LAB MANUAL

ANALOG
ELECTRONICS - I
(EC – 201)

III SEMESTER

Electronics & Communication Engineering

Department

Delhi Technological University

Shahbad Daulatpur, Main
Bawana Road Delhi- 110042

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENT

1. To become familiar with the operation of basic laboratory instruments

i. Digital storage oscilloscope
ii. Waveform generator
iii. DC power supply
iv. Digital multimeter

2. Testing of different electronic components using a multimeter and determining their

values.

3. To plot forward and reverse bias characteristics for PN Junction diode and
determine its cut-in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance.

4. To plot forward and reverse biased characteristics for ZENER diode.

5. To design and study of Half Wave Rectifier circuit and find ripple factor with
different capacitor filters.

6. To design and study of Full Wave Center Tapped Rectifier circuit and find ripple
factor with different capacitor filters.

7. To design and study of Bridge Rectifier circuit and find ripple factor with different
capacitor filters.

8. To analyze the Performance of different Clipping Circuits using diode and plot their
respective output waveforms.

9. To analyze the Performance of different Clamping Circuits using diode and plot
their respective output waveforms.

10. To design and plot the input and output characteristics of the given transistor in CB
(common base) configuration.

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11. To design and plot the input and output characteristics of the given transistor in CE
(common-emitter) configuration.

12. To design and plot drain characteristics and transfer characteristics of JFET.

13. To design and plot drain characteristics and transfer characteristics of N-Channel
metal oxide semiconductor junction field-effect transistor (MOSFET).

14. To design and analyze the Performance of MOSFET as a switch.

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 EXPERIMENT - 1

OBJECTIVE - To become familiar with the operation of basic laboratory

instruments:
i. DC power supply
ii. Wave form generator
iii. Digital storage oscilloscope
iv. Digital multimeter

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

1. DC power supply 01 No.

2. Wave form generator 01 No.
3. Digital Storage Oscilloscope 01 No.
4. Digital multimeter 01 No.
5. Connecting Wires 04 No.

THEORY -

 DC Power supply
A DC power supplies uses AC mains electricity as an energy source and therefore
employ a transformer to convert input voltage to a lower or higher AC voltage. A
rectifier is then used to convert the transformer output voltage to a varying DC
voltage, which in turn is passed through an electronic filter to convert it to an
unregulated DC voltage. The utility of the filter is to removes AC voltage
variations; the remaining AC voltage is known as ripple.

Fig. 1.1 Pictorial view of DC power supply

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 Fig. 1.2 Block diagram of regulated DC power supply

Fig. 1.3 Circuit diagram of regulated DC power supply.

Working principal of DC power supply

When designing a DC power supply, the aim is to get an output voltage with good
stability.
A DC supply consists of the following parts:
- A transformer to change the voltage as required and to isolate the DC circuit from
the line.
- A rectifier consisting of one or more diodes, to change AC to DC.
- A smoothing circuit using inductors and capacitors.
- An electronic stabilizer which improves the stability of the output voltage and/or
current.

 Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO)

A digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) is a device that stores and analyses the signal
digitally. It is now the most common type of oscilloscope in use because of the
advanced trigger, storage, display, and measurement features which it typically
provides.

Working principal
The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section
1. The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.
2. To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.
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3. The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section.
4. The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most often used in the
digital storage oscilloscopes.
5. The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration
& the waveform to be recorded.
6. Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.
7. The signal is then captured in the memory.
8. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as memory
can be readout
9. Without being erased.

Fig. 1.4 Pictorial view of digital storage oscilloscope

Fig. 1.5 Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope

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 Waveform Generator
A waveform generator is a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate
electrical waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot
(once only) in which case some kind of triggering source is required (internal or
external). The resulting waveforms can be injected into a device under test and
analyzed as they progress through it, confirming the proper operation of the device,
or pinpointing a fault in it. It contains an attenuator, various means of modulating
the output waveform, and often contain the ability to automatically and
repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform between two operator-
determined limits. This capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency
response of a given electronic circuit. They have the capability to produce standard
waveforms such as sine, square, ramp, triangle, noise, and pulse. Some units
include additional built-in waveforms such as exponential rise and fall times,
sinx/x, and cardiac.

Fig. 1.6 Pictorial view of Wave form generator

Fig 1.7 Block diagram of a waveform generator

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 Multimeter

Digital multimeter is a test equipment which offers several electronic measurement

task in one tool. It is also known as the voltmeter or Ohm meter or Volt Ohm
meter. The standard and basic measurements performed by multimeter are the
measurements of amps, volts, and ohms. The new improved digital multimeters are
more efficient, faster and work with a large accuracy as compared to an analogue
multimeter.

(a) (b)
Fig.1.8 (a) Analog multimeter and (b) Digital multimeter

PROCEDURE -
1. Power on the generator and select the desired output signal: square wave, sine
wave or triangle wave.
2. Attach the output leads of the function generator to the input of the multimeter
to verify the amplitude of the generated signal.
3. Connect the output leads to the DSO to visualize the output signal and set its
parameters using the amplitude and frequency controls.

RESULTS -
The working of the four devices (DSO, function generator, DC power supply, and
Multimeter) was understood and verified.

PRECAUTIONS -
1. Ensure correct connections of the leads for the multimeter for current and
voltage measurements.
2. Check the mains connection of the DSO and ensure that the rating matches the
power supply.

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 EXPERIMENT – 2

OBJECTIVE – Testing of different electronic components using a multimeter and

determining their values.

APPRATUS REQUIRED –

1. Resistors
2. Diodes
3. Capacitors
4. Transistors
5. Inductors
6. Multimeter
7. Connecting Wires

THEORY -

An electronic component is a basic physical entity in an electronic system used to

affect electrons or their associated fields. Electronic components are mostly
industrial products, available in a singular form. A component may be classified as
passive, active, or electron mechanic.

Resistor
Resistor can be made to control the flow of current. It works as voltage divider and
it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other components. Basic
unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). They can be classified as fixed, semi-variable and
variable resistors.

Fig. 2.1 Block diagram representation of a resistor

Capacitor
Capacitor stores the charge across its two plates. It opposes the change of voltage
across its plates; the electric field developed across the plate opposes the rapid

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change in voltages. It produces phase difference between voltage applied to it and
the current that passes through it. Capacitance of a capacitor holds the unit of farad
(F).

Fig. 2.2 Pictorial and symbolic representation of a capacitor

Table 2.1 Color code for resistance calculation

Temp. Coefficient
Color Significant figures Multiplier Tolerance
(ppm/K)
Black 0 ×100 – 250 U
Brown 1 ×101 ±1% F 100 S
Red 2 ×102 ±2% G 50 R
Orange 3 ×103 – 15 P
Yellow 4 ×104 (±5%) – 25 Q
Green 5 ×105 ±0.5% D 20 Z
Blue 6 ×106 ±0.25% C 10 Z
Violet 7 ×107 ±0.1% B 5 M
Gray 8 ×108 ±0.05% (±10%) A 1 K
White 9 ×109 – –
Gold – ×10-1 ±5% J –
Silver – ×10-2

Inductor
Like capacitors, inductors also store energy in one part of AC cycle and return it
during the next part of the cycle. Inductance is the property of a device that reacts
against a change in current through the device. Measuring unit of inductance is
hennery (H).

Fig. 2.3 Pictorial and symbolic representation of a inductor

Semiconducting devices
A semiconductor is defined on the basis of electrical conductivity mentioned as
follows –

PN junction diode
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called

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the anode and the cathode. Most diodes are made with semiconducting materials
such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. It restricts current flow chiefly to one
direction. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal limiters, voltage regulators and
switches.

Fig. 2.4 Pictorial and symbolic representation of a diode

Zener diode
A Zener diode is a diode that allows current to flow in the forward direction in the
same manner as an ideal diode, but will also permit it to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown
voltage or zener voltage. Until this voltage device exhibits a very high resistance
and after that current suddenly increases keeping a constant voltage across it.

Fig. 2.5 Pictorial and symbolic representation of a Zener diode

Transistor
A transistor is a bipolar semiconductor device used to amplify and switch
electronic signals and power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at
least three terminals named emitter, base and collector for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
enhances through another pair of terminals and thus it works as a amplifier.

Fig. 2.6 Pictorial and symbolic representation of a transistor

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Other symbols

Fig. 2.7 Symbols to represent other symbols

OBSERVATION -

CALCULATION OF RESISTANCE

COLOR THEORETICAL VALUE RESISTANCE MEASURED BY

CODE OF RESISTANCE MULTIMETER

CALCULATION OF CAPACITANCE

TYPE OF CODE MENTIONED THEORETICAL CAPACITANCE

CAPACITOR ON CAPACITOR VALUE OF MEASURED BY
CAPACITANCE MULTIMETER
CERAMIC

ELECTROLYTIC

RESULT –
Thus we have studied various electronic components invariably using in electronic
circuits. Moreover the values of different resistors and capacitors are also verified
through multimeter, which are found close to the theoretical calculated values.

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PRECAUTIONS -

1. Handle the components carefully.

2. Take the readings properly.
3. Avoid holding the components by hand while measuring through multimeter.

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 EXPERIMENT – 3

OBJECTIVE - To plot forward and reverse bias characteristics for PN Junction

diode and determine its cut-in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED -

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. P-N Junction Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Multimeter 02 Nos.
5. Variable DC Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor
material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead
connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is
marked by a solid line on the diode. The primary function of the diode is
rectification. When it is forward biased (the higher potential is connected to the
anode lead), it will pass current. When it is reversed biased (the higher potential is
connected to the cathode lead), current flow is blocked. In the simplest form, the
diode is modeled by a switch. The switch is closed when the diode if forward
biased and open when the diode is reversed biased. Immediately after the diode is
switched to reverse bias, the depletion region is still full of carriers. Therefore, a
large negative current will flow until all of the excess carriers are washed out. As
the carriers are removed, the reverse current decays exponentially to approximately
zero. The volt-ampere characteristic of p-n junction diode is given by
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑅 (e𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1) (3.1)

Where IR is saturation current, VD is diode voltage and VT is thermal voltage, n is

a constant whose value is 1 for silicon and 2 for germanium.

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 Forward Biasing -
The circuit diagram for the forward bias has been shown in fig. 3.1. The forward
bias region is entered when terminal voltage v is positive. In this case VD is
𝑉𝐷

several times of VT due to which e𝑛𝑉𝑇 >> 1. Hence, diode current in forward bias
is given as
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 (3.2)

R1 D1 ID

1k
VD 0-20mA
D
0-12 Vdc

0-2Volt

Fig. 3.1 Circuit diagram for forward bias condition of diode

 Reverse Biasing -
The circuit diagram for the reverse has been shown in fig. 3.2. The reverse bias
region of operation is entered when the diode voltage v is made negative. If v is
negative then the exponential term becomes negligibly small compared to unity
and current becomes as
𝐼𝐷 ≈ −𝐼𝑅 (3.3)
R1 D1 ID

1k
VD 0-200microAmmeter
0-12 Vdc

0-20Volt

Fig. 3.2 Circuit diagram for reverse bias condition of diode

The forward and reverse bias characteristic for p-n junction diode has been given
in Fig. 3.3.

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 Fig. 3.3 Forward and reverse bias V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode

 Static Resistance -
For the calculation of static resistance, first fix the supply voltage at some constant
values, then measure the value of voltage across diode VDQ and value of current IDQ
across the circuit. The ratio of the diode voltage to the current will give the value of
static resistance which is given as

RD = VDQ /IDQ (3.4)

 Dynamic Resistance -
For calculation of dynamic resistance, make the supply variable. Plot the I-V curve
of PN junction diode, and then select two points on the curve which are making
tangent on it. The ratio of voltage difference to current difference respective to
those two points will give the value of dynamic resistance which is given as

Rd = ΔVD / ΔID (3.5)

PROCEDURE -
1. Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in Fig. 3.1 for forward
characteristics
2. In order to plot forward bias characteristics, perform the following steps: vary
the diode voltage (VD) in step of 0.1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of diode current (ID) in milli- ampere (mA).
3. Record your reading in the observation table

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4. Finally plot graph for forward bias characteristics.
5. Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in Fig. 3.2 for reverse
characteristics.
6. In order to plot Reverse bias characteristics, perform the following steps: vary
the diode voltage (VD) in step of 1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of diode current (ID) in micro- ampere (µA).
7. Record your reading in the observation table
8. Finally plot the graph for reverse bias characteristics.
9. The typical forward and reverse characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.3.

OBSERVATION -

Forward Reverse
Bias Bias
VD (Volt) ID(mA) VD(Volt) ID(µA)
0 0
0.1 1
0.2 2
0.3 3
0.4 4
0.45 5
0.50 6
0.55 7
0.60 8
0.65 9
0.70 10
0.75

CALCULATION -

1. RD = ……………….
2. Rd = ………………..

RESULT -

To forward and reverse bias characteristics for PN Junction diode were plotted to
determine its cut-in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance.

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PRECAUTIONS -
1. Keep variable power supply in anti-clock wise before the starting the
experiment.
2. Do not exceed diode current beyond the limit i.e. 10 mA.

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 EXPERIMENT – 4

OBJECTIVE – To plot forward and reverse bias characteristics of Zener diode

and calculate the Zener voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED -
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Zener Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 No.
4. Multimeter 02 Nos.
5. Variable DC Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY -

A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped

semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the
voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode is reversed and the potential reaches
the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the junction breaks down and the current flows
in the reverse direction. This effect is known as the Zener Effect. There are two
types of breakdowns, one is Zener breakdown and the other is the Avalanche
breakdown. Zener diodes are used for regulating output voltage.

 Forward Bias:

R1 D1 Iz

1k
VD 0-20mA
0-12 Vdc

0-2Volt

Fig 4.1 Circuit diagram for forward bias condition of diode

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 Reverse Bias –
R1 D1 Iz

0-12 Vdc

Fig 4.2 Circuit diagram for reverse bias condition of diode

Fig. 4.3 Forward and reverse bias V-I characteristics of a PN junction diode

PROCEDURE -
1. Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in Fig. 4.1 for forward
characteristics
2. In order to plot forward bias characteristics, perform the following steps: vary
the diode voltage (VD) in step of 0.1V starting from zero and observe the
corresponding value of diode current (ID) in milli- ampere (mA).
3. Record your reading in the observation table
4. Finally plot graph for forward bias characteristics.
5. Using suitable patch cords make connection as shown in Fig. 4.2 for reverse
characteristics.
6. In order to plot the reverse bias characteristics, perform the following steps:
Vary the Diode voltage (VZ) in steps of 1V starting from zero and observe the

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 corresponding value of Zener Diode Current (IZ) in miliampere (mA) and
observe the point where small change of zener voltage shows the great
change in Zener Diode current (IZ) that is breakdown zener voltage.
7. Record your reading in the observation table
8. Finally plot the graph for reverse bias characteristics.
9. The typical forward and reverse characteristics are shown in Fig. 4.3.

OBSERVATION -

Forward Reverse
Bias Bias
VZ (Volt) ID (mA) VZ(Volt) ID(µA)
0 0
0.1 1
0.2 2
0.3 3
0.4 4
0.5 5
0.6 6
0.7 7
0.8 8
0.9 9
1.0 10

RESULT -
Observe the point where small change of Zener voltage shows the great change
in Zener Diode current (IZ) that is breakdown Zener voltage.

PRECAUTIONS -

1. Keep variable power supply in anti-clock wise before the starting the
experiment.
2. Do not exceed Diode current beyond the limit i.e. 10 mA.

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 EXPERIMENT – 5

OBJECTIVE – To design and study of Half Wave Rectifier circuit and find ripple
factor with different capacitor filters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. P-N Junction Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance 1kΩ 01 No.
4. Transformer (9-0-9) 01 No.
5. CRO with Probes 01 No.
6. Electrolytic Capacitor 01 No.
7. Connecting Wires

THEORY -

In a half wave rectification an AC supply is applied at the input and only positive
half cycle appears across the load whereas, the negative half cycle is suppressed.
During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and
conducts through the load resistor RL. Hence the current produces an output
voltage across the load resistor RL, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle
of the input voltage.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased
and there is no current through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across R L is zero. The
net result is that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the
load. The average value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value
measured on dc voltmeter.

For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock
hazards in the secondary circuit.
The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%

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 0-9V D1
1 3

AC 230V
Primary RL
FREQ = 50Hz 2 4 1k

Fig. 5.1 Circuit diagram for a half wave rectifier

Fig. 5.2 Input and output waveform corresponding to a half wave rectifier

Fig. 5.3 Circuit diagram for the shunt capacitor circuit used after half wave rectifier

Fig. 5.4 Output waveform for the filter circuit

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PROCEDURE -

1. Make connections for half wave rectifier as shown in figure.

2. Observe the input wave from on oscilloscope.(Transformer Secondary Voltage
i.e 9-0-9 Volt)
3. Observe the output wave form on oscilloscope.
4. Measure the DC voltage VDC across the load.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Measure r.m.s. value and ripple factor of output voltage.

OBSERVATION -

CALCULATIONS -
𝑽𝒑𝒑
𝑽𝒎 = (5.1)
𝟐
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = (5.2)
√𝟐
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = (5.3)
𝜫
𝑽𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔
Without Filter Ripple Factor 𝒓= √ − 1 = 1.21 (5.4)
𝑽𝟐𝒅𝒄
𝟏
With Filter Ripple Factor 𝒓= (5.5)
(𝟐√𝟑𝒇𝑪𝑹)

RESULT –
The ripple factors for half wave Rectifier with Filter and without filterhave
been calculated.

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 EXPERIMENT – 6

OBJECTIVE – To design and study of Full Wave Center Tapped Rectifier circuit
and find ripple factor with different capacitor filters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED -

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. P-N Junction Diode 02 No.
3. Resistance 1kΩ 01 No.
4. Transformer (9-0-9) 01 No.
5. CRO with Probes 01 No.
6. Electrolytic Capacitor 01 No.
7. Connecting Wires

THEORY -

The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1 and D2.
During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is
forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. So, the diode D1 conducts and current
flows through load resistor RL.
During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse
biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor RL in the
same direction. There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor R L,
during both the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the
model graph. The difference between full wave and half wave rectification is
that a full wave rectifier allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load
during the entire 360 degrees of the input signal and half-wave rectifier allows
this only during one half cycle (180 degree).

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 Fig. 6. 1 Circuit diagram for a center tapped full wave rectifier

Fig. 6 2. Input and output waveform for a full wave rectifier

Fig 6.3 Circuit diagram for a shunt capacitor filter

Fig. 6.4 The input and output waveform for full wave rectifier with shunt filter

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PROCEDURE -

1. Make connections for full wave rectifier as shown in figure.

2. Observe the input wave from on oscilloscope.
(Transformer Secondary Voltage i.e 9-0-9 Volt)
3. Observe the output wave form on oscilloscope.
4. Measure the DC voltage VDC across the load.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Measure r.m.s. value and ripple factor of output voltage.

OBSERVATION -

CALCULATIONS -
𝑽𝒑𝒑
𝑽𝒎 = (6.1)
𝟐
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = (6.2)
√𝟐
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = (6.3)
𝜫
𝑽𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔
Without Filter Ripple Factor 𝒓= √ − 1 = 0.482 (6.4)
𝑽𝟐𝒅𝒄
𝟏
With Filter Ripple Factor 𝒓= (6.5)
(𝟒√𝟑𝒇𝑪𝑹)

RESULT –
The ripple factors for Full wave Rectifier with Filter and without filterhave
been calculated.

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 EXPERIMENT – 7

OBJECTIVE – To design and study of Bridge Rectifier circuit and find ripple
factor with different capacitor filters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED -

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. P-N Junction Diode 01 No.
3. Resistance 1kΩ 01 No.
4. Transformer (9-0-9) 01 No.
5. CRO with Probes 01 No.
6. Electrolytic Capacitor 01 No.
7. Connecting Wires

THEORY -

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave
rectifier circuit above is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single
phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this
bridge circuit is that it does not require a special center tapped transformer, thereby
reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side
of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.

Fig. 7.1 Circuit diagram for bridge rectifier

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of
the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse
biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
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 Fig. 7.2 Functional circuit during the positive half cycle for the bridge rectifier

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series,
but diodes D1 andD2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current
flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

Fig. 7. 3 Functional circuit during the positive half cycle for the bridge rectifier

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed
across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-
wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax

29
Fig. 7. 4 Complete circuit diagram for bridge rectifier along with transformer

Fig. 7.5 Input and output waveform for a bridge rectifier

Fig 7.6 Circuit diagram for a shunt capacitor filter

Fig. 7.7 Output waveform for a bridge rectifier

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 PROCEDURE -

1. Make connections for full wave rectifier as shown in figure.

2. Observe the input wave from an oscilloscope.
(Transformer Secondary Voltage i.e., 9-0-
9Volt)
3. Observe the output waveform on an oscilloscope.
4. Measure the DC voltage VDC across the load.
5. Draw output waveform.
6. Measure r.m.s. value and ripple factor of output voltage.

OBSERVATION –

CALCULATIONS -
𝑽𝒑𝒑
𝑽𝒎 = (7.1)
𝟐
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = (7.2)
√𝟐
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒅𝒄 = (7.3)
𝜫
𝑽𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔
Without Filter Ripple Factor 𝒓= √ − 1 = 0.482 (7.4)
𝑽𝟐𝒅𝒄
𝟏
With Filter Ripple Factor 𝒓= (7.5)
(𝟒√𝟑𝒇𝑪𝑹)

RESULT –
The ripple factors for Full wave Bridge Rectifier with Filter and without filter
have been calculated.

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 EXPERIMENT – 8

OBJECTIVE – To analyze the performance of different clipping circuits using

diode and plot their respective output waveforms.
APPARATUS REQUIRED –
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. P-N Junction Diode 02 No.
3. Resistance – 10kΩ 01 No.
4. Function Generator 01 No.
5. CRO and Probes 01 No.
6. Ceramic Capacitors (0.01uF) 01 No.
7. Power Supply
8. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
Clippers
Clipping circuits (also known as limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers), are
used to remove the part of a signal that is above or below some defined
reference level. We’ve already seen an example of a clipper in the half-wave
rectifier – that circuit basically cut off everything at the reference level of zero
and let only the positive-going (or negative-going) portion of the input
waveform through.
To clip to a reference level other than zero, a dc source is put in series with the
diode. Depending on the direction of the diode and the polarity of the battery,
the circuit will either clip the input waveform above or below the reference
level (the battery voltage for an ideal diode; i.e., for Von=0).

Clipping circuit is of various types:

1. Series Clipper

2. Parallel Clipper

3. Series bias clipper

4. Parallel bias clipper

32
 (a) (b)
Fig. 8.1 Circuit diagram for a series (a) positive, and (b) negative clipper circuit

(a) (b)
Fig. 8.2 Circuit diagram for a series (a) positive, and (b) negative clipper with DC bias

Fig. 8.3 Circuit diagram for a parallel (a) positive, and (b) negative clipper circuit

Fig. 8.4 Circuit diagram for a parallel (a) positive, and (b) negative clipper with DC bias

33
 PROCEDURE -
1. Connect the circuit using suitable patch cord as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Apply a Sinusoidal input of 5 volt and 1 kHz. (Use signal Generator for
Sinusoidal input).
3. Observe the input signal on channel 1 on CRO and output signal from
circuit on channel 2 on CRO.
4. Repeat the experiment for different clipping circuits.

RESULT -
1. Sketch the wave shape and label the amplitudes.
2. Indicate the type of clipping in each case.
3. Draw transfer characteristics for different clipping circuits.

34
 EXPERIMENT – 9

OBJECTIVE – To analyze the performance of different clamping circuits using

diode and plot their respective output waveforms.

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. P-N Junction Diode 02 No.
3. Resistance – 10kΩ 01 No.
4. Function Generator 01 No.
5. CRO and Probes 01 No.
6. Ceramic Capacitors (0.01uF) 01 No.
7. Power Supply
8. Connecting Wires

THEORY -

Clampers:
Clamping circuits, also known as dc restorers or clamped capacitors, shift
an input signal by an amount defined by an independent voltage source. While
clippers limit the part of the input signal that reaches the output according to
some reference level(s), the entire input reaches the output in a clamping circuit
– it is just shifted so that the maximum (or minimum) value of the input is
“clamped” to the independent source.
Clamping circuit is of various types:
1. Positive Clamper
2. Negative Clamper

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.1 Circuit diagram for a parallel (a) positive, and (b) negative clamper circuit

35
 (a) (b)
Fig. 9.2 Circuit diagram for a parallel positive clamper circuit with (a) positive, and (b) negative DC
bias

(a) (b)
Fig. 9.3 Circuit diagram for a parallel negative clamper circuit with (a) positive, and (b) negative DC
bias

PROCEDURE -
1. Connect the circuit using suitable patch cord as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Apply a Sinusoidal input of 5 volt and 1 kHz. (Use signal Generator for
Sinusoidal input).
3. Observe the input signal on channel 1 on CRO and output signal from
circuit on channel 2 on CRO.
4. Repeat the experiment for different clipping and clamping circuits.

RESULT -
1. Sketch the wave shape and label the Amplitudes.
2. Indicate the type of clipping in each case.
3. Draw transfer characteristics for different clamping circuits.

36
 EXPERIMENT – 10

OBJECTIVE – To study and plot the input and output Characteristics of the
given transistor in CB (common base) configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. Transistor (BJT) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 02 Nos.
4. Multi-Meter 04 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base,
collector. In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and
output (collector). For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and
C- B junction is reverse biased. In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is
–ve. So, VEB = F1 (VCB, IE) and IC = F2 (VEB,IB)

With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the
output junction increases and the effective base width „W‟ decreases. This
phenomenon is known as “Early effect”. Then, there will be less chance for
recombination within the base region. With increase of charge gradient with
in the base region, the current of minority carriers injected across the emitter
junction increases.

The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given by,

α = ∆IC/ ∆IE

Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IE at Constant VCB

Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCB /∆IC at Constant IE

37
 Fig. 10.1 Circuit diagram for CB configuration for an NPN transistor

Fig. 10.2 Circuit diagram for CB configuration for an PNP transistor

(a) (b)
Fig. 10.3 (a) Input, and (b) Output characteristics for CB configuration

38
PROCEDURE -
To Plot the Input Characteristics perform the following steps:
1. Set the collector voltage, VCB to a certain value, say 1 volt.
2. Now, vary the emitter base voltage, VEB in steps of say 0.1volt starting from
zero and observe the corresponding values of emitter current (IE) .
3. Repeat step (ii) for different values of collector voltages, VCB ) : 2V, 5V,
collector open.
4. Plot the input characteristics.

To plot Output characteristics, perform the following steps:

1. Set the emitter current to a certain value, say 1mA.
2. Now Vary the collector base voltage(VCB) in steps of 1volt starting from
zero and observe the corresponding collector currents (Ic)
3. Ensure that the emitter current remains constant, when collector voltage is
being raised, by minor adjustment in the emitter-base voltage.
4. Repeat (ii) for different values of emitter currents, say, 2mA, 4mA, 8mA.
5. Plot the output characteristics.

OBSERVATION -

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Output voltage Constant (VCB=0 volt) Output voltage constant (VCB=2 volt)
Input voltage Input current Input voltage Input current
VEB(Volt) IE(mA) VEB(Volt) IE(mA)
0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1 1

39
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Input Current Constant (IE=1 mA) Input Current constant (IE=2 mA)
output voltage output output voltage output
VCB(Volt) current VCB(Volt) current
IC(mA) IC(mA)
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

CALCULATION -
1. Input resistance, Rin= VEB/IE for a certain value of VCB.
2. Output resistance, Ro=VCB/IC for a certain value of IE.
3. Current gain, α= IC/IE for a certain value of VCB.

RESULT -
Rin = RO =
α =

PRECAUTIONS -
1. The cut-in voltage, Vx is approximately 0.2V for Ge transistor and
approx. 0.6V for a Si transistor.
2. The collector current, IC should be less than emitter current, IE.
3. The value for current gain αF is always less than 1.

40
 EXPERIMENT – 11

OBJECTIVE – To study and plot the input and output characteristics of the
given transistor in C.E. (Common Emitter) Configuration

APPARATUS REQUIRED –

1. Bread Board 01 No.

2. Transistor (BJT) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 01 Nos.
4. Resistance- 100KΩ 01 Nos.
5. Multi-Meter 04 Nos.
6. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
7. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and
emitter terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals.
Therefore, the emitter terminal is common to both input and output.
The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is
expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As
compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore,
input resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.
The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB. the
collector current varies with VCE upto few volts only. After this the collector
current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up
to which the collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The
transistor always operated in the region above Knee voltage, IC is always
constant and is approximately equal to IB. The current amplification factor of CE
configuration is given by
β = ΔIC/ΔIB

Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IB (μA) at Constant VCE

Output Resistance, ro = ∆VCE /∆IC at Constant IB (μA)

41
 Fig. 11.1 Circuit diagram for CE configuration for an NPN transistor

Fig. 11.2 Circuit diagram for CE configuration for an PNP transistor

PROCEDURE -
To plot Input characteristics, perform the following steps:
1. Set the collector voltage VCE to a constant voltage of 1Volt.
2. Now vary the base voltage VBE in steps of 0.1V and observe the
corresponding base current (IB). Do not exceed the base current from 200µA.
(The maximum base current varies from transistor totransistor.)
3. Repeat step (ii) for different values of collector voltages, VCE: 2V, 5V, and
Open collector.
4. Plot the input characteristics.

To plot Input characteristics, perform the following steps:

1. Set the base current (IB) to say 25µA with the help of 0-12V variable supply
in the input circuit.
2. Now vary the collector voltage (VCE) from 0 to 12 Volts in steps of say 1

42
 Volt and observe the corresponding values of collector current (IC).
3. Repeat step (ii) for different values of base current, say 35µA, 50µA,
4. Plot the output characteristics.

(a) (b)
Fig. 11.3 (a) Input and (b) Output characteristics for CB configuration

OBSERVATION –

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Output voltage Constant (VCE=0 volt) Output voltage constant (VCE=2 volt)
Input voltage Input current Input voltage Input current
VBE (Volt) IB (µA) VBE (Volt) IB (µA)
0 0
0.1 0.1
0.2 0.2
0.3 0.3
0.4 0.4
0.5 0.5
0.6 0.6
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.8
0.9 0.9
1 1

43
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Input Current Constant (IB=25µA) Input Current constant (IB=35µA)
output voltage output output voltage output
VCE (Volt) current VCE (Volt) current
IC (mA) IC (mA)
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

CALCULATION -
1. Input resistance, RIN = VBE / IB at certain value of VCE.
2. Output resistance Ro = VCE/IC at certain value of IB
3. DC forward current gain βF = IC/IB

RESULT -
Input resistance, RIN = -------------
Output resistance Ro = ------------------
DC forward current gain βF =-------

PRECAUTIONS -

1. The cut-in voltage for a Ge transistor is about 0.2 Volt and about 0.6 volt
for a Si transistor.
2. Observe the ‘saturation’ and ‘active’ and cut-off regions in the output
characteristics.
3. The transistor gives current gain βF in the range of 100 to 300
general purpose transistors.
4. Keep the knobs of both the 0-10 V D.C. supplies to fully anticlockwise
position before switching on the mains supply.

44
 EXPERIMENT – 12

OBJECTIVE - To draw the Drain characteristics and Transfer characteristics

of N- channel junction field effect transistor

APPARATUS REQUIRED -
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (FET) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 02 No.
4. Multi-Meter 03 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
A FET is a three terminal device, in which current conduction is by majority
carriers only. The flow of current is controlled by means of an Electric field.
The three terminals of FET are Gate, Drain and Source. It is having the
characteristics of high input impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source
junction of the FETs always reverse biased. In response to small applied voltage
from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current
increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the ohmic voltage drop between
the source and the channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting
position of the channel begins to remain constant. The VDS at this instant is
called “pinch of voltage”. If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied in the
direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is
decreased.
In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch-off
FET parameters:
AC Drain Resistance,
rd = ∆VDS / ∆ID at constant VGSTrans conductance,
gm = ∆ID /∆VGS at constant VDS Amplification,
µ = ∆VDS/∆VGS at constant ID

Relation between above parameters

µ = rd * g m
The drain current is given by
ID =IDSS (1-VGS/VP) 2

45
 Fig.12.1 Circuit diagram for a JFET

Fig. 12.2 The typical Drain characteristics for JFET

Fig. 12.3 The transfer characteristics for JFET

46
PROCEDURE –
In order to draw drain characteristics, perform following steps:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig. 1.
2. Set VGS = 0Volt. Keep 0-5Volt variable power supply at anti-clock wise
direction for making VGS = 0Volt.
3. Now increase the VDS in step say 1volt starting from zero and observe the
corresponding Drain Current (ID) in milli-ammeter.
4. Repeat step 2 for different VGS value say -0.5V,-1V, -1.5, -2V
5. Plot the graph between VDS vs ID

In order to draw transfer characteristics perform following steps:

1. The circuit will be same for obtain the transfer characteristics.
2. Set the VDS = 3V. by varying the 0 -12Volt variable power supply.
3. Now increases the VGS in step say -0.5Volt starting from zero and
observethe corresponding drain current ID until ID become zero.
4. Repeat step 2 for different value of VDS.
5. Plot the graph between VGS vs ID.

OBSERVATION -
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
VGS = 0Volt VGS = 0.5Volt VGS =-1Volt VGS = -2Volt
VDS(Volt) ID VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA)
(mA)
0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1 1 1 1
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 2 2 2
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
3 3 3 3
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
4 4 4 4
4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8

47
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
VDS = 3Volt VDS = 5Volt
VGS ID (mA) VGS ID
(Volt) (Volt) (mA
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
-3 -3
-3.5 -3.5
-4 -4
-5 -5

CALCULATION -

The various parameters of a JFET are:

1. AC drain resistance, rd: It is the resistance between drain and source
terminals when JFET is in the Pinch-off region.
rd = change in VDS / change in ID.
2. Transconductance (gm): Slope of transfer characteristic.
gm = change in ID/ change in VGS
3. Amplification factor: It is given by
A.F. = Change in VDS / Change in VGS.
4. DC drain resistance, rds: it is given by –
RDS = VDS/IDS
RESULT -
1. AC drain resistance =---------------------
2. Transconductance (gm) =---------------------
3. Amplification factor =------------------------
4. DC drain resistance, r =------------------------

PRECAUTIONS -
1. Do not exceed the ID drain current 10mA.
2. Take proper care of terminates of JFET while fixing in the board.

48
 EXPERIMENT - 13

OBJECTIVE – To draw the Drain characteristics and Transfer characteristics of

N- channel Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET)

APPARATUS REQUIRED -
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (MOSFET) 01 No.
3. Resistance- 1KΩ 02 No.
4. Multi-Meter 03 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
MOSFET is an abbreviation for metal oxide semiconductor filed transistor. Like
JFET, it has a source (S), drain (D) and gate (G). However, unlike JFET, the
gate of MOSFET is insulated from channel. Because of this, MOSFET is
sometimes known as IGFET (insulated gate FET).
Basically, MOSFET are of two types
Depletion type MOSFET and
Enhancement type MOSFET.
Enhancement MOSFET has no depletion mode and only operates in
enhancement mode. It differs in construction from depletion type MOSFET in
the sense that it has no physical channel. The min gate-source voltage (VGS),
which produces inversion layer, called as threshold voltage.
Drain characteristics for enhancement MOSFET: -
When VGS< (VGS) the no drain current flows. However, in actual practice and
extremely small value of drain current does flow through MOSFET. This
current flow is generally due to presence of thermally generated electron in P-
type substrate when value of VGS is kept above (VGS) significant drain current
flow. Transfer characteristics of MOSFET: - When VGS=0 there is no drain
current, however if VGS is increased rapidly as shown in fig. The relation gives
the drain current at any instant along the curve.
ID=k [(VGS-VGS)]

49
 Fig. 13.1 Circuit diagram for an N-channel MOSFET (Depletion Mode)

Fig. 13.2 Circuit diagram for an N-channel MOSFET (Enhancement Mode)

Fig. 13.3 Drain characteristics for a MOSFET

50
 Fig. 13.4 Transfer characteristics for an MOSFET
PROCEDURE -

In order to draw the drain Characteristics perform following steps:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Set VGS = 0Volt. Keep 0-5Volt variable power supply at anti-
clock wisedirection for making VGS = 0Volt.
3. Now increase the VDS in step say 1volt starting from zero and
observethe corresponding Drain Current (ID) in milli ammeter.
4. Repeat step 2 for different VGS value say -0.5V,-1V, -1.5, -2V
5. Plot the graph between VDS vs ID

In order to draw the transfer characteristics perform following steps:

1. The circuit will be same for obtain the transfer characteristics.
2. Set the VDS = 3V by varying the 0 -12Volt variable power supply.
3. Now increases the VGS in step say -0.5Volt starting from zero and
observe the corresponding drain current ID until ID become zero.
4. Repeat step 2 for different value of VDS.
5. Plot the graph between VGS vs ID.

51
OBSERVATION -

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
VGS = 0Volt VGS = 0.5Volt VGS =-1Volt VGS = -2Volt
VDS(Volt) ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt ID (mA) VDS(Volt) ID (mA)
0 0 0 0
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
1 1 1 1
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 2 2 2
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
3 3 3 3
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
4 4 4 4
4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8

TRANSFER CHARACTERSTICS
VDS = 3Volt VDS = 5Volt
VGS (Volt) ID (mA) VGS (Volt) ID (mA)
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
-3 -3
-3.5 -3.5
-4 -4
-5 -5

52
CALCULATION -
The various parameters of a MOSFET are:
1. AC drain resistance, rd: it is the resistance between drain and source
terminals when mosfet is in the pinch-off region.
Rd = change in vds / change in id.
2. Transconductance (gm): slope of transfer characteristic.
gm = change in id/ change in vgs
3. Amplification factor: it is given by
A.F. = change in vds / change in vgs.
4. DC drain resistance, rds: it is given by
Rds = vds/ids

RESULT -

1. AC drain resistance =---------------------

2. Transconductance (gm) =---------------------
3. Amplification factor =------------------------
4. DC drain resistance, R =------------------------

PRECAUTION -

1. Do not exceed the ID drain current 10mA.

2. Take proper care of terminates of MOSFET while fixing in the board.

53
 EXPERIMENT – 14

OBJECTIVE – To design and analyze the Performance of MOSFET as a

switch.

APPARATUS REQUIRED -
1. Bread Board 01 No.
2. Transistor (MOSFET) 01 No.
3. Resistance Rd- 1KΩ 02 No.
4. Multi-Meter 03 Nos.
5. Dual Power Supply 01 No.
6. Connecting Wires

THEORY -
MOSFET is an abbreviation for metal oxide semiconductor field transistor. Like
JFET, it has a source (S), drain (D) and gate (G). However, unlike JFET, the gate
of MOSFET is insulated from channel. Because of this, MOSFET is sometimes
known as IGFET (insulated gate FET).
Basically, MOSFET are of two types
Depletion type MOSFET and Enhancement type MOSFET.
MOSFETs exhibit three regions of operation viz., Cut-off, Linear or Ohmic and
Saturation. Among these, when MOSFETs are to be used as amplifiers, they are
required to be operated in their ohmic region wherein the current through the
device increases with an increase in the applied voltage. On the other hand, when
the MOSFETs are required to function as switches, they should be biased in such a
way that they alter between cut-off and saturation states. This is because, in cut-off
region, there is no current flow through the device while in saturation region there
will be a constant amount of current flowing through the device, just mimicking
the behaviour of an open and closed switch, respectively. This functionality of
MOSFETs is exploited in many electronic circuits as they offer higher switching
rates when compared to BJTs.

54
 (a) (b)
Fig 14.1 N Channel (a) Enhancement type, and (b) Depletion type, MOSFET as a switch

Fig 14.2 P Channel (a) Enhancement type, and (b) Depletion type, MOSFET as a switch

Fig. 14.3 Transfer characteristic for a MOSFET

55
 Table 14.1 Different states of the device in keeping with the input and threshold voltage of
MOSFET

PROCEDURE -
In order to draw the above characteristics, perform the following steps:
1. Set the VDS = 3V by varying the 0 -12Volt variable power supply.
2. Now increase the VGS in step say -0.5Volt starting from zero and observe
the corresponding drain current ID until ID becomes zero.
3. Repeat step 2 for different values of VDS.
4. Plot the graph between VGS vs ID.

OBSERVATION –
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
VDS = 3Volt VDS = 5Volt
VGS(Volt) ID (mA) VGS (Volt) ID(mA)
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5
-3 -3
-3.5 -3.5
-4 -4
-5 -5

56
CALCULATION -
The various parameters of a MOSFET are:
1. Transconductance (gm): Slope of transfer characteristic.
gm = Change in ID/Change in VGS
2. Amplification factor: It is given by
A.F. = Change in VDS/Change in VGS.
3. DC drain resistance, Rds: It is given by
RDS = VDS/IDS

RESULT -
1. Transconductance (gm) =---------------------
2. Amplification factor =------------------------
3. DC drain resistance, R =------------------------

PRECAUTION -
1. Do not exceed the ID drain current 10mA.
2. Take proper care of terminals of MOSFET while fixing.

57