Electric Circuit & Electronics

Chapter 6 Parallel dc Circuits

Basil Hamed

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OBJECTIVES
• Become familiar with the characteristics
of a parallel network and how to solve for
the voltage, current, and power to each
element.
• Develop a clear understanding of
Kirchhoff ’ s current law and its
importance to the analysis of electric
circuits.

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS

• The term parallel is used so often to

describe a physical arrangement
between two elements that most
individuals are aware of its general
characteristics.
• In general, two elements, branches, or
circuits are in parallel if they have two
points in common.

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS

(a) Parallel resistors; (b) R1 and R2 are in parallel; (c) R3 is in parallel with the
series combination of R1 and R2.
6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
For resistors in parallel as shown in Fig. 6.3, the total
resistance is determined from the following equation:

Fig. 6.3 Parallel combination of resistors.

Since G = 1/R, the equation can also be written in terms of

conductance levels as follows:
6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.1
a. Find the total conductance of the parallel network in
Fig. 6.4.
b. Find the total resistance of the same network using
the results of part (a) and using Eq. (6.3)

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.2
a. By inspection, which parallel element in Fig. 6.5 has
the least conductance? Determine the total
conductance of the network and note whether your
conclusion was verified.
b. Determine the total resistance from the results of part
(a) and by applying Eq. (6.3).
Solution:
a. Since the 1 kΩ resistor has the largest
resistance and therefore the largest
opposition to the flow of charge (level of
conductivity), it will have the lowest level
of conductance:
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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.3 Find the total resistance of the
configuration in Fig. 6.6.
Solution: First the network is
redrawn as shown in Fig. 6.7 to
clearly demonstrate that all the
resistors are in parallel. Applying
Eq. (6.3) gives

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.4
a. What is the effect of adding another resistor of 100 Ω
in parallel with the parallel resistors of Example 6.1 as
shown in Fig. 6.8?
b. What is the effect of adding a parallel 1 Ω resistor to
the configuration in Fig. 6.8?

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 6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS

The introduction of the 1 Ω resistor reduced the total resistance from 2 Ω

to only 0.66 Ω—a decrease of almost 67%. The fact that the added resistor
has a resistance less than that of the other parallel elements and one-third
that of the smallest contributed to the significant drop in resistance level.
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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
Special Case: Equal Parallel Resistors
For equal resistors in parallel, the equation for the total
resistance becomes significantly easier to apply. For N
equal resistors in parallel, Eq. (6.3) becomes

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.5 Find the total resistance of the
parallel resistors in Fig. 6.9.

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS

EXAMPLE 6.6 Find the total

resistance for the
configuration in Fig. 6.10
Solution: Redrawing the
network results in the parallel
network in Fig. 6.11.Applying
Eq. (6.4) gives

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors
In the vast majority of cases, only two or three parallel
resistors will have to be combined. With this in mind, an
equation has been derived for two parallel resistors that
is easy to apply and removes the need to continually
worry about dividing into 1 and possibly misplacing a
decimal point.
For two parallel resistors, the total resistance is
determined by Eq. (6.1):

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.8 Determine the total resistance for the
parallel combination in Fig. 6.7 using two applications of
Eq. (6.5).
Solution: First the 1 Ω and 4 Ω
resistors are combined using Eq.
(6.5), resulting in the reduced
network in Fig. 6.12:

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6.2 PARALLEL RESISTORS
EXAMPLE 6.11 Determine the values of R1, R2, and R3 in
Fig. 6.16 if R2 = 2R1, R3 = 2R2, and the total resistance
is 16 kΩ.Solution: Eq. (6.1) states

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• A parallel circuit can now be
established by connecting a
supply across a set of
parallel resistors as shown
in Fig. 6.18
• The positive terminal of the
supply is directly connected
to the top of each resistor, Fig. 6.18 Parallel network.
while the negative terminal
is connected to the bottom
of each resistor.
 6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

In general, the voltage is always the same

across parallel elements.
 Therefore, remember that if two elements are
in parallel, the voltage across them must be
the same. However, if the voltage across two
neighboring elements is the same, the two
elements may or may not be in parallel.
For the voltages of the circuit in Fig. 6.18, the result is that
6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Since the voltage is the same across parallel elements,
the current through each resistor can also be determined
using Ohm’s law. That is,

An excellent analogy for describing the flow of

charge through the network of Fig. 6.18 is the
flow of water through the parallel pipes of Fig.
6.20. The larger pipe, with less ―resistance‖ to
the flow of water, will have a larger flow of
water, through it. The thinner pipe, with its
increased ―resistance‖ level, will have less
water flowing through it.

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

In any case, the total water entering the pipes at the

top QT must equal that leaving at the bottom, with QT
= Q1 + Q2.

note that E/R1 = I1 and E/R2 =

I2 to obtain:

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
For single-source parallel networks, the
source current (Is) is always equal to the
sum of the individual branch currents.

Demonstrating the duality that exists between series and parallel circuits.
6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE 6.12 For the parallel network in Fig.
6.22:

a. Find the total resistance

b. Calculate the source current.
c. Determine the current through
each parallel branch.
d. Show that Eq. (6.9) is satisfied.

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE 6.13 For the parallel network in Fig. 6.23
a. Find the total resistance
b. Calculate the source current
c. Determine the current through each branch.

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

c. Applying Ohm’s law gives

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
for parallel resistors, the greatest current will
exist in the branch with the least resistance.
A more powerful statement is that

current always seeks the path of least

resistance.

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
EXAMPLE 6.14 Given the information provided in Fig.
6.24
a. Determine R3
b. Find the applied voltage E
c. Find the source current Is
d. d. Find I2.
Solution

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6.3 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

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 6.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Recall from the discussion of series circuits that the
power applied to a series resistive circuit equals the
power dissipated by the resistive elements. The same is
true for parallel resistive networks. In fact,

for any network composed of resistive elements, the

power applied by the source will equal that dissipated
by the resistive elements.

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 6.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
For the parallel circuit in Fig. 6.28:

which is exactly the same as obtained for the series

combination.

In a parallel resistive network, the larger the resistor, the

less is the power absorbed.
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 6.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
EXAMPLE 6.15 For the parallel network in Fig. 6.29
a. Determine the total resistance RT.
b. Find the source current and the current through each
resistor
c. Calculate the power delivered by the source
d. Determine the power absorbed by each parallel
resistor
e. Verify Eq. (6.10).

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6.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT

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6.4 POWER DISTRIBUTION IN A
PARALLEL CIRCUIT

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

Kirchhoff is also credited with developing

the following equally important
relationship between the currents of a
network, called Kirchhoff ’ s current law
(KCL):
 The algebraic sum of the currents entering
and leaving a junction (or region) of a
network is zero.
6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

(a) Demonstrating Kirchhoff ’s

current law; (b) the water analogy
for the junction in (a).

Introducing Kirchhoff ’s current law.

6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

• In technology, the term node is

commonly used to refer to a junction of
two or more branches.

Two-node configuration for Example

 6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLE 6.16 Determine currents I3 and I4 in
Fig. 6.32 using Kirchhoff’s current law.

Solution: There are two junctions

or nodes in Fig. 6.32. Node a has
only one unknown, while node b
has two unknowns. Since a single
equation can be used to solve for
only one unknown, we must apply
Kirchhoff’s current law to node a
first.

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLE 6.17 Determine currents I1, I3, I4, and I5
for the network in Fig. 6.33.

Solution: In this configuration, four

nodes are defined. Nodes a and c
have only one unknown current at
the junction, so Kirchhoff’s current
law can be applied at either
junction. At node a At node c

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
Using the above results at the other junctions results in
the following. At node b At node d

If we enclose the entire network, we find that the current

entering from the far left is I = 5 A, while the current
leaving from the far right is I5 = 5 A. The two must be equal
since the net current entering any system must equal the
net current leaving.

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLE 6.18 Determine currents I3 and I5 in Fig.
6.34 through applications of Kirchhoff’s current law.
Solution: Note first that since node
b has two unknown quantities (I3
and I5), and node a has only one,
Kirchhoff’s current law must first
be applied to node a. The result is
then applied to node b. At node a

At node b

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLE 6.19 For the parallel dc network in Fig. 6.35:
a. Determine the source current Is.
b. Find the source voltage E
c. Determine R3
d. Calculate RT
Solution

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

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6.5 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
EXAMPLE 6.20 Determine I1 for the integrated circuit in
Fig. 6.37.

Solution: Assuming that the

current I1 entering the chip results
in the following when Kirchhoff’s
current law is applied, we find

We find that the direction for I1 is leaving the IC, although the
magnitude of 5 mA is correct.
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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

In general:
 For two parallel elements of equal value,
the current will divide equally.
 For parallel elements with different
values, the smaller the resistance, the
greater is the share of input current.
 For parallel elements of different values,
the current will split with a ratio equal to
the inverse of their resistance values.
6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

Ratio Rule Each of the boldface statements

above is supported by the ratio rule, which
states that for parallel resistors the current will
divide as the inverse of their resistor values. In
equation form:

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
EXAMPLE 6.21
a. Determine the current I1 for the
network of Fig. 6.39 using the ratio
rule
b. Determine the current I3 for the
network of Fig. 6.39 using the ratio
rule
c. Determine the current Is using
Kirchhoff’s current law.
Solution

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
In Fig. 6.40(a). The current IT splits between the N parallel
resistors and then gathers itself together again at the
bottom of the configuration. In Fig. 6.40(b), the parallel
combination of resistors has been replaced by a single
resistor equal to the total resistance of the parallel
combination as determined in the previous sections.

The current IT can then be determined using Ohm’s law:

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
Since the voltage V is the same across parallel elements,
the following is true:

where the product IxRx refers to any combination in the

series. Substituting for V in the above equation for IT, we
have

Solving for Ix, the final result is the current divider rule:

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
• The current through any branch of a parallel
resistive network is equal to the total resistance of
the parallel network divided by the resistance of
the resistor of interest and multiplied by the total
current entering the parallel configuration.
• Since RT and IT are constants, for a particular
configuration the larger the value of Rx (in the
denominator), the smaller is the value of Ix for that
branch, confirming the fact that current always
seeks the path of least resistance.

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
EXAMPLE 6.22 For the parallel network in Fig.
6.41, determine cur-rent I1 using Eq. (6.15).

Solution: Eq. (6.3):

with the smallest parallel resistor

receives the majority of the current

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
Special Case: Two Parallel Resistors
For the case of two parallel resistors as shown in Fig.
6.42, the total resistance is determined by

Substituting RT into Eq. (6.15) for current I1 results

in

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

for two parallel resistors, the current

through one is equal to the resistance of
the other times the total entering current
divided by the sum of the two resistances.

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
EXAMPLE 6.23 Determine current I2 for the network in Fig.
6.43 using the current divider rule.
Solution: Using Eq. (6.16b) gives

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
EXAMPLE 6.24 Determine resistor R1 in Fig. 6.44 to
implement the division of current shown.
Solution: There are essentially
two approaches to this type of
problem. One involves the direct
substitution of known values
into the current divider rule
equation followed by a
mathematical analysis. The
other is the sequential
application of the basic laws of
electric circuits. First we will use
the latter approach.
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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law gives

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
Now for the other approach using the current
divider rule:

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6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE: Special
Case- Two Parallel Resistors

current always seeks the path of least

resistance, and the ratio of the resistance
values is the inverse of the resulting current
levels, as shown in Fig 6.45. The thickness of
the blue bands in Fig. 6.45 reflects the
relative magnitude of the current in each
branch.
6.6 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE: Special
Case- Two Parallel Resistors

FIG. 6.45 Demonstrating how current divides through equal and unequal
parallel resistors.
6.7 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL
voltage sources can be placed in parallel only if they have
the same voltage

FIG. 6.46 Demonstrating the effect of placing two ideal

supplies of the same voltage in parallel.
6.7 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL

If for some reason two batteries

of different voltages are placed
in parallel, both will become
ineffective or damaged because
the battery with the larger
voltage will rapidly discharge
through the battery with the
smaller terminal voltage
For example, consider two lead–
acid batteries of different
terminal voltages placed in
parallel as shown in Fig 6.47.
6.7 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL

It makes no sense to talk about

placing an ideal 12 V battery in
parallel with a 6 V battery
because Kirchhoff’s voltage law
would be violated. However, we
can examine the effects if we
include the internal resistance
levels as shown in Fig. 6.47.
6.7 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL
The only current-limiting resistors
in the network are the internal
resistances, resulting in a very
high discharge current for the
battery with the larger supply
voltage. The resulting current for
the case in Fig. 6.47 would be
6.7 VOLTAGE SOURCES IN PARALLEL
• it is always recommended that when you are replacing
batteries in series or parallel, replace all the batteries
• A fresh battery placed in parallel with an older battery
probably has a higher terminal voltage and
immediately starts discharging through the older
battery.
• In addition, the available current is less for the older
battery, resulting in a higher-than-rated current drain
from the newer battery when a load is applied
6.8 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
An open circuit is two isolated terminals
not connected by an element of any
kind, as shown in Fig. 6.48(a). Since a
path for conduction does not exist, the
current associated with an open circuit
must always be zero. The voltage across
the open circuit, however, can be any
value, as determined by the system it is
connected to. In summary, therefore,

an open circuit can have a potential

difference (voltage) across its
terminals, but the current is always
zero amperes. FIG. 6.48
6.8 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
In Fig.
6.49(a), the
excessive
current
demanded by
Fig. 6.49(a),

The excessive current demanded by the circuit caused a fuse

to fail, creating an open circuit that reduced the current to
zero amperes. However, it is important to note that the full
applied voltage is now across the open circuit, so you must
be careful when changing the fuse.
6.8 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS

If there is a main breaker ahead of the fuse, throw it

first to remove the possibility of getting a shock. This
situation clearly reveals the benefit of circuit breakers:
You can reset the breaker without having to get near
the hot wires
6.8 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection
between two terminals of a network, as shown in Fig. 6.50.
The current through the short circuit can be any value, as
determined by the system it is connected to, but the
voltage across the short circuit is always zero volts because
the resistance of the short circuit is assumed to be
essentially zero ohms and V = IR =I (0 Ω)= 0 V

a short circuit can carry a current of

a level determined by the external
circuit, but the potential difference
(voltage) across its terminals is
always zero volts.
6.8 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
Some practical examples of short circuits and their impact
are provided in Fig. 6.52
In Fig. 6.52, the wires of an iron
have started to twist and crack due
to excessive currents or long-term
use of the iron. Once the insulation
breaks down, the twisting can
cause the two wires to touch and
establish a short circuit. One can
hope that a circuit breaker or fuse
will quickly disconnect the circuit.
6.8 OPEN AND SHORT CIRCUITS
Often, it is not the wire of the iron
that causes the problem, but a
cheap extension cord with the
wrong gage wire. Be aware that
you cannot tell the capacity of an
extension cord by its outside
jacket. Check the gage on the wire
the next time you buy an extension
cord and be sure that it is at least
#14 gage, with #12 being the
better choice for high-current
appliances