Series and parallel combinations

One of the simplest and most useful things we can do in a circuit is to

reduce the complexity by combining similar elements that have series or
parallel connections. Resistors, voltage sources, and current sources can
all be combined and replaced with equivalents in the right
circumstances.
We start with resistors. In many situations, we can reduce complex
resistor networks down to a few, or even a single, equivalent resistance.
As always, the exact approach depends on what we want to know about
the circuit, but resistor reduction is a tool that we will use over and over.
To set the stage, consider the
R1 R3
circuit at right. We might like to iS
determine the power from the 1 kΩ 470 Ω
source, which requires knowing V + R2 R4 1 kΩ
the current. Of course, we don’t
S –
2.2 kΩ R5
know the source current
initially — we must nd it by 330 Ω
nding the current owing in
the resistors.
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 In the circuit, iS = iR1, so our goal + vR1 – + vR3 –
iS
is to nd that. Set to work with iR1
Kirchoff’s Laws. Since we don’t + iR3 +
+
know anything at the outset, we VS iR2 vR2 iR4 vR4
–
will have to come up with enough – –
equations to have a simultaneous – vR5 +
set that can be solved.
iR5
KCL: iR1 = iR2 + iR3 ; iR3 = iR4 = iR5.
KVL: VS – vR1 – vR2 = 0 ; vR2 – vR3 – vR4 – vR5 = 0.
Using Ohm’s Law to write voltages in terms of currents and then ddling
around to reduce the equations to a manageable set, we arrive at three
equations relating, iR1, iR2, and iR3. (We are skipping all the details here
— there will be plenty of time for developing simultaneous equations
later.)
iR1 = iR2 + iR3
VS – iR1R1– iR2R2 = 0
iR2R2 – iR1(R3 + R4 + R5) = 0.

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 Three equations, three unknowns.
iR1 = iR2 + iR3
VS – iR1R1– iR2R2 = 0
iR2R2 – iR1(R3 + R4 + R5) = 0.
Soon enough, we will be adept at handling problems like this. For now,
we will put our trust in Wolfram-Alpha (or something similar), and let it
grind out the answers.
iR1 = 5.02 mA.
iR2 = 2.26 mA.
iR3 = 2.76 mA.
Finally, iR1 = iS and the power being delivered by the source is
PS = VS·iS = (10 V)(5.02 mA) = 50.2 mW.
However, this business of nding three equations in three unknowns
and solving all that seems a lot of work to determine one number in a
relatively simple circuit. Is there a simpler way? Of course, the answer is
“yes”.

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 Equivalent Resistance
The original circuit was a single R1 R3
source with a network of resistors iS
attached. The resistor currents are
related to the source current by KCL. VS + R2 R4
–
The resistor voltages are related to the R5
source voltage by KVL. The resistor
currents are related to the resistor
voltages by Ohm’s Law. iS
Then it seems reasonable that the
source voltage and source current +
VS Req
should be related by Ohm’s Law, –
meaning that there must be some
equivalent resistance that represents
the cumulative effect of resistors in
the network:
VS
Req =
iS

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 Equivalent Resistance
The question is how to nd the equivalent resistance of the network.
The general approach would be to apply a “test generator” to the
network. A test generator is a voltage or current source with a value that
we can choose. For example, if we apply a test voltage source with
value Vt, as shown below, then we can calculate the current, it, that
ows into the network due to the applied source.
R1 R3
it
The equivalent resistance
Vt +
Vt R2 R4
would then be Req = . –
it R 5

In lab we could something similar by building the circuit, applying a

test voltage, and measuring the result current. In lab, this process goes
by a different name — it’s called “using an ohmmeter”.

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 Of course, we have already done R1 R3
this. The earlier calculation is it
identical to this test generator idea
+
if we set Vt = 10 V. In the Vt R2 R4
–
calculation, we found the current to R5
be 5.02 mA. Then the equivalent
resistance is
Req = 10 V /  5.02 mA = 1.99 kΩ.

However, this seems a bit pointless, because nding equivalent resistance

using a test generator was as much work as nding the source current directly.
In fact, it took one extra step to nd the equivalent resistance.
But fear not. We can start with simple relationships for the equivalent
resistance of series and parallel combinations. Then we can use series and
parallel combinations to break down complex resistor networks and analyze
them in a piecemeal fashion. We will see that the equivalent resistance idea is
simple to implement in most cases and can be a powerful method for
analyzing circuits. We will use it repeatedly as move through EE 201 and 230.

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 Series combination
Resistors are in series, meaning that the same current ows in all.
R1 + vR1 –
it
Apply test voltage. iR1 +
Req R2 +
De ne voltages Vt
–
iR2 vR2
and currents. iR3 –
R3

– vR3 +
By KCL: iR1 = iR2 = iR3 = it Expected, since they are in series.

By KVL: Vt – vR1 – vR2 – vR3 = 0.

Use Ohm’s law to write voltages in terms of currents.

Vt − iR1R1 − iR2 R2 − iR3R3 = 0

Vt − it R1 − it R2 − it R3 = it (R1 + R2 + R3) = 0
Vt
Req = = R1 + R2 + R3
it
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 7
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 Series combination
The equivalent resistance of resistors in series is simply the sum of the
individual resistance.

∑
Req = Rm
m=1

The calculation is easy.

The equivalent resistance is always bigger than any of the individual
resistors, Req > Rm.
In fact, if one resistor is much much bigger than the rest, the equivalent
resistance will be approximately equal to the one big resistor. For
example, in the three-resistor string on the previous page, if R1 = 10 kΩ,
R2 = 100 Ω, and R3 = 1 Ω, then Req = 10.101 kΩ ≈ 10 kΩ.
This is why we can ignore the resistance of wires in most cases.
Consider a 1-kΩ resistor with its two leads. If the resistor body has
RB = 1 kΩ and the wires are each Rw ≈ 0.01 Ω, the series equivalent
resistance of the whole is resistor is then 1.00002 kΩ. In almost all
practical cases, the wire resistance is negligible.
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 Parallel combination
Resistors in parallel –– they all have the same voltage across.
it
+ + +
Req R1 R2 R3 +
Vt iR1 vR1 iR2 vR2 iR3 vR3
–
– – –

Apply the test voltage.

De ne voltages and currents.
By KVL: vt = vR1 = vR2 = vR3. Expected, since they are all in parallel

By KCL: it = iR1 + iR2 + iR3. Use Ohm’s law to write iR in terms of vR.
vR1 vR2 vR3
it = + +
R1 R2 R3

( R1 R2 R3 )
vt vt vt 1 1 1
it = + + = vt + +
R1 R2 R3

1 it 1 1 1
= = + +
Req vt R1 R2 R3
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 Parallel combination
The inverse of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the
inverses of all the resistance in the parallel combination.

N
1 1
∑ Rm
=
Req m=1

The equivalent resistance will always be smaller than the resistance of

any individual branch: Req < Rm for all m.
If one resistor is much smaller than all other resistors in the parallel
combination, (so that its inverse is much bigger), then the equivalent
resistance will be approximately equal to that of the smallest resistor.
For example, if the three parallel resistors from the previous page had
values of R1 = 10 kΩ (1/R1 = 10–4 Ω–1), R2 = 100 Ω (1/R2 = 10–2 Ω–1), and
R3 = 1 Ω (1/R3 = 1 Ω–1), then Req = 0.99 Ω ≈ 1 Ω (1/Req = 1.0101 Ω–1).
In fact, if we place a wire (Rw ≈ 0) in parallel with other resistors, the
equivalent resistance approximately zero — the wire has shorted out
everything else.
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 Since the calculation for parallel resistors, with the need for inverses, can
be a bit messy, there are some short-cuts that can used for special cases.
If there are only two resistors in parallel:
1 1 1 R2 R1 R1 + R2
= + = + =
Req R1 R2 R1R2 R1R2 R1R2
R1R2
Req = (Product over sum, which might be easier to compute.)
R1 + R2
Two identical resistors, R1 = R2 = R:
R2 R
Req = = (e.g. Two 1-kΩ resistors in parallel gives 0.5 kΩ.)
R+R 2
N identical resistors in parallel (extending the idea):
1 R
Req = 1 1 = .
+ +…+ 1 N
R R R
If one resistor is much smaller than the rest (R1 << Rm) (to re-emphasize)
1
Req = 1 1 1
≈ R1 If R1 = 0 (short circuit), then Req = 0.
R1
+ R2
+…+ RN

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 Breaking down networks using series and parallel

But not all circuits are simple R1 R3
combinations of series or parallel
1 kΩ 470 Ω
resistors. The initial example circuit
Req R2 R4 1 kΩ
clearly has some things that are in
series and some elements that have 2.2 kΩ R5
a parallel-type connection.
330 Ω
The trick is to break the circuit into smaller pieces that are purely series
or parallel, nd the equivalent of that piece and insert that back into the
original circuit, which will now be simpler. Then nd another series or
parallel combination that can be simpli ed. Through a sequence of
steps, it may be possible to reduce even complex combinations to a
single equivalent resistance. R 3

For the circuit above, we can start by 470 Ω

recognizing that the R3 - R4 - R5 series R345 R4 1 kΩ
combination can be reduced:
R5
R345 = R3 + R4 + R5 = 1.8 kΩ.
330 Ω
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 R1

Insert the single R345 resistor back 1 kΩ

into the original circuit. Now, quite Req R2 R345
obviously, R2 is in parallel with R345. 2.2 kΩ 1.8 kΩ

Calculate the equivalent resistance of

the parallel combination. Using the R2345 R2 R345
two-resistor formula: 2.2 kΩ 1.8 kΩ

R2 ⋅ R345 (2.2 kΩ) (1.8 kΩ)

R2345 = = = 990 Ω
R2 + R345 (2.2 kΩ) + (1.8 kΩ)
R1
Insert the R2345 equivalent back into
what is left of the original circuit. 1 kΩ
Now, we easily calculate Req as the Req R2345
series combined of R1 and R2345. 0.99 kΩ

Req = R1 + R2345 = 1 kΩ + 0.99 kΩ = 1.99 kΩ.

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 The equivalent resistance “method”
So we have a method for trying to nd equivalent resistances without
having to resort to messy combinations of Kirchoff’s Laws.

1. Identify the pair of nodes

R1 R3
between which we want to nd
R2 R4
equivalent resistance. Peer into it
with “Ohm’s eye”. Ohm’s eye R5

2. Starting at the opposite end of

R1 R3
the network, identify series and R345
R2 R4
parallel combinations that can be
reduced using the simple formulas. R5

3. Repeat with another series or R1

parallel combination to further R2 R345 R2345
simplify the circuit.

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 4. Continue the simpli cation
process, one series or parallel R1
combination at a time, until the Req
R2345
network is reduced to a single
resistor. (Or until the remaining
network is trivial.)

It is not necessary to insert numbers at each step — we could express

the results using symbols and then insert numbers at the end, if needed.
For the example, the equivalent resistance expressed in symbols:

R2 ⋅ R345 R2 ⋅ (R3 + R4 + R5)

Req = R1 + R2345 = R1 + = R1 +
R2 + R345 R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
With practice, many circuits can be simpli ed by inspection (i.e. in our
heads). We might even be able to calculate the values in our heads.
Not all resistive networks can be reduced using series / parallel
combinations. Consider the bridge circuit that was one of the Kirchoff’s
Laws practice problems — the bridging resistor is not in series or
parallel with any other resistors and so there are no simpli cations.
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 Example 1
330 Ω 330 Ω 330 Ω
Find the equivalent R1 R3 R5
resistance looking into Req R2 R4 R6
the indicated port of the 680 Ω 680 Ω 680 Ω
“ladder network” shown.

330 Ω 330 Ω
1. Starting at the “far end”,
R1 R3
we see that R5 and R6 are
R2 R4 R56
in series.
680 Ω 680 Ω 1010 Ω
R56 = R5 + R6 = 1010 Ω.
330 Ω 330 Ω

R1 R3
2. R4 is in parallel with R56.
R2 R456
R456 = (1/R4 + 1/R56 )–1 = 407 Ω.
680 Ω 407 Ω

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 Example 1 (cont.) 330 Ω

3. R3 and R456 are in series. R1

R2 R3456
R3456 = R3 + R456 = 1010 Ω.
680 Ω 737 Ω

330 Ω

R1
4. R2 is in parallel with R3456. (OK — the
Req R23456
1 subscripting
R23456 = = 354 Ω 354 Ω
1 1 thing is getting a
R2
+ R3456 bit ridiculous.)

5. Finally, Req is the series

Req 684 Ω
combination of R1 and R23456.
Req = 330 Ω + 354 Ω = 684 Ω.

G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 17

 Example 2
Find the equivalent resistance looking into the indicated port of the
circuit shown below.
R5

47 Ω
R6
R1 R3
33 Ω 18 Ω 100 Ω
Req R7 R8
220 Ω 39 Ω
R2 R4 R9
68 Ω 82 Ω
68 Ω
R10

68 Ω
At rst glance, this looks very dif cult, but it’s not so bad. We can pick
it apart piece by piece. Start by noting that R7 is in parallel with R8.
1
R78 = 1 1
= 33.1 Ω
R7
+ R8
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 18
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 Example 2 (cont.)
Similarly, R5 is in parallel with R6 and R9 is in parallel with R10.
1 1
R56 = 1 1
= 32.0 Ω R910 = 1 1
= 34 Ω
R5
+ R6 R9
+ R10
R56

32 Ω
R1 R3
33 Ω 18 Ω
R78
33 Ω
R2 R4
68 Ω 82 Ω R910

34 Ω
Next, we note that there are several series combinations
R1 in series with R2 : Ra = R1 + R2 = 101 Ω
R3 in series with R4 : Rb = R3 + R4 = 100 Ω
R56, R78, and R910 all in series : Rc = R56 + R78 + R910 = 99 Ω
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 19

 Example 2 (cont.)
Finally, we see that the equivalent resistance is just the parallel
combination of Ra, Rb, and Rc.

Req Ra Rb Rc
101 Ω 100 Ω 99 Ω

1
Req = 1 1 1
= 33.3 Ω
Ra
+ Rb
+ Rc

Not that bad.

G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 20

 Example 3
Find the equivalent resistance at the indicated port in the circuit below.
R1 R3 R5

1 kΩ 10 kΩ 470 Ω
Req R2 R4
1.5 kΩ 5.6 kΩ

There are a couple of interesting things going on here. First, we see some
“diagonal” resistors. Secondly, we see a “dangling” resistor, R5, which is not
connected to anything on one side.
First, the diagonal resistors are essentially an optical illusion — current and
voltage do not care about the spatial orientation of the components. We can
re-draw the circuit in the more familiar grid-like arrangement, with no change
in how the circuit behaves.

R1 R3 R5
Req R2 R4

G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 21

 Example 3 (cont.)
Now, about the dangling resistor. Since the right-hand side of R5 is
“open circuited”, we can view R5 as being in series with a resistor with
value approaching in nity. (An open circuit is essentially a resistor with
R → ∞.) A series combination of any nite resistor in nity is also
in nity. (Mathematicians are cringing now.) So essentially, the dangling
R5 is the same as an open circuit — in principle, we could have left it
off entirely with no change in equivalent resistance. (In the future, we
will see a number of situations where there are dangling components
like this, and we need to know how to handle them.)

R5 R5
Roc Roc + R5
(→ ∞) (→ ∞)

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 Example 3 (cont.)
Now that we straightened out the diagonals and trimmed off the
dangler, the circuit looks familiar and simple
R1 R3
1 kΩ 10 kΩ
Req R2 R4
1.5 kΩ 5.6 kΩ

And the calculation is straight-forward:

R34 = R3 + R4 = 15.6 kΩ
1
R234 = 1 1
= 1.37 kΩ
R
+R
2 34

Req = R1 + R234 = 2.37 kΩ

G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 23

 Example 3a
Same circuit, but now nd the equivalent resistance looking from the
other end.
R1 R3 R5

1 kΩ 10 kΩ 470 Ω
R2 R4 Req
1.5 kΩ 5.6 kΩ

The previous comments about

the diagonals and the R3 R5
dangling resistor apply, except R2 R4
that now R1 is the dangler.

We start at the “far end” and work towards the eyeball.

R23 = R2 + R3 = 11.5 kΩ
1
R234 = 1 1
= 3.77 kΩ
R23
+ R4

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Req = R5 + R234 = 4.24 kΩ series/parallel combinations – 24
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 Voltage sources in series. R1

Consider the simple series circuit at right. We can + vR1 –
write a KVL equation around the loop: + +
VS1 VS2
– –
VS1 – vR1 – VS2 – vR2 = 0.
R2
Addition and subtraction are commutative, so we
can re-arrange the ordering in the equation. – vR2 +
VS1 – VS2 – vR1 – vR2 = 0. VS2

+
–
This would imply that we can re-order the
components in the circuit. The re-ordered circuit is +
+
must behave the same as the top circuit. VS1 R1 vR1
–
Now we can use Ohm’s Law to write R2 –
VS1 – VS2 – iR1·R1 – iR2·R2 = 0. – vR2 +
Since the same current ows in all components in
the series string, iS1 = iS2 = iR1 = iR2 = iS.
+
VS1 – VS2 – iS (R1 + R2) = 0. VS12 R12
–
We know that we can combine series resistors. It
appears that we can also combine series voltage VS12 = VS1 − VS2
sources: VS12 – iS R12 = 0. R12 = R1 + R2
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 25
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 Voltage sources in series.

The little exercise on the previous slide show us important ideas about
series connections.
1. The ordering of components in the series string is irrelevant — we can
re-order the voltage sources and resistors to suit our needs.
2. Just like resistors in series, we can combine voltage sources in series
and treat them as a single source.
The idea of putting voltage sources in series should be familiar to most —
in electronic gadgets it is common to connect several 1.5-V batteries in
series to create 3-V or 4.5-V or 6-V or whatever voltage is needed to
power a circuit.
When combining series voltage sources, there might some uncertainty
about whether to add or subtract the values (particularly for neophytes).
The ambiguity can always removed by writing a proper KVL equation
around the loop. Kirchoff will make it clear whether to add to or subtract.

G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 26

 Current sources in parallel.

Consider the simple circuit at right. We can
write a KCL equation at the top node: IS1 R1 IS2 R2
iR1 iR2
IS1 – iR1 + IS2 – iR2 = 0.
Addition and subtraction are commutative, so
we can re-arrange the ordering in the equation.
IS1 + IS2 – iR1 – iR2 = 0.
IS1 IS2 R1 R2
This would imply that we can re-order the iR1 iR2
components in the circuit. The re-ordered
circuit must be identical to the top circuit.
We can use Ohm’s Law to write
vR1 vR2 IS12 R12
IS1 + IS2 − + =0
R1 R2

All the components have the same voltage across, vIS1 = vIS2 = vR2 = vR2 = vS,
We know that we can combine the parallel resistors, and it appears that we
can combine the current sources as well.

( R1 R2 )
−1
vS vS vS 1 1
IS1 + IS2 − − = 0 → IS12 − =0 IS12 = IS1 + IS2 R12 = +
R1 R2 R12
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 27

 Current sources in parallel.

The little exercise on the previous slide show us to important ideas about
parallel connections.
1. The ordering of components in the parallel arrangement is irrelevant
— we can re-order the parallel current sources and resistors to suit our
needs.
2. We can combine current sources in parallel and treat them as a single
source.
When combining parallel current sources, there is often some uncertainty
about whether to add or subtract the values. The ambiguity can always
removed by writing a proper KCL equation at the node where they are
connected. Kirchoff will make it clear whether to add to or subtract.

G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 28

 Example 4
Below is a conglomeration of sources and resistors. Simplify the circuit
by combining the series and parallel components.
10 Ω 1.5 V

+
–
R2
R1 VS2
22 Ω
R4 IS1 R5 IS2 R6 IS3
+ 47 Ω 15 Ω 68 Ω 0.75 A
VS1 VS3 0.5 A 0.25 A
–
12 V R3
+
–

6V 33 Ω
Three resistors in series on the left: RL = R1 + R2 + R3 = 65 Ω
Three sources in series on the left: VL = VS3 + VS1 – VS2 = 14.5 V
Three resistors in parallel on the right: RL

( 4 R6 )
−1 −1 −1
RR = R + R5−1 + = 9.74 Ω 65 Ω
+
Three sources in parallel on the right: VL
–
RR IR
14.5 V 9.7 Ω 1A
IR = IS1 – IS2 + IS3 = 1 A.
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 29

 Voltage sources in parallel, current sources in series

From a theoretical point of view, these combinations are not allowable. They
lead to untenable conundrums with Kirchoff’s Laws.

+ + IS2 1 A
VS1 VS2 IS1
– –
12 V 6V 2A

KVL: VS1 – VS2 = 6 V ≠ 0!! Yikes! KCL: IS1 ≠ IS2 : In ≠ Out!! Yikes!
Rw = small!
So in 201 circuits, we avoid these. However, everyone
knows that sometimes voltage sources are connected to
parallel — charging a battery is essentially requires + +
VS1 VS2
connecting one source to another. If there were no other – –
considerations, then the resistance of the wire (which we
generally ignore in 201) comes into play. VS1 − VS2
i= = BIG!
Rw
If we connect two random batteries together (or short out a battery —
VS2 = 0), bad things may happen. A practical battery charger will have some
means to limit current. In fact, it may actually be current source.
G. Tuttle – 2022 series/parallel combinations – 30