Fluid Machinery

Module 4

1
 Centrifugal compressors figure

18-May-17 NISHANT T 2
18-May-17 NISHANT T 3
 Components of Centrifugal compressor

• Centrifugal compressor consist of the following parts

1. Curved radial vanes: A series of curved radial vanes are attached to
the shaft of the compressor. Shaft of the compressor is connected
to a motor. Thus when the shaft rotates, the curved radial vanes
also rotates
2. Impeller : The impeller is a disc fitted with radial curved vanes. The
impeller is also known as rotor of the centrifugal compressor. The
transfer of mechanical energy to air takes place in the impeller The
impeller forged or die casted of low silicon aluminum alloy.
The eye of the impeller is the part where the air is drawn into the
impeller . As the impeller rotates, the working fluid experiences a
centrifugal force. Due to this force, both the velocity and pressure
of the air increases. In the impeller the area of flow gradually
increases to increase the pressure. The air coming from out of
impeller is having an increase in both pressure and velocity
18-May-17 NISHANT T 4
3. Diffuser : Diffuser is the static part (stator) in the centrifugal
compressor. They are housed in a radial portion of the casing. Along
the diffuser the area of flow increases. The air from impeller
directly flows to the diffuser. The air from impeller is having both
kinetic and pressure energy. When this air flows through the
diffuser a major part of the kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy
4. Casing : The casing surrounds the rotating impeller and stationary
diffuser.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 5
18-May-17 NISHANT T 6
 Working of centrifugal compressor

• Air enters the eye of the impeller with a low velocity C1 and
atmosphere pressure P1. The air enters axially through the eye of
the impeller and moves radially through the impeller outlet. During
the movement energy from the impeller is transferred to the air.
This energy transfer increases the velocity and pressure of the air.
Thus the air leaving the impeller has an increases velocity and
pressure. The velocity and pressure at the outlet of the impeller is
denoted by C2 and P2 respectively in the graph below.
• The air leaving the impeller enters the diffuser. The diffuser has a
diverging passage (increase in cross sectional area). In the diffuser
the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy. The increased
pressure is denoted by P3 in the graph below and the decreased
velocity is denoted by C3.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 7
• In practice nearly half of the total pressure is achieved in the
impeller and the rest half is obtained in the diffuser. A pressure
ratio of 5:1 can be achieved with a single stage centrifugal
compressor. For higher pressure ratios (12:1), a multistage
centrifugal air compressor can be used

18-May-17 NISHANT T 8
 Static and Total head values
• The velocities in a centrifugal compressor is very large when
comparing with the reciprocating compressor. Thus when
considering the total head, it should consist of the head due to
velocity also
• Consider a horizontal passage of increasing cross sectional area (like
in the increase in area of an impeller or diffuser). Applying steady
flow eqn on sections 1 and 2 gives

18-May-17 NISHANT T 9
 C12 C22
h1   gZ 1  Q  h 2   gZ 2  W
2 2
if there is no external heat and work transfer, then Q  W  0
C12 C22
h1   gZ 1  h 2   gZ 2
2 2
C12 C22
h1   h2  since Z1 and Z2 
2 2
C2
or h   Constant
2

CpT 
C2
2
 
 Constant ..................1 h can be written as C p T

where T is called static temperature. Static temperature of the air

is measured by with thermometer when the thermometer is moving
with the air veloci ty C 
If the moving air with KE is brought to rest without taking any work
from air, then the total KE is converted into heat energy increasing the
pressure and temperature of the air. This pressure and temperature is
known as stagnation/total head temperature and pressure.The stagnation/
total head pressure and temperature is denoted by suffix '0'
if section 2 is under stagnation condition, then eqn 1 can be modified as,
C2 C0 2
CpT 
18-May-17  C p T0  NISHANT T 10
2 2
 C2
CpT   C p T0 ..................2   velocity is 0 under stagnation 
2
where T0  stagnation temperature
C2 C2
eqn 2   C p T0  C p T  or h 0  h  .............3
2 2

C2 C2
C p T0  T    T0  T  .............4 
2 2C p
For finding the stagnation/total head pressure use the eqn,
 1
 P0  
   ............................................................5
T0
T  P
where, P  Static pressure
T  Static temperature
P0  Stagnation pressure
T0  Stagnation Temperature

18-May-17 NISHANT T 11
 Isentropic efficiency
• In ideal case it is assumed that no losses occur when air flows
through the impeller
• But in actual case losses occur when air flows through the impeller
1. Losses due to friction between the air layers in motion
2. Losses due to friction between the air and impeller surfaces
3. Shock at entry and exit
4. Turbulence/eddies caused by air
• Due to these losses, enthalpy (h=u+PV) of the air increases
without showing an increase in pressure. Which means an increase
in internal energy or an increase in temperature. Thus the actual
temp of the air coming out from the compressor is more than the
temperature of air if it is compressed isentropically
• Thus the actual work required to produce the same pressure ratio
is more due to losses ( since some amount of work given is
converted into Internal Energy)
18-May-17 NISHANT T 12
18-May-17 NISHANT T 13
 • Thus the actual work required will be always more than the work
required if the process was isentropic
• The isentropic efficiency of a centrifugal compressor is defined as
the ratio of the isentropic compression work to the actual
compression work
M athematicaly Isentropic efficiency ,

isen 
isentropic work


C p T2  T1
'
 by considerin g static conditions
actual work C p T2  T1 

isen 
isentropic work


C p T02  T01
'
 by considerin g stagnation conditions
actual work C p T02  T01 

18-May-17 NISHANT T 14
 Derivation for Isentropic efficiency
• Isentropic efficiency can be also given by the ratio of Isentropic
temperature rise to the actual temperature rise
Isentropic temperature rise
Isentropic efficiency 
Actual temperature rise
T02'  T01
isen  , by considerin g the stagnation temperature
T02  T01
T2 '  T1
isen  , by considerin g the static temperature
T2  T1
During compression work is being given to the system.writing steady flow eqn gives,
C12 C22
h1   gZ 1  Q  h 2   gZ 2  W since work is given to the system
2 2
C12 C22
h1   h2  W Only work is given, thus Q  0 and gZ1  gZ 2 
2 2

C p T1 
C12
2
 C p T2 
C22
2
-W h can be written as CpT
18-May-17 NISHANT T 15
 Derivation for Isentropic efficiency
 C2 
C p T01  C p T02  W  C p T   C p T0 
 2 
W  C p T02  C p T01
W  C p T02  T01 . This work done is Actual / Thermodynamic workdone.
Thermodynamic work is the work given to the compressor

The isentropic workdone is given by, W  C p T02'  T01 .
In the above eqn mass is considered to be 1kg

Thus isen  
'

Isentropic workdone C p T02  T01 
Actual workdone C p T02  T01 

18-May-17 NISHANT T 16
 Types of impellers in centrifugal compressor

• According to the direction of the blade angle, the impellers can be

classified as Backward, Radial and Forward impellers.
• If the angle between the impeller blade tip and the tangent to the
impeller is acute (β2 < 90°), then the vanes are backward curved
vanes
• If the angle between the impeller blade tip and the tangent to the
impeller is a right angle (β2 = 90°), then the vanes are radial curved
vanes
• If the angle between the impeller blade tip and the tangent to the
impeller is obtuse (β2 > 90°), then the vanes are forward curved
vanes

18-May-17 NISHANT T 17
 Types of impellers in centrifugal compressor
According to the exit vane shape impellers are classified into three.
Vanes are classified according to the angle between the rotor blade tip and tangent
to the rotor at exit. (1) If β2 < 90° , the vane is backward curved vanes.
(2) If β2 > 90° , the vane is forward curved vanes.
(3) If β2 = 90° , the vane is radially curved vanes.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 18
Velocity triangles for different impellers in centrifugal
compressor
• It is assumed that if there is no guide vanes, then the entry is
radially (α=90°, C1=Cf1 and Cw1=0)

18-May-17 NISHANT T 19
Velocity triangles for different impellers in centrifugal
compressor
• It is assumed that if there is no guide vanes, then the entry is
radially (α=90°, C1=Cf1 and Cw1=0)

18-May-17 NISHANT T 20
 Velocity triangles for Backward curved vane in
centrifugal compressor
In normal practice backward curved vanes are used. Draw any of the figure for backward
Curved vanes, either the figure below or the figure shown in two slides before

18-May-17 NISHANT T 21
 Workdone in centrifugal compressor

• For studying the workdone in a centrifugal compressor, backward

curved vanes (β2 < 90°) is considered
• The following terminologies were changed when the working fluid
changes from liquid to air
– C1 represents V1 (absolute velocity of air at inlet)
– Cr1 represents Vr1 (relative velocity of air at inlet)
– Cbl1 represents u1 (velocity of blade/impeller at inlet)
– Cw1 represents Vw1 (velocity of whirl at inlet)
– Cf1 represents Vf1 (velocity of flow at inlet)
– α1 represents α ( angle at which air enters the impeller)
– β1 represents θ (blade angle at inlet)
– α2 represents β ( angle at which air leaves the impeller/inlet angle to the diffuser)
– β2 represents ϕ (blade angle at outlet)

18-May-17 NISHANT T 22
 Pressure Coefficient vs Flow coefficient for
backward, forward and radial curved vanes

18-May-17 NISHANT T 23
• The figure shows the inlet and outlet velocity triangles for the
impeller. It is assumed the air enters radially (α=90°, C1=Cf1 and
Cw1=0).

18-May-17 NISHANT T 24
 Theoretical / Euler’s Work done by the impeller
The workdone in a centrifuga l compressor is found by.
WD  rate of change of momentum
 mass flow rate  initial velocity - final velocity 

 m  C w2.r2 - C w1.r1  

 m  C w2.r2   - C w1.r1  

 m  C w2.C bl2 - C w1.C bl1 ......................................1
If the air enters radially , then C w1  0

WD  m  C w2.C bl2.........................................................2 

If m  1kg / sec .Then WD  C w2.C bl2..............................3
The above eqn is known as Eulers work.
Eulers work is the work done on fluid by theimpeller

Euler’s work gives the work given to the compressor to compress the air

18-May-17 NISHANT T 25
 Actual/Thermodynamic work and Euler’s work

• Work done can be calculated in two ways. Actual work and Euler’s
work
• Actual / Thermodynamic work is the actually work absorbed by the
air during the compression process.

Actual Work  C p T2  T1 

where C p  1005 J/KgK
T2  Final Temperature at exit
T1  Initial Temperature at inlet
If there are " n" number of stages, then the above eqn is modified as,
Actual Work for all stages  n  C p T2  T1 

18-May-17 NISHANT T 26
Workdone by the impeller in terms of in Euler’s form
Workdone can be also written in Euler' s form.
From the inlet velo city triangle, C r12  C f1 2  C w1  C bl1 2
C r12  C f1 2  C w1  C bl12
C r12  Cf1 2  C w12  C bl12  2  C w1.C bl1
C r12  C12  C bl12  2  C w1.C bl1
C12  C bl12  C r12
C w1.C bl1  ...............................a 
2
similiarly from the outlet velocity triangle,
C r2 2  C 2 2  C bl22  2  C w2.C bl2
C 2 2  C bl22  C r2 2
C w2.C bl2  ...............................b 
2

but if m  1. Then WD  C w2.C bl2 - C w1.C bl1
substituting eqns a  and b  in the above eqn gives,
C 2 2  C bl22  C r2 2 C12  C bl12  C r12
WD  
18-May-17 2 NISHANT T 2 27
 Workdone by the impeller in Euler’s form
C 2 2  C12 C r12  C r2 2 C bl22  C bl12
rearrangin g gives, WD   
 2   2    2  
first term sec ond term third term

The above eqn is known as Euler' s eqn for workdone

The first term shows the increase in KE of 1kg of air in the impeller
that has to be converted to PE in the diffuser
The second term shows the PE rise in the impeller due to increasing
cross sectional area ( as it can be seen that C r1  C r2 )
The third term shows the PE rise in the impeller due to centrifuga l
action (  the working fluid enters at a lower diameter and leaves
at a higher diameter)

18-May-17 NISHANT T 30
 Power required per impeller
The workdone in a centrifuga l compressor is given by,

WD  m  C w2.C bl2 - C w1.C bl1
If the air enters radially , then C w1  0

WD  m  C w2.C bl2

m  C w2.C bl2
WD  KW................................1
1000
for a unit mass, Specific Workdone is given by, WD 
C w2.Cbl2 KW
1000
if the impeller blade shape is radial then,  2  90, C w2  C bl2 and C r2  Cf2
Then WD becomes, WD  C bl22 or C w22

18-May-17 NISHANT T 31
 Factors affecting power
Work done can be also written as WD  mC p T02  T01 

power can be written as WD/sec  m C p T02  T01 
  
power  C p T02  T01   when m  1kg / sec 
 
T 
 C p T01 02  1
 T01 
  1 
 P   
 T2  02  
 C p T01  2  1  1
P
 
  P01   
 1
T  
 
  P1  
  1  1 
T P    P   
2  02 
 C p T01    1 
   P   1
 1  2 
T P  01  
 
18-May-17 NISHANT T 32
   1  1 
T P    P   
 C p T01 2   02    1   1
 T1  P01   P2  
 
  1 
T P   T 
2  02 
 C p T01     T  1
1
 1  01 
T P 2 
 
  1 
 P   
 C p T01  02   1
  01 
P 
 
  1   where  p 0 is the pressure ratio
 
Power  C p T01  p 0   1  
   based on stagnation pressures 
  1 
 
similarly for static head , Power  C p T1   p   1 ..................1
 
From eqn 1 it can be seen that the power input to the compressor
depends on the following factors
1 M ass flow of air through compressor In eqn 1 mass flow rate is assumed 1kg/sec 
2  Temperature at the inlet of the compressor
18-May-17  
3 Pressure ratio  p of the compressor NISHANT T 33
 Width of blades of impeller and diffuser


let , m  M ass of air flowing per sec
b1  Width height  of the impeller at inlet
Cf1  Velocity of flow at inlet of impeller
1  density of air at inlet
r1  radius of the impeller at inlet

m  1  2r1b1  Cf 1


...........................................1
m
 b1 
1  2r1  C f 1
if inlet air is entering radially , then 1  90 and C1  C f 1

m
then b1 
1  2r1  C1
similarly from eqn 1 the width of the impeller blade at outlet is given by,


............................................2 
m
b2 
 2  2r2  Cf 2

18-May-17 NISHANT T 34
 Width of blades of impeller and diffuser
The width of the impeller at oulet  width of the diffuser at inlet

m
 b 2  bi 
 2  2r2  Cf 2
similarly the width of the diffuser blade at outlet is given by,

m
bi 
d  2r2  Cfd

18-May-17 NISHANT T 35
 Characteristics of backward vaned
centrifugal compressor

18-May-17 NISHANT T 36
 Roots blower compressor

18-May-17 NISHANT T 37
 Roots blower compressor
construction
• Roots blower compressor consist of two rotors with lobes.
• An air tight casing contains these rotating lobes.
• The shape of the lobes is epicycloid or hypocycloid or involute.
• There is an inlet and outlet port.
• A receiver is connected to the outlet port. Receiver is a storage tank
which stores the compressed air from the compressor.
Working
• Air from atmosphere enters the compressor through inlet port
• At first when lobes rotates, this air is trapped between the left hand
lobe and the casing. This trapped air is delivered to the receiver as
the lobe further rotates. Thus more and more air flows into the
receiver which increases the pressure
• The same process continues with the right hand lobe and the
process continues
18-May-17 NISHANT T 38
 Roots blower compressor
Back flow of air
• When the rotating lobe uncovers the exit port, the high pressure air
from the receiver flows back into the casing. This flow of air reduces
the pressure inside the receiver
• This high pressure air which enters the casing mixed up with the
fresh air trapped inside the casing
• This mixing of air increases the pressure of air trapped inside the
casing at constant volume
• Finally the high pressure mixed air from the compressor flows to
the receiver
• The back flow process continues till the mixture of air inside the
casing and the air inside the receiver attains equal pressure
• This process happens 4 times per revolution of the driving shaft

18-May-17 NISHANT T 39
Workdone in Root blower

WD per revolution  4  P2 - P1Vs


Power  WD / sec  4  P2 - P1 Vs

18-May-17 NISHANT T 40
 Vane Compressor
Diagram

18-May-17 NISHANT T 41
Construction
• Vane compressor consist of a disc which rotates eccentrically in an
air tight casing
• The disc contains many number of vanes
• It has inlet and outlet port
• A receiver is fitted to the outlet port
Working
• When the rotor rotates, the air is trapped in the pockets formed
between the vane and casing
• The compression occurs due to decreasing volume in the pockets
formed and also due to backflow of air
• At first the rotary motion of vanes compresses the air in the
pockets. Next when the rotating vane covers the exit port, the high
pressure air from the receiver back flows into the pocket. This back
flow again increases the pressure of trapped air

18-May-17 NISHANT T 42
 Vane Compressor
Graph

18-May-17 NISHANT T 43
 Vane Compressor
Work done per revolution of Vanes
  
  Pi   -1 
WD / rev  N  P1Vs    1  N  P2  Pi Vi
 -1  P1   
 
 WD by back pressure

WD by rotatingvanes

where, N  the number of vanes

  isentropic compression index
P1  the inlet pressure to the compressor
Pi  the intermedia te pressure. this pressure is formed due to
action of rotating vane which compresses air in the pockets
P2  Pi   pressure rise purely due to backflow of air
18-May-17 NISHANT T 44
 Screw Compressor

18-May-17 NISHANT T 45
 Screw Compressor

Construction
• Screw compressor consist of two hellically grooved meshing rotors
(lobes) with very close clearance with a housing/casing
• Suction and discharge ports are at either end of the shafts
• The male rotor is connected to the driver shaft. The female rotor is
driven by the male rotor
• The male rotor has lobes, while the female rotor has flutes or
gullies
• Usually the male rotor has five lobes along its length with meshes
with six helical gullies of female rotor

18-May-17 NISHANT T 46
 Screw Compressor
Working
• When the two rotors rotates, air is drawn through the suction part
to fill the space between the male lobe and female gullies
• As rotors continue to rotate, the air is moved past the suction port
and sealed in the space between the lobes
• This trapped air then moves axially and radially and is compressed
by the enmeshing action of lobes
• The enmeshing of lobes progressively reduces the space occupied
by the air, thus increasing the pressure
• Simultaneously oil is injected into the system. The oil fills the
internal clearances thus stop the chance for air get trapped
between the lobes. The oil also absorbs the heat generated during
the process
• The compression process continues till the compressed air leaves
the casing through the discharge port.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 47
 Slip

• Under ideal condition it is assumed that fluid flows smoothly

through the impeller. But in actual condition where a specific
number of blades are present, the air gets trapped between the
blade impeller passages due to inertia effect
• Due to this inertia effect, the fluid gets deviated from its ideal path
and this deviation is known as slip
• Due to slip effect the blade angle at exit decreases (β2) . Decrease
in β2 deviates the velocity triangle from actual one. This is shown in
the figure. The actual velocity triangle is shown doted.
• In actual velocity triangle the length of Cw2’ decreases as that of
Cw2 in theoretical triangle.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 48
 Slip

If the air enters radially , then C w1  0


WD  m  C w2.C bl2

 C w2.C bl2
WD

m
WD

is the energy transfered to the fluid
m
since C w2'  C w2  Wact  Wth . Energy transfered to the fluid in the presence of
slip will be lesser than theoertical. Thus slip need to be avoided inorder to get
maximum energy transfer.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 49
 Slip factor

• Slip factor is defined as the ratio between the actual whirl velocity
and the ideal / theoretical whirl velocity.
C w 2'
S 
Cw 2
if the impeller blade shape is radial at outlet then,  2  90, C w2  C bl2
C w 2'
Then S 
C bl2

18-May-17 NISHANT T 50
 Work Factor
Work factor or power input factor is the ratio
between actual work to theoretical work.
C p T02 - T01 
w 
C w 2C bl2
The actual work given to the compressor have to be greater than the theoretical
value due to friction between the casing and the air. Inorder to taken this into
account  w is introduced.
Actual work   w  Theoretical work

18-May-17 NISHANT T 51
 Pressure Coefficient
 
Pressure coefficien t p is defined as the ratio of isentropic
work to Euler' s work
CpT02'T01
p 
Cw 2Cbl2

18-May-17 NISHANT T 52
 Axial flow compressor
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
• An axial flow compressor consist of adjacent rows of rotor (moving)
blades and stator (fixed) blades. The rotor blades are fixed on the
rotating drum and stator blades are fixed on the stationary casing. A
stage of the compressor consist of a rotor and a stator.
• The blades of the compressor are designed in aerofoil shape to
prevent the (1) stalling trouble (2) shock at entry and exit (3) and
the losses due to turbulence
• In an axial flow compressor the flow velocity is kept constant
(Vf=constant)in the entire length of the compressor. To achieve this
the annular area is reduced from inlet to outlet of the compressor
• The fixed blade serves two functions
– To convert a part of KE of the air into pressure energy
– Guide and redirect the fluid flow so that the entry to next stage is without
shock
18-May-17 NISHANT T 53
 Axial flow compressor
Figure

18-May-17 NISHANT T 54
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
• In axial flow compressor, air is flowing parallel to the axis of the
compressor
• It consist of stator (fixed blades) and rotors (rotating blades) in
alternate rows
• The rotors are fixed to the rotating drum and stators are fixed in the
casing
• One stage of the compressor means one row of rotor blades and
one row of stator blades
• Both rotor blades are stator blades forms a diffuser passage, thus
increasing the air pressure at the expense of velocity
• After air gets pressure rise in one stage, it will be allowed to pass
through the next stages and the process is continued thus
increasing the pressure
• The annular area is reduced from inlet to outlet of the compressor
to keep the flow velocity constant (Cf1=cf2=Cf= a constant)

18-May-17 NISHANT T 55
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING
• Power from the driver shaft is transferred to the moving blades
through a rotating drum.
• A compressor stage consist of a rotor followed by a stator
• In the inlet of the axial flow compressor a set of inlet guide vanes
were made which direct air into the rotor blades with proper angle
of attack [enters the rotor blade without shock]
• The first row of moving blades imparts kinetic energy and pressure
energy. The pressure energy increase because of the increase in
flow area i.e A2 > A1
• In the first row of stator blades the absolute velocity is utilized to
increase the static pressure [ diffuser action]
– Axial/Flow velocity, Cf1=Cf2=Cf= a constant
– Blade velocity, Cb1=Cb2=Cb = a constant
– Absolute velocity, C1=C3
– α1 = α3
18-May-17 NISHANT T 56
 Stage velocity triangles

• The stage velocity triangles for an axial flow compressor are shown
in the figure
• The inlet guide vanes, guide the air to the rotor blade with proper
angle of attack
• Air enters with an absolute velocity C1 and angle α1 into the rotor
blade
• In axial air compressors following are the assumptions
– Axial/Flow velocity, Cf1=Cf2=Cf= a constant
– Blade velocity, Cbl1=Cbl2=Cbl = a constant
– Absolute velocity, C1=C3
– α1 = α3

18-May-17 NISHANT T 57
18-May-17 NISHANT T 58
 From inlet velo city triangle of the rotor,

tan1  w1 ,  C w1  C f1  tan1 .......................................a 

C
Cf1

tan1 
C bl1 - C w1
C f1
C bl1 - C w1  Cf1  tan1
 C w1  C bl1  Cf1  tan1 .................................b 
Similarly from outlet velocity triangle of the rotor,

tan 2  w2 ,  C w2  Cf2  tan 2 ........................................c 

C
C f2

tan 2 
C bl2 - C w2 
Cf2
C bl2 - C w2   Cf2  tan2
 C w2  C bl2  C f2  tan 2 ....................................d 
a   d   b   c 
Cf1  tan1  C bl2  C f2  tan 2  C bl1  Cf1  tan1  Cf2  tan 2
 Cf1  Cf2  C f 
Cf tan1  tan 2   C f tan 2  tan1  C  C  C 
 bl1 bl2 bl 
tan1
18-May-17  tan1  tan 2  tan 2 ....................T ...........1
NISHANT 59
 Space for rough work

18-May-17 NISHANT T 61
 Theoretical/Eulers workdone in axial flow
compressor
The general form of Euler' s work done for turbine is given by,

WD/sec  mVw1U1  Vw 2 U 2 
For compressor the eqn becomes,

WD/sec  mVw 2 U 2  Vw1U1 
here,  is acute, means for compressor put - ve sign
U1  C b1l , U 2  C bl2 and C bl1  C bl 2  C bl
Vw1  C w1 and Vw 2  C w 2

 WD/sec  mC w 2  C w1  C bl

for unit mass, WD/sec  C w 2  C w1  C bl

This WD equals to the actual work input given to the compressor

18-May-17 NISHANT T 62
 Degree of Reaction
Degree of reaction R d  is defined as the ratio of pressure rise in the
rotor blades to the pressure rise in a compressor stage
Pressure rise in the rotor blades
Rd 
Pressure rise in a compressor stage
C r1  C r2
2 2
Pressure rise in the rotor blades is due to centrifuga l effect, 
2
Pressure rise in a compressor stage equals work input per stage,  C w 2  C w1  C bl
C r1  C r2
2 2
Rd  .....................................................1
2  C w 2  C w1  C bl
from outlet and inlet velo city triangles,
C w 2  C bl2  C f 2 tan  2 .....................a 
C w1  C bl1  C f 1 tan 1 .......................b 
a   b   C w 2  C w1  Cf tan 1  tan 2  ..............................c 
18-May-17 NISHANT T 64
 Degree of Reaction
also from inlet and outlet velocity triangles,
C r12  Cf 12  C f 1 tan 1 2 ....................d 
C r 2 2  C f 2 2  Cf 2 tan  2 2 ..................e 
d   e   C r12  C r 2 2  Cf 2 tan 12  tan 2 2  ..........................f 
sub values of c  and f  in 1 gives,

Rd 

Cf 2 tan 12  tan  2 2 
2  Cf tan 1  tan  2  C bl

 tan 1  tan  2 
1 Cf
Rd  
2 C bl
The value of R d is usually taken as 0.5

 tan 1  tan  2 
Cf
 0.5  0.5 
C bl

 tan 1  tan  2  .......................................g 

C bl
18-May-17C f NISHANT T 65
18-May-17 NISHANT T 66
 Degree of Reaction
but from inlet velo city triangle,
C  C bl  C w1
tan 1  tan 1  w1
Cf

.........................................h 
C bl
tan 1  tan 1 
Cf
similarly from outlet velocity triangle,
C w 2  C bl  C w 2
tan  2  tan  2 
Cf

...........................................i 
C bl
tan  2  tan  2 
Cf
compairing eqns g , h  and i  gives,
C bl
 tan 1  tan  2  tan 1  tan 1  tan  2  tan  2
Cf
 1   2 and  2  1
Thus for degree of reaction of 0.5 , the compressors have symmetrical blades and
with this typeof blade angles, losses in flow paths are generally reduced.
18-May-17 NISHANT T 67
 Performance characteristics of Axial
compressors
• The performance characteristics of axial flow compressors at
various speeds can be represented by using the following plots
a  Pressure ratio, power, efficiency vs flow rate
out of the three plots , Pressure ratio vs flow rate is important
P2 
vs m
P1
b  Pressure ratio vs Non dimensiona l flow rate
 
P2  m T01 
vs f  
P1 P
 01 
 

18-May-17 NISHANT T 68
 Pressure ratio, Power, Efficiency vs Flow rate
• For a particular speed, efficiency increases with increase in flow
rate and reaches a maximum value. After that efficiency decreases
with increase in flow rate
• Power consumption increases with the increase in flow rate

18-May-17 NISHANT T 69
 Pressure ratio vs Non dimensional flow rate

18-May-17 NISHANT T 70
Ideal and actual performance curves for an axial
air compressor
• The actual performance curve is always below the ideal curve due
to various losses

18-May-17 NISHANT T 71
 Losses in compressors

• Losses in compressor means pressure loss inside the compressor.

This may arise due to three ways.
1. Profile losses on the surface of blades
2. Skin friction on the annulus walls
3. Secondary losses

1. Profile losses on the surface of blades

– This loss is due to the friction between air and the surface of blades
– This loss may also arise due to the mixing of air after the blades
– These losses are determined experimentally
2. Skin friction on the annulus walls

18-May-17 NISHANT T 72
 Losses in compressors
1. Profile losses on the surface of blades
– This loss is due to the friction between air and the surface of blades
– This loss may also arise due to the mixing of air after the blades
– These losses are determined experimentally
2. Skin friction on the annulus walls
– This loss is due to the friction between air and the annulus walls of the
compressor
– These losses are determined using empirical relations by Howell and Haller
3. Secondary flow losses/Incidence losses
– These losses are due to the combined effects of curvature of blade and
boundary layer formation
– Secondary losses are produced when there is a bend, when a sheared flow
passes over a compressor blade or boundary layer meets an obstacle
– Secondary losses also occurs when boundary layers are growing on the
casing and hub walls of the compressor , and these get deflected by rotor
and stator blades

18-May-17 NISHANT T 73
 Surging

• Surge is the occurrence of backflow of air in a compressor

• Surge occurs when the compressor has to operate at less mass flow
rate than the predetermined value [designed value]
• When the flow in the compressor is reduced than this
predetermined value, surging can occur, which may resulted in the
mechanical failure of the compressor
• Severe surge can bend the rotor shaft

18-May-17 NISHANT T 74
 Surging
• Point L in the graph is known as surge point. On the section LP of
the curve the flow is stable.
• On the section OL of the curve, the flow is unstable. a fall in the
mass flow rate will result in the reversal of flow, thus resulting fall in
pressure ratio.
• Thus on sections left to surge point L, reversal of flow takes place
and surging phenomenon happens.
• Thus reversal of flow happens for a short period only. After that the
flow becomes normal. But these oscillations of flow [reversal] is
noisy and cause structural damage in the compressor. Thus surging
needs to be avoided
• It can be seen that at the surge point L, the pressure ratio of the
compressor is maximum. Thus the operating point of the
compressor is always near to the surge point. The operating point is
shown as M.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 75
 Surging

18-May-17 NISHANT T 76
 Surging

• Surging can be avoided by the following ways,

1. By installing a spill back valve
2. By operating the compressor in the operating point.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 77
 Chocking

• Chocking occurs at point P under which the mass flow rate is too
large and there is a sudden decrease in pressure ratio
• During the choking condition, the pressure ratio becomes unity
[that is there is no compression]
• At point P, the speed of the air reaches sonic and the compressor
performance decreases abruptly
• After chocking point the curve become vertical in nature. This
shows that the pressure ratio reduces to unity after chocking point

18-May-17 NISHANT T 78
 Chocking

18-May-17 NISHANT T 79
 Stalling

• Stalling is the separation of flow from the blade surface

• A partial blockage or uneven flow of air in the blade passages due
to change of angle of incidence of air is known as stalling
• Stalling may occur due to lesser flow rate than the desired value or
due to non uniformity in the blade profile.

18-May-17 NISHANT T 80