GE 108: ETHICS

Chapter 2.1: Types of Moral Dilemmas

1. Epistemic and ontological dilemmas
Epistemic moral dilemma – there are two or more moral requirements that conflict with
each other. The moral agent hardly knows which one takes precedence over the other.
One option must be better than the other; only, it needs fuller knowledge of the situation.

Ontological moral dilemma – there are two or more moral requirements that conflict
with each other, yet neither of these conflicting moral requirements override each other;
Neither of the moral requirements is stronger than the other; hence, the moral agent can
hardly choose between the conflicting moral requirements

2. Self-imposed and world-imposed dilemmas

Self-imposed moral dilemma – caused by the moral agent’s wrongdoings
World-imposed moral dilemma – certain events in the world place the moral agent in a
situation of moral conflict
3. Obligation dilemmas and prohibition dilemmas
Obligation moral dilemma – more than one feasible action is obligatory
Prohibition moral dilemma – ALL feasible actions are forbidden
4. Single-agent and multi-person dilemmas
Single-agent moral dilemma – The agent “ought, all things considered, to do A, ought,
all things considered, to do B, and she cannot do both A and B”.
Multi-person moral dilemma – one agent, P1, ought to do A, a second agent, P2,ought
to do B, and though each agent can do what he ought to do, it is not possible both for P1
to do A and P2 to do B.” It requires more than choosing what is right; it also entails that
the persons involved reached a general consensus

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS

1. Systemic (macro-level) – ethical standards are universal or general; ethical standards
apply to all who are within the system (Example: R.A. 6713 “Code of Conduct and
Ethical Standards for Public Officials and Employees”)
2. Organizational (company level) – at a company or corporate level, ethical
standards are embedded in the policies and procedures of the organization; ethical
standards apply to all those within the organization (Example: “Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers”)
3. Individual (individual level) – ethical standards of individuals; individuals may well
have a very different set of ethical standards from their employer (organization) and this
can lead to tensions (Example: Teacher Peter’s personal ethical standards)

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM-RESPONSIBILITY FOR ONE’S

ACT AND TO OTHERS
 Humans, as moral beings, are free to act or not to act. Their will equip them with
the power to determine their actions. It is in this light that humans differ from
other creatures and beings.
 Freedom – power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance
or restraint; not absolute, it has limits, so we have to be responsible in
exercising our freedom; it is the dependence of the “will” on the “self” or
“I” for the same to act or not to act.
 If there will be no limitations to our freedom, there will be chaos, anarchy, and
even war.
  Will – (expression of) desire, willingness
Moral Dimension of Freedom
1. The moral dimension belongs to the realm of human freedom
2. The moral dimension refers to the concern for a good and happy life
3. The moral dimension speaks to our sense of moral responsibility
Why only human beings can be ethical?
Only human beings can determine their actions because of their freedom which is
absent to other beings. Self-determination is coupled with responsibility, hence,
morality is born. Without self-determination or freedom, no responsibility and
there will be no ethics or morality to talk about.
MINIMUM REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY
Is reason a requirement for morality?
Reason – the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a process of logic.
Immanuel Kant asserted that reason alone is the basis for morality. Once the person
understood this basic requirement for morality, he or she would see that acting morally is the
same as acting rationally.
A moral decision is about thinking of possible actions to take and choosing what action to take.
It is not controlled by desires, forcing people to act in a particular manner.
Is impartiality a requirement for morality?
Impartiality denotes that decisions should be “based on objective criteria rather on the basis
of bias, prejudice, or preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons”
–Jollimore, 2011
It stresses everyone ought to be given equal importance and not favor one class in a capricious
way thus forfeit question a reason and impartiality a requirement for morality
Morality at the very least is the effort to guide one’s action based on the most logical choice
(reason) while giving equal importance to the interests of each person affected by your decisions
(impartiality)

The 7-step Model for Ethical Decision-Making

1. Gather the facts – gather as many facts as you can; clarify what assumptions you are making
2. Identify the stakeholders – identify all of the persons involved and will be affected in an
ethical situation
3. Articulate the Dilemma – the purpose of articulating a dilemma is to make sure that you
understand the situation and the moral conflict you are facing
4. List the Alternatives – think creatively about potential actions to ensure you are not pushed
into a corner
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles – identifying the values and comparing your
action help identify illegal or unethical actions
6. Weigh the Consequences – filter your choices to avoid options that will violate ethical
values
7. Make a Decision – avoid “paralysis by analysis”. Your decision must reflect the values you
want to uphold