Lesson 1.

2 The Formation of
Heavier Elements during Star
Formation and Evolution
WARLITO ZAMORA CANOY·SATURDAY, NOVEMBER 4, 2017·

Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements

Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give evidence for and
describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and evolution.

In the previous lesson, you have learned how the light elements – hydrogen, helium,
lithium, and beryllium, were formed during the big bang nucleosynthesis.

How were elements heavier than beryllium formed?

Learn about it!

Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar
nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars. The
abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.

Evolution of Stars

The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense
regions of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a
stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and
its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear
reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure
and stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is
reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence star.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton
chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the
pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is
converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.

Learn about it!

When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate of
fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than
twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s
fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into space. The
only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.

However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such that
temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes
through a series of stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in the shells
around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen
fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from
silicon fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.

Learn about it!

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter
than iron can be fused because when two of these elements combine, they produce a
nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as
energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases energy. However, this
does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei
requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be
produced in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron are produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity
squeezes the core until the star explodes and releases a large amount of energy. The star
explosion is called a supernova.

Pieces of Evidence

The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the 20th
century provided a crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory. Other
pieces of evidence come from the study of different stages of formation happening in
different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer picture.

Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star
formation. For instance, astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and compare
it to the IR from a nearby area with zero extinction. Extinction in astronomy means the
absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust particles
between an emitting astronomical object and an observer. The IR measurements are then
used to approximate the energy, temperature, and pressure in the protostar.

Try it!
 Research about the nuclear binding energy and then, explain why the nuclear fusion
reactions in massive stars stop in iron through the concept of binding energy.

What do you think?

How are elements heavier than iron formed?

Key Points

 Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars.

 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the
dense regions of a molecular cloud.

 A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed molecular

cloud contract.

 A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is reached during

the hydrogen fusion in a protostar.

 A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and switched
into the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the core.

 A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen,
neon, magnesium, silicon, and iron are formed in its core together with carbon,
helium, and hydrogen.

 A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.

 Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different
stages of star evolution.
 Lesson 1.2 Test Question

1. Which of the following describes stellar nucleosynthesis?

 A. It is the formation of elements during a supernova explosion.

 B. It is the process by which elements are produced in gas clouds.

 C. It is the formation of light elements such as hydrogen and helium.

 D. It is the process by which elements are formed within stars.

2. Which of the following is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed
molecular cloud contract?

 A. protostar

 B. supernova

 C. red giant

 D. main sequence star

3. Which of the following is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and
switched into the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the core?

 A. protostar

 B. supernova

 C. red giant

 D. main sequence star

4. The formation of a star starts with the dense regions of molecular clouds.

· What force pulls matter together to form these regions?

 A. magnetic force

 B. nuclear force
 C. electromagnetic force

 D. gravitational force

5. What happens when most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium in the stellar
core?

 A. Hydrogen fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases.

 B. Hydrogen fusion continues, and the pressure in the core increases.

 C. Gravity squeezes the star until helium and hydrogen burning occur.

 D. Nuclear energy increases until carbon and helium burning occur.

6. Arrange the following stages of stellar evolution of a low-mass star.

 A. Protostar> main sequence star> red giant> white dwarf

 B. Protostar> main sequence star> white dwarf >red giant>

 C. Main sequence star> protostar> red giant> white dwarf

 D. Main sequence star> red giant> white dwarf> protostar

7. Which of the following is the major factor predicting the fate of a star?

 A. strength of gravitational force

 B. mass of the star

 C. amount of iron produced

 D. temperature of the star

8. Which of the following elements are not formed during stellar evolution?

 A. carbon

 B. oxygen

 C. gold
 D. cadmium

9. When does a massive star enter the stage of becoming a supernova?

 A. when the star has used up all its hydrogen fuel

 B. when the chromium fusion stops

 C. when the silicon fusion stops

 D. when the star has burned all its oxygen

10. Which of the following are true about the formation of elements lighter than iron in
the core of the stars?

 I. When the elements combine, they release energy which can fuel the nuclear
fusion reactions in the star.

 II. When the elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than
the sum of their masses.

 III. When there is an input of energy from nuclear fission reactions in the star,
the elements are formed.

 IV. When the elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass greater than
the sum of their masses.

 A. I only

 B. II only

 C. I and II

 D. III and IV