Chapter I

Principles of Statics

1-1 Introduction
Engineering mechanics may be defined as the science which considers the effects of
forces on rigid bodies.
The subject is naturally divided into two parts
1. Statics
2. Dynamics

In statics we consider the effects and distribution of forces on rigid bodies which
remain at rest.
In dynamics we consider the motion of rigid bodies caused by the forces acting upon it.

Engineering Mechanics

Statics Dynamics

Force System Application Kinematics Kinetics

Concurrent Trusses Translation Translation

Parallel Centroids Rotation Rotation
Non-concurrent Friction Plane Motion Plane Motion

Fig. 1-1 Outline of Engineering Mechanics

A visual introduction to the subject of engineering mechanics is represented in Fig 1-1.

The subject has two main divisions: statics and dynamics. This are subdivided into two
subbranches. In statics we consider the various types of force system, then their
application to various conditions shown. Not all phases of statics, however, are
represented in the diagram, merely the more common elements. Dynamics is similarly
divided; there are kinematics (which deals with the pure motion of rigid bodies) and
kinetics (which relates the motion to the applied forces). Each of these subdivisions
deals primarily with the rigid body motions of translations, rotations, and plane motion.
These terms are discussed in Part II. For the present, we confine ourselves to statics

1-2 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions

𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒅 𝑩𝒐𝒅𝒚. A rigid body is defined as a definite amount of matter the parts of which
are fixed in position relative to each other. Actually, solid bodies are never rigid; they
deform under the action of applied forces. In many cases, the deformation is negligible
compared to the size of the body and may be assumed rigid. Bodies made of steel or cast
iron, for example, are of this type. The study of strength of materials, however, is based
on the deformation (however small) of such bodies.

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆. Force may be defined as that which changes, or to change, the state of motion
of a body. This definition applies to external effect of a force. The internal effect of a
force is to produce stress and deformation in the body on which the force acts. External
ENGR RODEL C. ANGKAHAN CE 212-18 ENGINEERING MECHANICS 1st SEM 2022-2023 1
effect are forces considered in the engineering mechanics; internal effect in strength of
materials.

The characteristics of a force are

1. Its magnitude, example: 10 lbs , 20 kN
2. The position of its line of action 30 degrees
3. The direction (or sense) in which the force acts along its line of action

The principle of transmissibility of a force states that the external effect of a force
on a body is the same for all point along its line of actions; i.e., it is independent on the
point of application. The internal effect of a force, however, is definitely dependent on its
line of application.

External effect

The motion of the block will be the same whether it is push at A or pulled at B

Internal Effect

F applied at A F applied at B F applied at C

The internal effect at a point is different when force is applied at different point

The unit of a force commonly used is pound, or multiple of pound such as kip (1000
pounds), or ton (2000 pounds). Units such as gram and kilogram are also used. In this
book we shall use the “foot-pound-second” system of unit i.e., the common unit of length
is taken as foot, of force is pound, and of time as the second, If the other units happen to
be specified in problems, it is generally desirable to convert them into the foot-pound-
second system before solving for the answer.
Force = pounds
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F=ma
F=mg=weight= 6 lbs

𝑓𝑡
Force (lbs) = m (___) g 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑓𝑡
(lbs) = m (___) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

m( ) = lbs-𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 /ft

20 lbs = mg
𝑓𝑡
20 lbs = m(32.2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2)
𝑙𝑏−𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
‘ m = (20/32.2) 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏−𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
‘ m = 0.6211 𝑓𝑡
‘ m= 06211 slugs

Metric system
F = ma
F = mg
𝑚
F= (kg) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
F= kg-m/sec2
F=N
F=1000 N = 1kN

Example

In point C and E, it is hinges that restrict the relative movement of bars. In this case,
therefore since we do not have a single rigid body, the external reactions and the
internal effect will be different if P is applied first at A and then at B

Example:
In the above example, if hinge support at E is replaced by a roller support and bar CE is
added

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We shall have a triangular truss equivalent to a single rigid body. Here the external
reactions will be the same whether P is applied at A or at B

1-3 Force Systems

A force system is any arrangement where two or more forces act on a body or on a
group of related bodies. When the lines of action of all forces lie in one plane, they are
referred as being coplanar, otherwise they are non-coplanar. The coplanar system is
obviously simpler than a non-coplanar system since all the action lines of the forces lie
in the same plane. We shall consider the first discussion of coplanar systems; it will
then be relatively simple step to the discussion of non-coplanar or space system of
forces.

Coplanar Non-coplanar
Concurrent concurrent

The force systems are further classified according to their lines of action. Forces whose
lines of actions pass through a common point are called concurrent; those in which the
lines of action are parallel are called parallel force systems; and those in which the lines
of action neither parallel nor intersect in a common point are known as non-concurrent
force systems

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 Coplanar – Parallel force system

1-4 Axioms of Mechanics

The principles of mechanics are postulated upon several more or less self-evident
facts which cannot be proved mathematically can only be demonstrated to be true. We
shall call these facts the fundamental axioms of mechanics. The axioms are discussed
at length in subsequent articles as they are used. At this time, we shall merely collate
them for reference and state them in the following form;
1. The parallelogram law. The resultant of two forces is the diagonal of the
parallelogram formed on the vectors of these forces.

2. Two forces are in equilibrium only when equal in magnitude, opposite in direction
and collinear in actions.

3. A set of forces in equilibrium may be added to any system of forces without

changing the effect of the original system.

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 4. Action and reaction forces are equal but oppositely directed.

1-5. Introduction to Free-body Diagrams

One of the most important concepts in mechanics is that of the free-body diagram.
This concept is discussed in detail in Chapter III where we first really use it. It is
introduce here to help the beginner distinguish between action and reaction forces. To
do so, it is necessary to isolate the body being considered. A sketch of the isolated body
which shows on the forces acting upon a body is defined as free-body diagram. The
forces acting on the free body are the action forces, also called the applied forces. The
reaction forces are those exerted by the free body upon other bodies.

(a) (b) (c)

Derrick Free-body diagram of Free body diagram of derrick
point C
Fig. 1-2 Free-body diagrams

The free body may consist if an entire assembled structure or an isolated part of
it, For example, consider the derrick shown in Fig. 1-2a. The free-body diagram of pin
C (Fig. 1-2b) shows only the forces actin upon C. These forces consist of weight, the pull
T exerted by the cable, and the force P exerted by the boom. If the free-body diagram of
the entire derrick were desired, it would show only the force acting on the derrick as in
Fig, 1-2c.

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1-6. Scalar and Vector Quantities

𝑺𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒔. Imagine two groups of marbles, one consisting of 10 marbles and other is 5.
If a common group is formed by mixing them, the resultant number will be 15 marbles,
a result obtained by arithmetical addition. Quantities which possess magnitude only
and can be added arithmetically are defined as scalar quantities.
10 lbs +30 lbs = 40 lbs
5 cups + 10 cups = 15 cups
6 km +10 km = 16 km

𝑽𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔. At point C of the derrick (Fig. 1-2b) suppose that weight W and the tension
T were each 100 lb. What is the force P in the boom? By arithmetical addition the
answer is 200 lb. This result, however, is incorrect, as can be determined by means
measuring device placed in the boom. Actually, the force in the boom would vary as the
boom was lifted

The error is due to the fact that the arithmetical addition was applied to quantities
which possess direction as well as magnitude. Such quantities can be combined only by
geometric addition, usually called vector addition. A vector of a quantity can be
represented geometrically (i.e. graphically) by writing a line acting in the direction of
the quantity, the length of the line representing to some scale the magnitude of the
quantity. An arrow is placed on the line, usually at the end, to denote the sense of
direction.

1-7. Parallelogram Law

The method of vector addition was based on what is known as the parallelogram
law. The parallelogram law cannot be proved; it can only be demonstrated by
experiment. It is one of the fundamental axioms of mechanics. One method of
demonstrating the law is by means of apparatus shown in Fig. 1-3. Tie three cords
together and fasten the weights P, Q and W to the free ends. (The sum of P and Q must
be greater than W.) Place the cords to which P and Q are attached over the smooth
pegs as shown and allow the system to reach a position of equilibrium.

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 Fig. 1-3: - Parallelogram law

The tensions in these cords will then be equal to the weight P and Q. Draw vectors P
and Q to scale from point A where the cords are tied together and construct a parallel
gram with these vectors as the initial sides. It will be found that the diagonal R of the
parallelogram scales exactly to the value of W and is in line with the vector
representing W.

From Axiom 2 which states the two equal, opposite, collinear forces are in
equilibrium, we conclude that the weight W will be perfectly supported by the force R.
In other words, the effect of the force P and Q may be replaced by a single force R. Such
a force is called a resultant. Therefore the resultant of two forces is the single force
which will produce same effect as the original forces.
The parallelogram law may now be stated as follows: The resultant of two forces is
the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by the vectors of these forces.

1-8. Triangular Law

If we examine closely the parallelogram formed by forces P and Q as in Fig 1-4b, we
observe that the side BC is parallel and equal to side AD. If the triangle ABC were
drawn alone as in Fig. 4-1c, the resultant R joining A to C would have the same
magnitude and direction as the diagonal of the parallelogram ABCD. In this instance
force Q has been represented by the free vector 𝐵𝐶
̅̅̅̅ . A free vector is defined as one
which does not show the point of application of the vector, as distinguished from a
localized vector which does.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1-4 ─ Triangle law

It is also evident that, as 𝐷𝐶

̅̅̅̅ is equal and parallel to P, The triangle ADC in Fig. 1-4a
may also be used to determine R. In this case, P is taken as the free vector whereas Q is
the localized vector.
We may now state the triangle law as a convenient corollary of the parallelogram
law: If two forces are represented by their free vectors placed tip to tail, their resultant
vector is the third side of the triangle, the direction of the resultant being from the tail
of the first vector to the tip of the last vector.
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒. If the angle between two forces becomes zero or 180𝑜 the forces act
along the same line; i.e., the forces are collinear. By taking one direction as positive and

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other direction as negative, it will be apparent that the resultant of two collinear forces
is their algebraic sum. This application of the triangle law is extremely used in
analytical solutions.

1-9. Solution of Problems

One of the first things students should acquire is the ability to organize his work in a
neat and orderly fashion. Properly arranged work not only helps to eliminate personal
errors but also permits easy checking by another person - a frequent occurrence in
engineering offices. To aid the student to achieve orderly work habits the following
suggestions are offered:

1. After identifying the problem, start by constructing a neat diagram of the

quantities involved. This diagram should be of sufficient size so the pertinent data and
dimensions may be added without affecting its legibility. A freehand sketch is usually
acceptable, although the use of straightedge is preferred and will take a little additional
time. Some students used different-colored pencils to distinguish between known and
unknown quantities.
2. State as concisely as possible what data are given and what information is
required. Students who fail to realize what is required often find themselves in the
unenviable position of obtaining the right answer to the wrong question.
3. Errors are frequently caused by mental substitution in equations and
subsequent failure to include the term in the equation. For this reason, write out the
equation you intend to use before substituting in it. This will also make the process
apparent to any person who may check it. If an equation is not used, write a short note
indicating the principle used or the operation performed. This short statement of theory
─ be it equation, principle, or operation ─ may be put at the left side of the sheet and
the numerical work placed in line with it at the right of the page. In this book, whenever
an equation or principle is used in the solution of a problem, it is stated at the left of the
page in brackets and is followed by the solution in the same line. You cannot be urged
too strongly to use this “theory-solution” technique when solving problems.

[∑𝐹𝑣 = 0] 10 lbs + 20 lbs =X

Experience has also shown that many students have difficulty in obtaining accurate
numerical results even though they have correctly applied the principles. The following
articles offer several additional items for the student’s guidance.

1-10. Dimensional Checks

The equation used in engineering computations must be dimensionally homogeneous;

that is, the units on each side must be the same dimensional form. An easy way to check
the dimensions in an equation is to substitute the dimensional equivalents of each term
and then multiply or divide these equivalents as though they were algebraic quantities.
This process determines the dimensional unit of each term.

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 For example, consider the equation 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 where 𝑣 and 𝑣𝑜 are in feet per
second, 𝑎 in feet per second squared, and 𝑠 in feet. The numeral 2 is a dimensionless
number. Substituting dimensionally in the equation we get

𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡
( ) = ( ) +2 𝑓𝑡
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

ft 2 ft 2 ft
= + 𝖷 ft
sec 2 sec 2 sec 2
ft 2 ft 2 𝑓𝑡 2
= +
sec 2 sec 2 sec 2

which checks the equation since each term in is the same dimensional units.
A similar process may be used to determine the unit if an expression. For example,
determine the dimensional unit of kinetic energy if it is expressed by the relation 𝐾𝐸 =
𝑊
𝑣 2 where W is in pounds, v is in feet per second and g in feet per second squared.
2𝑔
Substituting dimensionally, we have

lb ft2 lb ft2
KE = 𝖷 = 𝖷 sec 2 𝖷 = ft-lb Ans.
ft per sec2 sec2 ft sec2

𝑑2 𝑠
Even the definition of acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 2 (Art. 9-3), can be checked dimensionally.
Here 𝑑2 𝑠 is a second differential of length, whereas 𝑑𝑡 2 is a square of a differential of
time. With units of length in feet and time in seconds, dimensional substitution in the
definition for 𝑎 yields
ft
𝑎 = sec2 Ans.

1-11. Conversion of Units

Occasionally it is necessary to convert a tern from one system of units to another to
make an equation dimensionally correct. This conversion is accomplished by
multiplying the given term by unity where unity is a ratio of units (of the same kind but
different size) containing the required units and those given.
For example, convert a velocity of 60 miles per hour to units of feet per second.
Begin by writing
miles
𝑣 = 60
hour
1 kg = 2.202 lbs
English force 10 lbs Force

1000 lbs = kips

1000 kg = 1 ton

1 kg = mass
F=ma
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 W =F= mg

9.81 𝑚 𝑘𝑔−𝑚
W = 1 kg x = 9.81 = 9.81 N
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

1000 kg = 9810N = 9.81 kN

Find the 540 lbs in N

1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔−𝑚
F=540 lbsx2.202 𝑙𝑏𝑠 = 245.231 kg x 9.81 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 = 2405.71 = 2405.71 N
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

𝑘𝑔−𝑚
540 lbs /2.20 lbs/kg= 245.45 kg x 9.81 = 2407.86 N
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

To express 𝑣 in feet per second, multiply the right side by the following ratios, each of
which has the value of unity

miles 5280 ft hour

𝑣 = 60 𝘟( )𝘟( )
hour mile 3600 sec

5280 ft
𝑣 = 60 𝘟 ( )
3600 sec

ft
𝑣 = 88 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
sec
5280
The ratio 3600 is the conversion factor by which miles per hour must be multiplied to
yield feet per second. It is not necessary to remember conversion factors once the
method is mastered.

1
As another example, consider the equation 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡 2 where 𝜔𝑜 is in
revolutions per minute, t in seconds and 𝛼 in revolution per minute per second. It is
required to express 𝜃 in radians. Substituting dimensionally, we have

rev 1 rev
𝜃 (rad) = 𝜔𝑜 ( ) 𝘟 𝑡 (sec) + 𝘟 𝛼 ( ) 𝘟 𝑡 2 (sec 2 )
min 2 min 𝖷 sec

Converting by multiplying by ratios having the value unity gives

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 rev 2π rad min
𝜃 (rad) = 𝜔𝑜 ( 𝘟 𝘟 ) 𝘟 𝑡 (sec)
min rev 60 sec
1 rev 2π rad min
+ 𝘟𝛼 ( 𝘟 ) 𝘟 𝑡 2 (sec 2 )
2 min 𝖷 sec rev 60 sec
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
𝜃 (rad) = 𝜔𝑜 𝑡 𝘟 (rad) + 𝛼𝑡 2 (rad) 𝐴𝑛𝑠.
60 2 60

Each term is now expressed in units of radians. In this example, θ was obtained in
2𝜋
radians by multiplying each right-hand term by the factor 60

1-12. Numerical Accuracy

𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠. It frequently happens that numerical work is computed to a
greater degree of accuracy than is warranted by the given data. The accuracy of the
final result depends upon the least accurate figure used in the computation. For
example, if the value of the given gravitation constant 𝑔 is taken as 32.2, the answer
should be computed to three significant figures only. No increase in accuracy is attained
by carrying more figures through a computation than those in the least accurate data. If
for some reason four figures are carried through a computation where the data in the
example are accurate to only three figures, the answer should be rounded to three
figures.
If a result is found to be 24.2, for example, the number indicates that the result is
greater than 24.15 but less than 24.25; the last 2 of the result is doubtful. On the other
hand 24.20 mean that the result is greater 24.195 but less than 24.205; obviously, the
last zero should not be added unless it is a significant figure.

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠. Quadratic equations may be solved by formula,

completing the square, etc. Completing the square is probably the fast and accurate as
any method. It is obtained as follows:
Consider a quadratic equation of the form 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 = 0. Rearranging this we get

𝑎 2 𝑎 2
Whence 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + (2) = (2) + 𝑏
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
(𝑥+ ) = ( ) +𝑏
2 2

𝑎 𝑎 2
𝑥+ = ±√ ( ) + 𝑏
2 2

from which the value of x is easily found.

For example, solve for the roots of

𝑥 2 − 22.8𝑥 − 31.3 = 0

From the above discussion, we obtain

𝑥 2 − 22.8𝑥 + (11.4)2 = (11.4)2 + 31.3

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 (𝑥 − 11.4)2 = 130 + 31.3 = 160.31
𝑥 − 11.4 = ±12.7
𝑥 = 24.1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = −1.30 𝐴𝑛𝑠.

√𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 = −𝑏 ±
2𝑎

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