all elements of
plant and equipment. All maintenance and repair
Active measures to reduce the consequences of a work must be carried out safely with the utmost
crash include: efficiency to give minimum disturbance to traffic.

• continuous monitoring by closed circuit Operating and maintenance manuals should

television; cover:

• roadway inspection; • drawings;

• fire detection; • systems descriptions;

• explosion proof radio communications • systems performance;

equipment; and
• equipment description;
• ventilation.
• manufacturers’ technical literature;
The monitoring of the passage of vehicles
carrying dangerous goods, and the detection of • any supplementary data available;
spills and fire are described in the sections on
• operations procedures;
“Fire” and “Communications”.
• maintenance procedures including expected
In the event of a spillage or accident, immediate
replacement intervals of parts, test certificates
action is required and emergency systems should
and test reports.
be well established and understood (appropriate
manuals). These manuals can be more easily prepared at the

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

design stage in conjunction with the operating automatically adjusted as required to dilute the
personnel than at later stages of the process. emissions from vehicles to an acceptable level in
the tunnel. Carbon monoxide and smoke monitors
Detailed operational procedures at times of are also required to automatically control fan
emergency must always be readily available to speeds.
staff.
The ventilation system in a tunnel should be
Training designed in accordance with recognized methods
described in the Technical Committee Reports on
Although accidents and other emergencies in

22
Road Tunnels, to the Permanent International
tunnels may be infrequent, regular training Association of Road Congresses (PIARC) 1987,
sessions on emergency procedures should be 1991 and 1995 (References 15, 17 and 18).
carried out as any accident or spillage or
breakdown of equipment may affect many The external noise levels of the ventilation plant
vehicles and people in a tunnel. should not exceed acceptable standards for nearby
noise sensitive development. (Refer to the Road
Ventilation Traffic Noise Management: Code of Practice.)

Vehicle exhaust emissions contain toxic (notably Internal noise levels (i.e. those occurring inside
carbon monoxide, CO), and noxious gases, the tunnel) should also be limited to acceptable
smoke, and particulates. levels. Typically, the maximum tunnel noise level
resulting from the ventilation system, measured
In short tunnels, they may be removed by 1.5 metres above road level at the centreline of
longitudinal ventilation, often assisted by jet fans each traffic lane, should be not greater than
to give discharge at the portals, provided this 85dBA without traffic and with all fans operating
concentration and subsequent dispersion of at normal operating speed.
pollutants to the air at the exit to the tunnel is
acceptable. Air quality is of particular concern in Ventilation is also necessary to disperse any
cases where economic justification for a tunnel smoke, which reduces visibility. The capacity of
has been partly based on the recovery of the system must be adequate to provide an
developable land over the roof slab. increased effort over the normal operational
requirement of steady through vehicle movement.
For tunnels longer than 200 metres, longitudinal
bi-directional smoke ventilation systems and Other aspects of ventilation are:
control panels should be provided as required by
the Queensland Fire Service. Tunnel air velocities • Portal discharge;
to ensure smoke and hot combustion gases do not
• Traffic monitoring;
spread upstream against the air flow are shown in
the section on “Fire”. • Carbon monoxide (CO), Nitrous Oxides (NOx);
In longer tunnels, special air ducts carry the • Visibility levels; and
polluted air away to selected exit points and
others bring fresh air into the tunnel (transverse • Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)
ventilation). requirements.

Fans regulating the ventilation are automatically Portal Discharge

controlled according to traffic volumes, pollution
levels and fire detection. Calculations for the dispersal of tunnel exhaust
gases at portals should be based on the PIARC
Traffic sensors are required to determine the requirements set out in Reference 17. Reference
number of vehicles in the tunnel and at what speed 22 provides discussion of this subject under
they are travelling. Ventilation needs are Australian conditions.

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The direction and effect of prevailing winds at the e = base of natural logarithms
portal, together with plume buoyancy, must be
considered. Recycling of diluted exhaust gases K = coefficient of extinction (m-1)
into fresh air intakes or adjacent portals with
L = length of light ray between emission and
undesirable, but not toxic, effects can occur and
reception (m)
must be considered in the design and location of
the system. In tunnel ventilation, visibility is usually
expressed by the extinction factor, K.
Discharging tunnel air through a chimney

22
vertically into the atmosphere is a more efficient K = 0.005/metre - indicates clear tunnel air with
way of diluting the exhaust gases than discharging visibility several hundred metres.
at a portal. This method is commonly used on
long tunnels (e.g. Sydney Harbour Tunnel, M5 K = 0.007/metre - indicates a slight haziness of
Motorway tunnel, Sydney). the tunnel air.

K = 0.009/metre - indicates an air quality

Traffic Monitoring
providing a foggy impression.
Traffic sensors are required to regulate the degree
Variations in peak visibility may occur during the
of ventilation required.
day when, for example, several diesel trucks are in
Sensors also assist in controlling traffic outside line, or when the ventilation is adjusting to cater
the tunnel, to allow traffic including buses to be for peak requirements.
diverted away from the tunnel when unacceptable
Turbidity is sometimes used for the term
traffic delays, for whatever reason, occur in the
“visibility” as defined above and in PIARC
tunnel.
publications.
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Dioxide For tunnels under 300m in length, the following
(NO2) and Visibility Levels criteria must be met:
Carbon monoxide (CO) is the most dominant of • Carbon Monoxide (CO): 100 ppm maximum
the toxic vehicle gas emissions. for a 15 minute exposure period.
About 10% to 20% of the emitted nitrogen oxides • Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): 1.5 ppm maximum
(NOx) are converted to nitrogen dioxide in very allowing for conversion of 10% of NOx to NO2
long tunnels. within the tunnel (allow for background levels
of pollution in intake air).
Visibility is reduced by the attenuation of light by
small suspended particles in smoke. The particles • Visibility: K = 0.005/m maximum for free
absorb and scatter light reducing the amount flowing traffic.
reaching a driver’s eye.
It is desirable that CO and smoke monitoring
A light beam continually loses its intensity as it systems be installed and employed to increase the
travels through smoky air. The process is defined fan speeds automatically when required to deal
in the formula: with changes in concentrations of these gases.
E = E0 x e-KL
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS)
Where Requirements

E = light intensity after travelling the distance L For maintenance purposes, the design of
in smoky air walkways and access to equipment should meet
OHS requirements for confined space, working
E0 = light intensity at the beginning conditions and safety. Air quality during

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

maintenance should meet the requirements Fire detectors should preferably be of the linear
defined by PIARC (Reference 4). fine wire type, which respond to increase in
radiant heat. The detectors should cover the full
Bus tunnels require consideration of longer-term length of the tunnel and automatically call the Fire
driver exposure. Brigade in a Direct Brigade Landline when
required.
Fire
Manual call points complying with AS 1603.5 for
Fires in tunnels are usually caused by mechanical
use by motorists, as well as fire warning bells,
or electrical faults in vehicles; less frequently by

22
should be provided .
accidents; and rarely by mal-functions of the
installations in the tunnel.
Smoke Control
Automatic temperature activated detectors are
For longitudinal ventilation, as soon as fire/smoke
preferred to smoke detectors and there should be
is detected there should be an automatic increase
sufficient to cover the whole length of the tunnel.
in fan speeds to help disperse the smoke and
Ventilation and other tunnel equipment must prevent back layering (moving upstream of the
remain in operation for a sufficient period before fire) from taking place.
failure to aid evacuation.
Tunnel air velocities to stop smoke from
The highest priority in the event of a fire is the spreading upstream should be greater than 3m/s.
saving of life followed by the saving of property. Maximum adverse wind speed should be 6m/s to
Design and documentation of proper procedures cope with buoyant combustion product spread.
for these situations are essential (see “Manuals”
It should be noted that the thermal effects of fires
above).
significantly reduce tunnel airflows compared to
Major design considerations for fire protection non-fire situations. Airflow reductions of the
include: order of 1 to 11 percent for a 10 MW fire and 51
to 62 percent for a 100 MW fire have been
• Fire type (cellulose or hydrocarbon); observed (Reference 11).

• Detection; As ceiling temperatures may be very high in a fire

(8000 C in a test school bus fire, Reference 10), it
• Smoke control; should be assumed that at least one fan set would
be made non-operational in a fire.
• Load for ventilation purposes;
The required rating for smoke fans and wiring is 2
• Built in redundancy of equipment;
hours at 2500 C for a design fire of 30MW (truck)
• Deluge / drencher systems; with allowance for de-rating to allow for
operation in a hot smoke stream. In the longer
• Flame proof pits; tunnels, exhaust fans may remove the smoke
through special conduits rather than blow the
• Foam;
smoke longitudinally through the tunnel.
• Fire hydrants;
Fire Load for Ventilation purposes
• Evacuation egress;
For short tunnels (less than 300m) where
• Dual drainage system; and dangerous goods are not permitted, the smoke
ventilation design criteria shall be based on a 30
• Fire engineering design brief. MW fire, equivalent to that from one bus or truck.

Detection For longer tunnels, the design fire shall be 50 MW

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

(equivalent to a petrol tanker). Closed sumps should have forced ventilation with
duty and standby extraction fans. A gas detection
Built in Redundancy system should be provided to automatically
trigger an inert gas foam extinguisher if
It should be assumed in ventilation design, that hydrocarbons are detected. Monitoring of
one fan set becomes non-operational in a fire pumping operations should be provided at a
because of the high temperatures reached in the Control Centre.
vicinity of a fire.
Foam

22
Deluge / Drencher System
The benefits of adding foam to deluge systems are
Deluge or drencher systems, when activated, obvious, particularly when dangerous goods are
discharge at least twice the volumetric rate of allowed in a tunnel, but it should be recognized
water per minute than sprinkler systems for that fire fighting foam is not effective against all
ordinary hazards (AS2118.1- Reference 33). dangerous goods (including alcohol), and other
contingencies should be planned.
Water sprinklers or deluge systems using water
are not always provided in tunnels
Fire Hydrants
because(Reference 8):
Tunnels should have a Fire Hydrant System in
• sprinklers (and the relevant codes) are
accordance with AS 2419.
primarily for fires in buildings. Sprinklers do
not lend themselves to extinguishing vehicle The hydrants should be placed at each portal and
fires as the vehicles are designed to shed water at evenly spaced locations not more than 90
and keep the interior dry; metres apart within the length of the tunnel. This
distance is consistent with standard hose lengths
• contact with water can produce dangerous
available.
reactions with some materials;
Fire hydrants should be single head complying
• the steam produced can reduce visibility; and
with AS 2419.1 - 1994, Fire Hydrant Systems -
• metal does not cool quickly even when the Design Installation and Commissioning
flames are extinguished. This means that spilt (Reference 35) or double headed complying with
petrol continues to vapourise and may produce NFPA 502 (Reference 31).
an explosive mixture even after the fire has
Portable fire extinguishers, preferably of the dry
been extinguished. The danger is even greater if
chemical type, should be placed in the Central
the fuel is LPG.
(Fire) Control Room and other selected locations.
Sprinklers, if fitted, should include an aqueous The spacing to be adopted depends on the length
film forming foam (AFFF) to further prevent of the tunnel and at least one extinguisher per
potential for ignition. Combined foam and water direction of travel should be placed in short
in accordance with NFPA 16 (Reference 32) may tunnels (100m maximum spacing). The location
also be appropriate. A range of systems is of extinguishers should be coincident with pull-
available and details should be sought from the off bays where these are provided.
references.
Evacuation Egress
Flame Proof Pits
In short tunnels, the tendency will be for the
With the use of deluge systems, flames may be public to exit through the portals in times of
carried down from gullies into the drainage emergency. An adequately lit route (walkway or
sumps. The drainage system should therefore be roadway) to the portals should be provided.
flame proof.
NFPA 502 (Reference 31) and the Emergency

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

Services suggest that there should be an In addition, the Brief should require the designer
emergency exit door at each fire hydrant location to provide:
with suitable supporting emergency
communications. • a detailed Manual for operational procedures in
an emergency;
Where there are two tubes (parallel tunnels
separated by a wall), emergency doors allowing • a hazard analysis for the tunnel; and
exit from one tube into the other are suitable. It
• a quantitative risk assessment.
would be an extremely remote possibility that an

22
accident/emergency would occur on both sides of Lighting
the wall at the same time. Footways of sufficient
width to avoid doors opening into, and Lighting at the portals of tunnels must allow
discharging people into the traffic lane are drivers to readily adapt their eyesight to see the
required. Appropriate warning lights in the tunnel road carriageway and its limits, signs and road
being entered would also alert drivers in that markings when entering or leaving a tunnel.
tunnel to the emergency evacuation.
Tunnel lighting must make allowance for the
The doors of emergency exits should be smoke differing light conditions external to the tunnel
and toxic gas resistant, signed and lighted for easy under all weather conditions at both the entrance
recognition as an emergency exit. When opened, and exit. The tunnel lighting is therefore zoned to
these doors should not obstruct the sight distance allow sufficient time for the eye to adjust.
of traffic.
For a driver entering from sunlight, the
Dual Drainage System illumination at the portals should be of a relatively
high level reducing progressively to the tunnel
The use of deluge sprinklers indicates the need for lighting level. At night, illumination at the portal
a dual drainage system to carry the water excess to equal to that in the tunnel would be appropriate.
normal operations away from the tunnel
carriageway. Luminance of 3 - 10 candelas/m2 for daytime
lighting and 2 - 2.5 candelas/m2 for nightime
A flame-proof drainage system is required. levels is adequate (Reference 4).

Fire Fighting Access At the exit, the same level of illumination as at the
entrance is appropriate. However, at the exit, it is
The route for fire brigade vehicles and access for preferable that a driver is not looking directly into
fire fighting equipment must be identified and the sun. Section 10.2.5 (Chapter 10) gives a
written into operating manuals for use in method for determining the sun’s position and
emergencies. altitude (in degrees above the horizontal plane)
for South and North Queensland (those for other
Fire Engineering Design Brief locations may be interpolated).

Before detailed design of a tunnel is undertaken, a Adjustment to the lighting levels may be required
Fire Engineering Design Brief should be prepared in short tunnels where the driver can see the exit
and approved. from the entrance and this appears as a bright light
at the end of a dark tube. The tunnel lighting
This brief should specify the design would have to be brighter to mask this effect.
considerations relevant to a fire or emergency
situation (see other parts of this section). This Appropriate reflectivity (60%) of the walls of a
would include aspects of ventilation, drainage, tunnel enhances the lighting within the tunnel. It
emergency lighting, communications, structures is important to keep the walls clean to retain this
and all considerations in this section. enhancement.

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

Emergency lighting will be required to provide luminaries, and producing a satisfactory result at
adequate illumination for evacuation in the event optimum cost.
that the primary source is made inoperable in an
accident. They should be non-corrodible, resistant to impact
and abrasion, non-combustible, resistant to flame
Zone Lighting spread and easy to clean. In addition to their other
properties, they should be coloured to provide an
Design of lighting in tunnels should be in attractive internal environment and to highlight
accordance with: safety facilities.

• CIE 88-1990 (Reference 36);

• CIE 61-1984 for tunnel entrance lighting

Emergency Lighting

At least 15% of lighting should be maintained

22
(Reference 37); and during emergencies (provided by Uninterruptible
Power System - UPS).
• CIE 31-1976 (TC-46) for glare and uniformity
in road lighting installations (Reference 38). Strip lighting no higher than door height along the
tunnel walls may serve as emergency lights.
In a one way tunnel, five zones are considered for
illumination design. Moving progressively into
Communications
and along the tunnel, they are:
It is essential that communications be functional
• the access (just outside the tunnel entrance);
at all times in a tunnel, not only in a fire or
• the threshold; emergency situation, but also for monitoring and
maintenance operations.
• the transition;
The following functions are desirable:
• the interior; and
• Control centre linked to existing
• the exit. communications providers;

In practice at least four daytime switching levels • Closed circuit TV (CCTV);

and one night time switching level on the light
control panel are required to accommodate the • Radio rebroadcast;
potential variations in lighting conditions.
• P.A. system with radio interruption;
Counter Beam • Emergency telephones;
A lighting system which produces high road • Mobile telephones rebroadcast;
surface luminance and low vertical illuminance
gives relatively high contrast values for most • Staffing and traffic control centre;
objects on the road. Such a system will only be
• Speed cameras; and
obtained when the lighting distribution is
longitudinally asymmetrical and preferentially • Bus radio rebroadcast.
directed towards the driver (Reference 36).
Control Centre Location
Wall Panels
It is essential that a 24 hour manned control centre
Wall panels with height 3.5m above the road be established or maintained to receive all
carriageway and with 60% reflectivity are suitable monitoring and emergency electronic messages
internal fittings for tunnels. They are required to from a tunnel where these facilities are installed.
enhance the lighting in the tunnel, thereby It is not essential that this control centre be at the
reducing the light emission required from the

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

tunnel itself, although this would be desirable. buses and cars. In addition, tunnel operational and
emergency services staff can make use of these
Any signal denoting a fire should be telephones.
automatically sent to a nearby Fire Brigade
Station as well as the tunnel control centre. Monitoring

Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) The design should provide for:

CCTV allows continuous monitoring of the • smoke and fire detectors;

tunnel. The system should allow the operator to

22 zoom in to all sections of the facility. Cameras • carbon monoxide monitors;

should be located to facilitate this operation
• manemometers for air velocity measurement;

Radio Rebroadcast • transmissometers for visibility measurement;

and
A radio rebroadcast where a message from the
Tunnel Control Centre can override all local radio • traffic sensors for ventilation needs.
AM and FM stations is a most effective way of
conveying a clear message for vehicles both All of these units are required in automatic
inside and outside the tunnel (once radios are monitoring systems in tunnels to provide essential
turned on). Instructions to turn the radio on can be data for the management and operation of the
achieved by using P.A. systems or variable signs. tunnel.
The design should allow for these systems.
To stop over height vehicles from entering a
tunnel, there should be a steel height barrier and
P.A. System with Radio Interruption
appropriate surveillance at a suitable distance
Public address systems are not always clear or before the entrance to the tunnel. The devices
readily understood. However, they are much more should be located at a place where the offending
effective once traffic is stationary. A simple vehicle can be removed from the traffic stream
message to turn radios on for more detailed without preventing other traffic entering the
messages would give a good combination of P.A. tunnel.
system and radio.
Structural Design
Help Telephones
Structural considerations include:
Help telephones on the side of tunnels for use in
• Fire rating;
vehicle breakdowns or accidents would be
justified in the longer tunnels but considered • Concrete and other cladding;
desirable rather than essential in shorter tunnels.
Spacing of these phones at 60 - 100m centres • Waterproof membrane;
should be considered.
• Structure design life;
Mobile Telephones Rebroadcast • Pavement design life;
It is possible to make mobile cellular telephones • Pavement wearing surface; and
work in a tunnel and have a message from the
Tunnel Control Centre override other use. • Loading on roof.

It is illegal for drivers to use mobile telephones Fire Rating

without a “hands free” facility in moving vehicles.
However, such telephones are available to drivers The tunnel structure, structural lining and
with hands free facilities and to passengers in communication services should have a fire

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

resistance level of 4 hours. to 40 years. An economic analysis should be

carried out to determine the most cost effective
A fire load of 30 MW (approximately equal to one solution. Issues to consider include:
bus or truck burning) should be adopted for
tunnels less than 300m long where dangerous • Frequency of rehabilitation;
goods are prohibited. For tunnels longer than
300m, or where dangerous goods may be carried, • Cost of disruption to traffic during
a 50 MW fire load should be adopted. rehabilitation operations;

• Capacity to overlay within the vertical

22
Concrete and Other Cladding
clearance provided;
Concrete roofs and other structural components
• Volume and type of traffic (if a heavy duty
may be made thicker than required for structural
pavement is required, a life of 40 years is
design to make them fire resistant. Alternatively,
required).
vermiculite, perlite or proprietary products may
be used for the same result.
Pavement Wearing Surface
As an example, the cost of an extra 100mm
The wearing surface required will depend on:
thickness of concrete cladding on one roof was
judged to be equivalent to 40 mm thick cladding • Life required (see above);
of a proprietary product. Each case would have to
be assessed on its merits. • Aquaplaning potential;

Testing of all materials should be in accordance • Friction resistance required;

with AS 1530.4 “Methods of Fire Tests on
• Noise generation;
Building Materials, Components and Structures -
Fire Resistant Test Elements of Building • Susceptibility to damage by oil droppings and
Construction”. spills.

Waterproof Membranes Surfaces used have varied from concrete to

asphalt, depending on the circumstances.
Waterproof membranes and geotextile drainage
layers may be used on roof slabs in tunnels. Loading on Roof
The waterproof membrane should be seamless Tunnel roofs should obviously be designed for
over the full length of the roof slab extending existing loads such as buildings and earth
down to cover the joint between the roof slab and pressures.
the walls. In addition, for cut and cover sections of
the tunnel, a protective layer over the membrane They should also be designed for any future
is required to prevent rupture in the event of development above the tunnel when constructed,
excavation over the tunnel, and during including roads etc. Particular attention should be
backfilling. paid to these locations so that the tunnel roof is
not weakened during a fire.
In driven tunnels, the full lining is drained by a
geotextile extending to the tunnel invert. Electrical

Structure Design Life Considerations include:

The tunnel design life is usually 100 years. • Dual supply (separate substations);

• UPS (Uninterruptible Power System);

Pavement Design Life
• Manual override; and
Pavement design life required can range from 25

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 Road Planning and Design Manual

• Fire resistance of wiring. A manual override of control systems may be

provided at the portals for use by authorized
Dual Power Supply Emergency Services Authorities.

It is essential that electrical power to tunnels be Fire Resistance of Wiring

uninterrupted for ventilation and other safety
reasons. A fire rating of 2 hours at 2500 C is required for
the design fire load.
Two sources of supply from a power company are
required; each rated to supply the full load of the

22 tunnel electrical system with an automatic transfer

system to enable selection of the available supply.
During operation, both could be running at fifty
References
1. Queensland Transport, Transport
percent capacity, and on the failure of one, the
Infrastructure Planning: Technical Manual,
other would automatically be boosted to one
March, 1993.
hundred percent power output.
2. AUSTROADS, Bridge Design Code, 1992.
UPS (Uninterruptible Power System)
3. Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
In the event that both services of supply from the Department of Transport, Planning and
power company are not available, a UPS Design Considerations for Road Tunnels: The
(Uninterruptable Power System) comprising Influence of Operation and Maintenance,
batteries or backup diesel generators should 1987.
provide power for essential loads for 30 minutes
at least, and 15% illumination level for 120 4. PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels, The
minutes. First Road Tunnel - A Planners Guide for
Countries Without Previous Experience of
Essential loads are: Road Tunnels, 1995.
• communications and monitoring equipment; 5. Kelly, D.L., Tunnel Design - Performance
and Safety Design Issues, Transport
• ventilation;
Technology Forum, Department of Main
• computer and safety facilities; Roads, Queensland, 1999.

• signage; 6. Hee, M., Selection of Bridge Sites and

Openings and Associated Hydraulic
• emergency power outlets; and Calculations, Queensland Local Government
Engineers’ Conference, 1970 (revised 1974).
• 15% of lighting evenly distributed along the
tunnel. 7. Gold Coast City Council and Department of
Main Roads, Queensland, Preliminary
UPS for pumping equipment may be necessary Investigation for Road Tunnel - Surfers
depending on the circumstances and upon the Paradise Esplanade, Stage 1 Report, 1990
design adopted. UPS for smoke removal
ventilation should be in accordance with the 8. PIARC, Report of Technical Committee on
requirements of the Queensland Fire Service. Road Tunnels, XVII World Road Congress,
1983.
The UPS system must include automatic static
transfer switching of essential loads in case of 9. World Health Organisation, Air Quality
system fault, or mains supply failure. Guidelines for Europe, WHO Regional
Publications, European Series 1998, No. 23.
Manual Override

22-34 Initial Release, December 2000

 Road Planning and Design Manual

10. Rechnitzer,G., Fitzgerald, E., Taylor, S., Tunnels, 10th Australian Tunnelling
Thomas, I., Monash University Accident Conference, Melbourne, 1999.
Research Centre, A Review of Policies and
Practices Regarding the Transport of 23. Ove Arup & Partners, Tunnel Design Report
Dangerous Goods Through Tunnels, April, 1: Designing for Water, Nundah Bypass,
1999. Main Roads - TTD, March 1999.

11. Brisbane City Council, Fire Engineering 24. Bustos-Ramirez, A., Miller, D.W.,
Study, Inner City Bypass Project, September Performance Based Design of the Fire Safety
Systems for the New Southern Railway,

22
1999.
Sydney.
12. Ove Arup & Partners, Fire Engineering
Design Brief, South East Transit Project - 25. Connell Wagner, Gunalda Range-Tunnel
Busway Tunnels, December 1998. Evaluation, Queensland Department of
Transport.
13. Proceedings 10th Australian Tunnelling
Conference, The Race for Space, Melbourne, 26. British Standards Institution, BS 6164: 1990,
March 1999. Code of Practice for Safety in Tunnelling.

14. 10th Australian Tunnelling Conference, The 27. Stork-Moore, I., Charters, D., The
Race for Space, Keynote Addresses and Asia- Development of a Fire Safety Strategy for
Pacific Forum, March 1999. Fire Safety in Tunnels, Australian
Underground Construction and Tunnelling
15. PIARC Technical Committee Report No 5, Association.
Road Tunnels, XVIIIth World Road
Congress, Brussels, September 1987. 28. Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff, Memorial
Tunnel Fire Ventilation Test Program Report,
16. Amundsen, F.I.I., Sovik, O.L., Classification Massachusetts Highway Department,
of Tunnels, Existing Guidelines and November 1995.
Experiences, Recommendations, PIARC
Committee on Road Tunnels, 1995. 29. Fire Code Reform Centre Ltd., Fire
Engineering Guidelines, 1996.
17. PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels, Vehicle
Emissions, Air Demand, Environment, 30. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA
Longitudinal Ventilation, 1995. 130 Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit
Systems, 1997, U.S.A.
18. PIARC, Road Tunnels, XIXth World Road
Congress, Marrakech, September 1991. 31. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA
502, Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and
19. PIARC Committee on Road Tunnels, Road Other Limited Access Highways, 1999.
Safety in Road Tunnels, 1995.
32. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA
20. FHWA, Prevention and Control of Highway 16, Standard for the Installation of Foam -
Tunnel Fires, Publication No FHWA-RD-83- Water Sprinklers and Foam - Water Spray
032, April 1999. Systems, 1999.

21. Short, M., Weeks, N., Woodall, R., Porter, S., 33. AS2118.1 - 1999 Automatic Fire Sprinkler
Design of Melbourne City Link Tunnels, 10th Requirements, Part 1 - General Requirements.
Australian Tunnelling Conference,
Melbourne, 1999. 34. AS2118.3 - 1997 Automatic Fire Sprinkler
Requirements, Part 3 - Deluge.
22. Pucher, K., Meinhart, J., Rodler, J.,
Katolicky, I., Pollution Burden Around Road 35. AS2419 - 1994 Fire Hydrant Systems -
Design, Installation and Commissioning.

Initial Release, December 2000 22-35

 Road Planning and Design Manual

36. CIE88 - 1990 Guide for the Lighting of Road

Tunnels and Underpasses, International
Commission on Illumination.

37. CIE 61 - 1984: Tunnel Entrance Lighting: A

survey of Fundamentals for Determining the
Luminance in the Threshold Zone,
international Commission on Illumination.

38. CIE 31 - 1976: Glare and Uniformity in Road

22 Lighting Installations,
Commission on Illumination.
International

39. Queensland Transport and Brisbane City

Council: Busway Planning and Design
Manual (1998).

40. Queensland Department of Main Roads:

Road Traffic Noise Management: Code of
Practice (2000).

22-36 Initial Release, December 2000