FACTS TECHNOLOGY

DEVELOPMENT AND ITS

APPLICATIONS
A Short Course

KFUPM Instructors
Dr. M A Abido, EE Dept., KFUPM (Coordinator)
Dr. I. M. El-Amin, EE Dept., KFUPM
Dr. A. Rahim, EE Dept., KFUPM
Dr. M. Kassas , EE Dept., KFUPM
Guest Speaker
Dr. A. Edris, EPRI, USA
 PREFACE
„ The rapid development of power electronics
technology provides exciting opportunities to
develop new power system equipment for better
utilization of existing systems.
„ During the last decade, a number of control devices
under the term "Flexible AC Transmission Systems"
(FACTS) technology have been implemented.
„ FACTS devices can be effectively used for power
flow control, loop-flow control, load sharing among
parallel corridors, voltage regulation, enhancement
of transient stability, and mitigation of system
oscillations.
 PREFACE
„ A large number of papers and reports have been
published on these subjects.
„ In this respect, it is timely to develop a short
course with an aim to report on the state of the
art development, internationally, in this area.
„ By covering all the major aspects in research and
development of FACTS technologies, the short
course intends to provide a comprehensive guide,
which can serve as a technical guide for a wide
range of power system engineers.
COURSE

CONTENTS
 Course Contents
Topic 1: Power Transmission Control
„ 1.1 Basic principles

„ 1.2 Function of electric power systems

„ 1.3 Basic characteristics of modern power

systems
„ 1.4 Performance Requirements

„ 1.5 Limiting factors of transmission capacity

„ 1.6 Increased transmission capacity

„ 1.7 Role of power system controls

 Course Contents
Topic 2: Power semiconductor
switches
„ 2.1 Overview

„ 2.2 Device characteristics and

Requirements
„ 2.3 Diodes and thyristors

„ 2.4 Gate turn-off devices

„ 2.5 FACTS terms and definition

 Course Contents
Introduction and Overview of FACTS
Technology Development and Application
Topic 3: Shunt Compensation
„ 3.1 Overview

„ 3.2 Objectives of shunt compensation

„ 3.3 Static VAR compensator (SVC) characteristics

„ 3.4 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

characteristics
„ 3.5 V-I and V-Q characteristics

„ 3.6 Dynamic performance

 Course Contents
Topic 4: Series Compensation
„ 4.1 Basic operating principles
„ 4.2 Thyristor-switched series capacitor (TSSC)
„ 4.3 Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC)
„ 4.4 Static synchronous series compensator
(SSSC)
„ 4.5 Control range and VA ratings
 Course Contents
Topic 5: Combined Compensation
„ 5.1 Basic operating principles
„ 5.2 Independent real and reactive power flow
control
„ 5.3 Control structure
„ 5.4 Basic control system for P and Q control
„ 5.5 Dynamic performance
„ 5.6 Unified power flow controller
„ 5.7 Interline power flow controller
 Course Contents
Topic 6: High Voltage DC Transmission
Lines (HVDC)
„ 6.1 Fundamentals of HVDC transmission systems
„ 6.2 Operating principles
„ 6.3 Different configurations of HVDC
„ 6.4 Control schemes
„ 6.5 Harmonics and filters
„ 6.6 HVDC protection
„ 6.7 Merits and demerits
 Course Contents
Topic 7: Power System Control Using
FACTS
„ 7.1 Power flow control
„ 7.2 Transient stability
„ 7.3 Dynamic stability
„ 7.4 Voltage stability
„ 7.5 Power transfer
„ 7.6 Subsynchronous resonance
 Tentative Schedule
Day/Time Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday
8:00 – 8:50 am Dr
9:00 – 9:50 am Abido/ Dr Edris:
Dr Edris: Dr Edris: Dr El-Amin
Dr FACTS
10:00 – 10:50 am Topic 4 Topic 5/7 Topic 6
Edris: Overview
11:00 – 11:50 am Topic 1

Awards &
Prayer & Lunch Certificate
Luncheon
1:00 – 1:50 pm Dr Edris/ Discussions
Dr Edris/Dr
Dr Dr Edris: Dr Edris: &
2:00 – 2:50 pm Rahim:
Kassas Topic 4/5 Topic 7 Concluding
Topic 3
3:00 – 3:50 pm Topic 2 Remarks
 Topic 1:

POWER TRANSMISSION
CONTROL:

BASIC THEORY;
PROBLEMS AND NEEDS;
FACTS SOLUTIONS
Topic 1: Outline
„ Introduction
„ Problem Definition
„ Fundamentals of ac power transmission
„ Transmission problems and needs: the
emergence of facts
„ FACTS Terms and Definitions
„ Basic Definitions
„ FACTS Controllers
„ Shunt
„ Series
„ Combined
Topic 1: Outline
„ Facts controllers
„ Facts control considerations

„ Current Interest: A Statistical

Survey
„ Summary & Conclusions
 INTRODUCTION

&
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Introduction
„ In the 1880s, two competitive systems
started to emerge:
„ direct current (dc) power generation and
transmission strongly pursued by Thomas
Edison, and
„ alternating current (ac) power generation
and transmission initiated in Europe and
transformed into a practical scheme with
Nikola Tesla's inventions.
Introduction
„ In 1896, George Westinghouse,
decisively won the early competition
when the famous Niagara hydro power
generation project convincingly
demonstrated viable "long distance" ac
power transmission over a 20 mile, 11
kV "high voltage" line from Niagara
Falls to the city of Buffalo, NY.
Introduction
„ The success of the prestigious Niagara
project fuelled the universal acceptance
and rapid development of ac power
systems. The key to this acceptance
was…WHAT?

TRANSFORMER
 Introduction
„ Edison's dc system was simple to visualize
where Only real quantities, voltage, current,
and resistance were involved, and Ohm's law
defined a simple relationship between them.
„ Since direct voltage could not be transformed
up or down, consequently, the I2R loss
prevented the transmission of even a modest
amount of power over more than a couple of
miles.
Introduction
„ The transformability of ac voltage seemingly
solved the long distance transmission
problem. However, ac transmission involves
both real and reactive circuit parameters and
variables.
„ As will be seen, the unavoidable reactive
power flow in ac lines present difficult
problems and ultimately imposes severe
limitations on traditional ac power
transmission, many of which were not fully
appreciated at the beginning.
Introduction
„ After more than half a century of Edison's
pioneering work, dc transmission was
reinvented with modern electronics
technology to solve the problems of long
distance power transmission.
„ It adds to the curiosity of this situation that,
today, power electronics, which made high
voltage dc transmission possible, is also being
applied to solve the outstanding problems of
ac transmission.
POWER SYSTEM
STRUCTURE
 FUNDAMENTALS OF AC
POWER TRANSMISSION
„ The main constituents of an ac power
system are:
„ generators,
„ transmission (subtransmission),

„ distribution,

„ loads,

with their related auxiliary support and

protection equipment.
Physical Structure
Physical Structure
Physical Structure
Time-Scale Structure
Political Structure
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
Basic Relationships

Lumped element representation

of a lossless transmission line
 Basic Relationships
The transmittable electric power of the system shown

V sV r
P= sin δ
Z 0 sin θ
Where
Vs is the magnitude of the sending-end (generator) voltage,
Vr is the magnitude of the receiving-end (generator) voltage,
δ is the phase angle between Vs and Vr (load angle),
Z0 is the surge or characteristic impedance given by
l
Z0 =
c
θ is the electrical length of the line
l is the series inductance
c is the shunt capacitance
Basic Relationships
„ The lossless line considered exhibits an
ideal power transmission characteristic
at the surge impedance or natural
loading, at which the transmitted power
is:
2
V
P0 = 0

Z0
Basic Relationships
„ At surge impedance loading the reactive
power exchange within the line is in
perfect balance.

Q l + Qc = 0
Basic Relationships
„ At lighter loads the transmission line is over
compensated.
„ The voltage increase across the series line
reactance, due to the charging current of the shunt
line capacitance, is greater than the voltage drop
caused by the load current.
„ As a result, the transmission line voltage increases
along the line, reaching its maximum at the mid-
point.

Q l + Qc < 0
Basic Relationships
„ At greater than surge impedance loading the
transmission line is under compensated.
„ That is, the voltage increase resulting from the
shunt line capacitance is insufficient to cancel the
voltage drop across the series line reactance due to
the load current.
„ Therefore, the voltage along the line decreases,
reaching the minimum at the mid-point.

Q l + Qc > 0
Basic Relationships
„ At greater than surge impedance loading the
transmission line is under compensated.
„ That is, the voltage increase resulting from the
shunt line capacitance is insufficient to cancel the
voltage drop across the series line reactance due to
the load current.
„ Therefore, the voltage along the line decreases,
reaching the minimum at the mid-point.

Q l + Qc > 0
 Basic Relationships
„ For the explanation of the major transmission
issues, and for the introduction of relevant
FACTS concepts, it is convenient to use an
approximate form characterizing electrically
short transmission lines, for which Z0 sinθ = X;
and the transmitted power becomes:

V sV r V2
P≅ sin δ or P≅ sin δ
X X
 Basic Relationships

Two machine power system, phasor diagram; power vs. angle characteristic
 Basic Relationships

Variation of transmission line mid-point voltage, line current, and power with angle δ
 Basic Relationships
„ It is clear that the maximum power, Pmax=V2/X, is totally
determined by the line reactance X and thus sets the
theoretical limit for steady- state power transmission.
„ On the other hand, practical limit for an actual line with
resistance R may be imposed by the I2R loss that heats
the conductor. At a certain temperature the physical
characteristics of the conductor would irreversibly
change (e.g., it could get deformed with a permanent
sag). This sets a thermal limit for the maximum
transmittable power.
„ Generally, for long lines X, and for short lines R would
provide the main transmission limitation.
 Basic Relationships

Comparison of different limits on the power flow

 Traditional compensation and
power flow control
„ Shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched
reactors are applied to minimize line overvoltage
under light load conditions.
„ Shunt connected, fixed or mechanically switched
capacitors are applied to maintain voltage levels
under heavy load conditions.
„ In the case of long transmission lines, series
capacitive compensation is often employed to
establish a virtual short line by reducing X.
„ A phase angle regulator (or phase shifter) may be
employed to control the overall transmission
angle.
 Basic approaches to increase
the transmittable power
„Shunt Compensation.
„Series Compensation.

„Phase Angle Regulation

These basic approaches will provide the foundation

for power electronics-based compensation and
control techniques capable not only of increasing
steady-state power flow but also of improving the
stability and overall dynamic behavior of the system
Ideal shunt compensation
 Ideal shunt compensation
Before
V 2
P≅ sin δ
X
δ V2
Q s = −Q r =V I sin = (1 − cos δ )
2 X
After
V2 δ
P =2 sin
X 2
δ
V2 δ
Q =V I sin = 2 (1 − cos )
4 X 2
 Ideal shunt compensation

Two machine power system with ideal reactive compensators

providing multiple line segmentation
 Ideal shunt compensation
„ Theoretically, the transmittable power would
double with each doubling of the segments for the
same overall line length.
„ Furthermore, with the increase in the number of
segments, the voltage variation along the line
would be constant voltage profile.
„ Ultimately, with a sufficiently large number of line
segments, an ideal distributed compensation
system could theoretically be established with no
power transmission limitations, and would maintain
a flat voltage profile at any load.
 Ideal shunt compensation

SVC rapidly adds or removes

shunt connected reactors
and/or capacitors.

jX ij / 2 jX ij / 2
Vi ∠δ i Vm ∠δ m V j ∠δ j XL

jBSVC
XC
Firing

sin (δ ij / 2 )
Angle
Vi V j
P=2 Control

X ij
 Series compensation

Two machine power system with series capacitive compensation;

phasor diagram; Power vs. angle characteristic
 Series compensation
The effective transmission impedance Xeff with the
series capacitive compensation is given by

Xeff = X – Xc
or
Xeff = (l – k) X
where k is the degree of series compensation, i.e.,
k = XC / X , 0≤ k < l
 Series compensation
2
V
P =V m I = sin δ
(1 − k )X
2
2V k
QC = I X C
2
= (1 − cos δ )
X (1 − k ) 2

Series capacitors have been used extensively in the

last 50 years throughout the world for the
compensation of long transmission lines.
 Series compensation
TCSC controls line flow
through the modulation of
the line reactance.
XL

jX ij (1 − k ) XC
Vi ∠δ i V j ∠δ j

s i n (δ i j )
V iV
P =
j

X i j (1 − k )
 Phase angle control

Phase shifter or phase angle regulator

is frequently applied when: -
„ power between two buses is transmitted
over parallel lines of different electrical
length
„ two buses are intertied whose prevailing
angle difference is insufficient to establish
the desired power flow.
Phase angle control
Phase angle control
With the above phase angle control
arrangement the effective phase angle
between the sending- and receiving-end
voltages thus becomes (δ – σ), the
transmitted power P can therefore be
expressed as:
2
V
P = sin(δ − σ )
X
 Phase angle control

Conventional mechanically operated phase shifter

 Phase angle control
v ∆v v'
TCPS controls line flow
through the modulation
of the phase angle
difference between the
voltages at both sides of
the line
1 .0 ∠ Φ : 1 .0 Vdc
∆v

jX ij
Vi ∠δ i V j ∠δ j v' v
vi v j Φ
P= sin(δ ij − Φ )
X ij
 Power Flow Modulation
3.00
No Compensation
Series Compensation
Shunt Compensation
Phase Angle Control
2.00
Power (pu)

1.00

0.00

0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00

Angle (rad)
DYNAMIC LIMITATIONS OF
POWER TRANSMISSION
 Dynamic limitations

„ Years ago, electric power systems were

simple and self-sufficient.
„ Transmission systems were designed with
fixed or mechanically-switched Devices.
„ The dynamic system problems were
handled by overdesign.
„ All these resulted in under utilization of
transmission systems.
 Dynamic limitations

„ Recent years, power demand

increased substantially while the
expansion was severely limited.
„ Consequently, some transmission lines
were more loaded than was planned.
„ With the increased loading, power
system stability became a limiting
factor of power transfer.
 Dynamic limitations

„ Interconnection results in local and

interarea oscillations (0.2 - 3 Hz).
„ Once started, they would continue

to grow causing system separation.

„ These oscillations present
limitations on the power transfer
capability.
 Dynamic limitations
„ power systems are exposed to various dynamic
disturbances (such as line faults, equipment failures,
various switching operations), which cause a sudden
change in the real power balance and consequent
acceleration and deceleration of certain machines.
„ The ability of the system to recover and regain the
steady-state synchronism becomes a major design
and operating criterion for transmission capacity.
„ This ability is usually characterized by the transient
and dynamic stability of the system.
 Dynamic limitations
„ A transmission system is said to be transiently
stable if it can recover normal operation
following a specified major disturbance.
„ Similarly, the system is said to be dynamically
stable if it recovers normal operation following
a minor disturbance.
„ A dynamic (or "oscillatory") instability means
that a minor disturbance may lead to
increasing power oscillation and the eventual
loss of synchronism.
DYNAMIC COMPENSATION
FOR STABILITY
ENHANCEMENT
 Dynamic Compensation
For Stability Enhancement
„ Shunt and series line compensation can
significantly increase the maximum
transmittable power.
„ Thus, these compensation techniques will
be able to change the power flow in the
system so as to increase the transient
stability limit and provide effective power
oscillation damping, as well as to prevent
voltage collapse.
 Dynamic Compensation
For Stability Enhancement
„ Similarly, the capability of the phase shifter to
vary the transmitted power by transmission angle
control can also be applied, with sufficiently fast
controls, to the improvement of transient and
dynamic system stability.
„ The potential effectiveness of the shunt, series,
and angle control for transient stability
improvement and power oscillation damping are
explored and compared.
„ Also, the use of shunt and series compensation
for the increase of voltage instability limit for a
radial transmission line is discussed.
 Transient Stability Improvement
„ The potential effectiveness of shunt and
series compensation and phase angle
control on transient stability improvement
can be conveniently evaluated by the
equal area criterion.
„ The meaning of the equal area criterion is
explained with the aid of the two machine
or single machine infinite bus system
 Equal Area Criterion

If a sudden change of mechanical power occurs

Pe

d
Machine Line Infinite bus

b A2
c e
Pm2
A1

Pm1
a

δ0 δs δm o δmax δ
90
 Equal Area Criterion

„ Initially, the operating point was a and the rotor angle

was δ = δ0 where Pm1 = Pe. Hence, at this point Pm1 – Pe
= Pa = 0
„ Finally, the operating point is b and the rotor angle is δ
= δs where Pm2 = Pe. Hence, at this point Pm2 – Pe = Pa =
0
„ Pe cannot change instantaneously. Hence, the difference
Pm2 – Pe = Pa will start accelerating the rotor. This will
continue until δ reaches and passes δs
„ As δ becomes greater than δs, Pe becomes greater than
Pm2 and the rotor starts decelerating. This will continue
until δ reaches δm
 Equal Area Criterion

„ δ starts decreasing and oscillating around b until

it finally reaches the new steady state δs
„ The excess energy stored in the inertia during
acceleration is shown as A1 = area abc
„ The excess energy stored in the inertia during
acceleration is returned back during deceleration
as A2 = area bde
„ For net energy be zero A1 must equal A2
 Equal Area Criterion

If a sudden fault occurs at the sending end of the line. After some
time, the fault is cleared without line tripping.
 Equal Area Criterion

For Critical Clearing Time (CCT) calculation.

 Equal Area Criterion

If a sudden fault occurs at the middle of one line. After some time,
the fault is cleared with line tripping.
Equal Area Criterion

If a sudden
fault occurs
as shown.
After some
time, the
fault is
cleared by
tripping the
faulted
segment.
 Equal Area Criterion

For comparison, consider the four basic two-machine

(sending-end generator, receiving-end infinite bus)
systems, with
„ no compensation,

„ mid-point shunt compensation,

„ series compensation, and

„ phase angle control,

Suppose that in all cases the steady-state power

transmitted is the same. Assume that all four
systems are subjected to the same fault for the
same period of time. The dynamic behavior of the
four systems is illustrated in the following Figures
Equal Area Criterion

No Compensation.
Equal Area Criterion

Shunt Compensation.
Equal Area Criterion

Series Compensation.
Equal Area Criterion

Phase Angle Control

Equal Area Criterion
 Power Oscillation Damping
„ Any minor disturbance can cause the machine
angle to oscillate around its steady state value at
the natural frequency of the total
electromechanical system.
„ The angle oscillation, of course, results in a
corresponding power oscillation around the
steady-state power transmitted.
„ The lack of sufficient damping can be a major
problem in some power systems and, in some
cases it may be the limiting factor for the
transmittable power.
 Power Oscillation Damping
„ Until the late 1970s, the excitation control
of rotating synchronous machines was the
available active means for power
oscillation damping.
„ Later technological developments made it
possible to vary rapidly reactive shunt and
series compensation, as well as
transmission angle, thereby facilitating
highly effective power oscillation damping.
 Power Oscillation Damping

PSSs
proposed as
a candidate
solution to
enhance the
damping
 PSS Limitation
PSSs may cause great variations in
1.60
voltage profile under severe faults.
1.400
CPSS

CPSS GPSS
T e rm in a l V o lta g e (p u )

T e rm in a l V o lta g e (p u )
1.40
TCPS only 1.300 GCSC
Coordinated TCPS and PSS

1.20
1.200

1.00 1.100

0.80 1.000

0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00
Time (s) Time (s)
Power Oscillation Damping
 Power Oscillation Damping
„ As the illustrations show, a "bang-bang" type
control (output is varied between minimum and
maximum values) is assumed for all three
compensation approaches. This type of control is
generally considered the most effective,
particularly if large oscillations are encountered.
„ However, for damping relatively small power
oscillations, a strategy that varies the controlled
output of the compensator continuously may be
preferred.
 Power Oscillation Damping
2.00

PSS
1.75
SVC
1.50 TCSC
δ (rad)

TCPS
1.25

1.00

0.75

0.50

0 2 4 6
Time (s)
 Power Oscillation Damping
70
PSS
65 C - Based Controller
Φ - Based Controller
60
δ (deg)

55

50

45

40

0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
Increase Of Voltage Stability Limit
 TRANSMISSION
PROBLEMS AND NEEDS:

THE EMERGENCE OF
FACTS
 Emergence Of FACTS
„ The basic limitations of classic ac power
transmission (distance, stability, and controllability
of flow), which have necessitated the under-
utilization of lines and other assets, and the
potential of mitigating these limitations cost
effectively by controlled compensation, provided
the early incentives in the late 1970s to introduce
power electronics-based control for reactive
compensation.
„ This normal evolutionary process has been greatly
accelerated by more recent developments in the
utility industry.
 Emergence Of FACTS

„ The desire to find solutions to these

problems and limitations led to focused
technological developments under the
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
initiative of the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI) in the United States with
the ultimate objective to provide power
electronics-based, real time control for
transmission systems.
 Emergence Of FACTS
„ The recent advances in power electronics
have led to the development of FACTS.
„ Generally, a potential motivation for the
accelerated use of FACTS devices is the
deregulation environment.
„ FACTS can enhance transmission system
control and increase line loading without
compromising reliability.
 Emergence Of FACTS

„ FACTS devices have shown very promising

results when used to improve power
system steady-state performance.
„ Along with primary function of the FACTS
devices, the real power flow can be
regulated to mitigate the low frequency
oscillations.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
AND PROBLEMS
 Recent developments and
problems
„ The unprecedented technological developments
after the Second World War with rapid industrial
growth resulted in a dramatic increase in the
demand for electric power and the industry
capacity expanded nearly tenfold from the 1950s
to the early 1970s.
„ This huge increase in power demand was
answered by major expansion of generation and
transmission facilities, and by the formation of
regional power pools and increasing
interconnection of individual power systems.
 Recent developments and
problems
„ The socioeconomic conditions had
unexpectedly begun to change during the
1970s with the utility industry facing a set
of difficult economic, environmental, and
social problems. The oil embargo in the mid
1970s, public opposition to nuclear power,
and social focus on clean air and other
environmental issues led to considerable
increases in operating cost and
governmental intervention.
 Recent developments and
problems
„ The problems imposed by the new socioeconomic
conditions fuelled the further growth of interconnection
among neighboring utility systems to share power with
other regional pools and be part of a growing national
grid.
„ The underlying reason for this integration has been to
take advantage of the diversity of loads, changes in peak
demand due to weather and time differences, the
availability of different generation reserves in various
geographic regions, shifts in fuel prices, regulatory
changes, and other factors which may manifest
themselves differently in other time and geographic
zones.
 Recent developments and
problems
„ In the interconnected system "contracted" power was to be
delivered sometimes from a distant generation site, often by
"wheeling" it through the transmission systems of several
utilities, to the designated load area.
„ The voltage support and transient stability requirements of
the expanding interconnected network also led to the
increasing applications of controllable var compensators
beginning in the late 1970s.
„ To date, there are about 20,000 controllable Mvars installed
in the USA, Canada, and Mexico, and about 70,000 Mvars
worldwide.
OBJECTIVES OF FACTS
 Objectives of FACTS
„ The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI), in the late 1980s, formalized the
broad concept of Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS).
„ The acronym FACTS identifies alternating
current transmission systems
incorporating power electronics-based
controllers to enhance the controllability
and increase power transfer capability.
 Objectives of FACTS
„ The FACTS initiative was originally launched to
solve the emerging system problems in the late
1980s due to restrictions on transmission line
construction, and to facilitate the growing
power export/import and wheeling transactions
among utilities, with two main objectives:
„ To increase the power transfer capability of
transmission systems, and
„ To keep power flow over designated routes.
 Objectives of FACTS
„ It is easy to see that the achievement
of the two basic objectives would
significantly increase the utilization of
existing (and new) transmission
assets.
„ This could play a major role in
facilitating deregulation with minimal
requirements for new transmission
lines.
 Objectives of FACTS
„ The implementation of the above two basic
objectives requires the development of high
power compensators and controllers.
„ The technology needed for this is high power
(multi-hundred MVA) electronics ,with its real-
time operating control.
„ This challenge is to develop appropriate
system optimization control strategies,
communication links, and security protocols.
 Objectives of FACTS
„ However, once a sufficiently large number of these fast
compensators and controllers are deployed over the
system, the coordination and overall control to provide
maximum system benefits and prevent undesirable
interactions with different system configurations and
objectives, under normal and contingency conditions,
present a different technological challenge.
„ The realization of such an overall system optimization
control can be considered as the third objective of the
FACTS initiative.
FACTS TERMS
&
DEFINITIONS
 FACTS TERMS AND
DEFINITIONS
„ Basic Definitions

„ FACTS Controllers Definitions

„ Shunt Connected Controllers
„ Series Connected Controllers
„ Combined Shunt and Series Connected
Controllers
 Basic Definitions
„ Flexibility of Electric Power Transmission: The
ability to accommodate changes in the electric
transmission system or operating conditions while
maintaining sufficient steady state and transient
margins.
„ Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS):
Alternating current transmission systems incorporating
power electronic-based and other static controllers to
enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability.
„ FACTS Controller: A power electronic-based system
and other static equipment that provide control of one
or more AC transmission system parameters.
 Shunt Connected
Controllers
„ Battery Energy Storage System (BESS):
A chemical-based energy storage system using shunt
connected, voltage sourced converters capable of
rapidly adjusting the amount of energy which is
supplied to or absorbed from an ac system.
„ Static Synchronous Compensator (SSC or
STATCOM):
A static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-
connected static var compensator whose capacitive or
inductive output current can be controlled independent
of the ac system voltage.
 Shunt Connected
Controllers
„ Static Condenser (STATCON):
This term is deprecated in favor of the Static
Synchronous Compensator (SSC or STATCOM).
„ Static Synchronous Generator (SSG):
A static, self-commutated switching power
converter supplied from an appropriate electric
energy source and operated to produce a set
of adjustable multi-phase output voltages,
which may be coupled to an ac power system
for the purpose of exchanging independently
controllable real and reactive power.
 Shunt Connected
Controllers
„ Static Var Compensator (SVC):
A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber
whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or
inductive current so as to maintain or control specific
parameters of the electrical power system (typically
bus voltage).
„ Static Var Generator or Absorber (SVG):
A static electrical device, equipment, or system that is
capable of drawing controlled capacitive and/or
inductive current from an electrical power system and
thereby generating or absorbing reactive power.
Generally considered to consist of shunt-connected,
thyristor-controlled reactor(s) and/ or thyristor-
switched capacitors.
 Shunt Connected
Controllers
„ Static Var System (SVS):
A combination of different static and mechanically-
switched var compensators whose outputs are
coordinated.
„ Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES):
A Superconducting electromagnetic energy storage device
containing electronic converters that rapidly injects and/or
absorbs real and/or reactive power or dynamically controls
power flow in an ac system.
„ Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR):
A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched resistor, which is
controlled to aid stabilization of a power system or to
minimize power acceleration of a generating unit during a
disturbance.
 Shunt Connected
Controllers
„ Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR):
A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled
inductor whose effective reactance is varied
in a continuous manner by partial-
conduction control of the thyristor valve.
„ Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC):
A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched
capacitor whose effective reactance is
varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-
conduction operation of the thyristor valve.
 Shunt Connected
Controllers
„ Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR):
A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched
inductor whose effective reactance is varied
in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-
conduction operation of the thyristor valve.
„ Var Compensating System (VCS):
A combination of different static and
rotating var compensators whose outputs
are coordinated.
 Series Connected
Controllers
„ Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC or
S3C):
A static, synchronous generator operated without an
external electric energy source as a series compensator
whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and
controllable independently of, the line current for the
purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall reactive
voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the
transmitted electric power. The S3C may include
transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing
devices to enhance the dynamic behavior of the power
system by additional temporary real power compensation,
to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall real
(resistive) voltage drop across the line.
 Series Connected
Controllers
„ Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):
A capacitive reactance compensator which
consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by
thyristor controlled reactor in order to provide a
smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.
„ Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation:
An impedance compensator which is applied in
series on an ac transmission system to provide
smooth control of series reactance.
 Series Connected
Controllers
„ Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR):
An inductive reactance compensator which
consists of a series reactor shunted by a thyristor
controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly
variable series inductive reactance.
„ Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):
A capacitive reactance compensator which
consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by a
thyristor switched reactor to provide a step-wise
control of series capacitive reactance.
 Series Connected
Controllers
„ Thyristor Switched Series Compensation:
An impedance compensator which is applied in
series on an ac transmission system to provide a
step-wise control of series reactance.
„ Thyristor Switched Series Reactor (TSSR):
An inductive reactance compensator which
consists of series reactor shunted by thyristor
switched reactor in order to provide a step-wise
control of series inductive reactance.
 Combined Connected
Controllers
„ Interphase Power Controller (IPC):
A series-connected controller of active and
reactive power consisting, in each phase, of
inductive and capacitive branches subjected to
separately phase-shifted voltages. The active and
reactive power can be set independently by
adjusting the phase shifts and/or the branch
impedances, using mechanical or electronic
switches. In the particular case where the
inductive and capacitive impedances form a
conjugate pair, each terminal of the IPC is a
passive current source dependent on the voltage
at the other terminal.
 Combined Connected
Controllers
„ Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):
A combination of a static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM) and a static synchronous series compensator
(S3C) which are coupled via a common dc link, to allow bi-
directional flow of real power between the series output
terminals of the S3C and the shunt output terminals of the
STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent real
and reactive series line compensation without an external
electric energy source. The UPFC, by means of angularly
unconstrained series voltage injection, is able to control,
concurrently or selectively, the transmission line voltage,
impedance, and angle or, alternatively, the real and
reactive power flow in the line. The UPFC may also provide
independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.
 Combined Connected
Controllers
„ Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting
Transformer (TCPST):
A phase-shifting transformer, adjusted by
thyristor switches to provide a rapidly
variable phase angle.
FACTS CONTROLLERS
 Thyristor controlled FACTS
controllers
„ static var compensator (SVC),
„ thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC),
„ thyristor-controlled phase-shifter (TCPS),

„ These employ conventional thyristors (i.e.,

those having no intrinsic turn-off ability)
„ They have much faster response and are
operated by sophisticated controls.
Thyristor controlled FACTS controllers
 Static var compensator
(SVC)

SVC employing FC/TCR

jXij / 2 jXij / 2
Vi∠δi Vm∠δm Vj∠δ j
XL

jBSVC
XC
Firing
Angle
Control
Static var compensator (SVC)

SVC employing TSCs and TCRs

Static var compensator (SVC)

V-I Characteristics
 Static var compensator (SVC)
„ The maximum obtainable capacitive current
decreases linearly with the system voltage
since the SVC becomes a fixed capacitor
when the maximum capacitive output is
reached.
„ Therefore, the voltage support capability of
the conventional SVC rapidly deteriorates
with decreasing system voltage.
Static var compensator (SVC)

Power Transfer Capacity

Thyristor-controlled series capacitor
(TCSC)

XL jX ij (1 − k )
Vi ∠δ i V j ∠δ j

XC

FC/TCR
Thyristor-controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

(a) TSCs; (b) FC/TCR

Thyristor-controlled Phase Shifter (TCPS)
 Converter Based FACTS
Controllers
„ They employ self-commutated, voltage-sourced switching
converters to realize rapidly controllable, static,
synchronous ac voltage or current sources.
„ This approach, when compared to conventional
compensation methods employing thyristors, generally
provides superior performance characteristics and uniform
applicability for transmission voltage, effective line
impedance, and angle control.
„ It also offers the unique potential to exchange real power
directly with the ac system, in addition to providing the
independently controllable reactive power compensation,
thereby giving a powerful new option for flow control and
the counteraction of dynamic disturbances.
 Converter Based FACTS
Controllers
„ Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
„ Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
„ Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
„ Interline power flow controller (IPFC)

„ These employ synchronous voltage source (SVS).

„ They can exchange real power with the ac system.
 Converter Based FACTS
Controllers
„ The STATCOM, like its conventional
counterpart, the SVC, controls
transmission voltage by reactive shunt
compensation.
„ The SSSC provides series compensation
by directly controlling the voltage across
the series impedance of the transmission
line thereby controlling the effective
transmission impedance.
 Converter Based FACTS
Controllers
„ The UPFC can control, individually or in
combination, all three effective transmission
parameters (voltage, impedance, and angle) or
directly, the real and reactive power flow in the
line.
„ The IPFC is able to transfer real power
between lines, in addition to providing reactive
series compensation, and thereby can facilitate
a comprehensive overall real and reactive
power management for a multi-line
transmission system.
Converter Based FACTS Controllers
Converter Based FACTS Controllers
Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

V-I characteristic of the STATCOM

Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

Power transfer capacity of the STATCOM

Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)

Transient stability improvemen of the STATCOM

 Static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM)
„ The ability of the STATCOM to produce full
capacitive output current at low system voltage
also makes it highly effective in improving the
transient (first swing) stability.
„ The effectiveness of the STATCOM for the
increase of transmittable power is illustrated.
„ the sharp decrease of transmitted power P in
the π/2 < δ < π region, characterizing the
power transmission of an SVC supported
system, is avoided and the obtainable area
representing the improvement in stability margin
is significantly increased.
 Static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM)
„ Although the basic concepts of switching converter-
based shunt compensators were established in the early
1970s, the development of practical hardware did not
start until the mid 1980s due to the lack of suitable high
power semiconductors.
„ The emergence of the FACTS initiative in the USA, and
other incentives in Japan, accelerated the developments
considerably in the 1990s.
„ Presently there are three STATCOM installations both in
the USA and Japan for transmission line compensation.
Several others for arc furnace and other power quality
applications are also in service.
„ Additional installations are on order or in a planning
stage.
 Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)

A synchronous voltage source operated as SSSC

 Static synchronous series
compensator (SSSC)

„ The transmitted power P versus δ characterizing

an SSSC can be expressed

V2 VVq δ
P= sin δ + cos
X X 2

„The SSSC has considerably wider control range than

the controlled series capacitor of the same MVA rating.
„A prototype SSSC installation of ±160 Mvar is
completed in the USA.
Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
Unified power flow controller (UPFC)

Basic concept of the UPFC

Unified power flow controller (UPFC)

Implementation of the UPFC

 Unified power flow controller (UPFC)

v2
v1
i1 vs i2

BT
VSC − E VSC − B
ET
Vdc

Cdc

mE δE mB δB

Implementation of the UPFC

Unified power flow controller (UPFC)

P versus δ control range for a UPFC

Interline power flow controller (IPFC)

Elementary IPFC
Interline power flow controller (IPFC)

Multi-line IPFC
Interline power flow controller (IPFC)

Generalized IPFC consisting of n SSSCs and a STATCOM

 FACTS CONTROL
CONSIDERATIONS
 FACTS DEVICES - 1

First Generation
(Thyristor-based)

Shunt Series Phase Angle

SVC TCSC TCPS

 FACTS DEVICES - 2

Second Generation
(GTO-based)

Shunt Series Combined

STATCOM SSSC UPFC/IPFC

 FACTS Control Considerations
„ Although presently a large number of SVC installations
exist (due to the SVC's commercial availability over the
last 20 years), the converter-based FACTS controllers
clearly represent the future trend due to their superior
performance and, more importantly, to their much
greater functional operating flexibility.
„ For example, the recently commissioned 160 MVA UPFC
installation at the Inez substation of American Electric
Power can be reconfigured into a ±320 MVAR STATCOM,
or a ±320 MVAR SSSC, or a independently operated
±160 MVAR STATCOM and ±160 MVAR SSSC. The 200
MVA two converter installation under development for
the New York Power Authority will have the
comprehensive capability to operate as a STATCOM, an
SSSC, a UPFC, or an IPFC.
Functional control of a single FACTS controller

Inputs to a generalized SVS

 FACTS area control: possibilities and
issues

„ The direct coordination of fast FACTS controllers

and other devices seems prudent if not
absolutely necessary.
„ From the technical standpoint the most plausible
system control structure to manage the
transmission grid as a dynamic entity is
hierarchical, built up with layers of controls from
the level of each individual FACTS controller
ultimately to the top level central control that
strategically coordinates the operation of the
overall network.
FACTS area control: possibilities and issues

Possible hierarchical control scheme for inter-connected power system

 FACTS area control: possibilities and
issues
„ The establishment of a viable hierarchical system
control for a large transmission grid will be a
huge task.
„ It will require fundamental changes in control
strategies, development of new system security
procedures and wide-area measurement
capabilities together with highly reliable
communication links and protocols.
„ It will also require the development of analytical
(software) tools to process real time information
for system security, voltage, and rotational
stability assessments.
 FACTS area control: possibilities and
issues

„ In addition to the many challenging technical

issues, the hierarchical control of FACTS-based
power transmission also poses difficult political,
ownership, and responsibility problems.
„ If there will be individually owned area sub-
systems (presently individual utility systems)
forming an overall national grid, who will have
the ultimate responsibility to run the central
control and determine how the area systems will
be utilized (and thus how the areas will
economically benefit)?
 FACTS area control: possibilities and
issues

„ Who will determine which area systems should

be upgraded, and at whose expense, to make
the overall system more efficient or secure?
„ How will effective competitiveness between the
area sub-systems be maintained and, at the
same time, the required centrally directed
coordination and cooperation be maintained?
„ Would a national transmission grid with single
ownership in a large country be feasible and
economically practical?
 FACTS area control: possibilities and
issues
„ There are many questions like these and many
different answers, each based on different
transmission network and organizational
structures.
„ Only time will tell which will succeed.
„ The incentives, however, are clearly established:
FACTS with broad application of advanced
technologies promises to facilitate deregulation
with its potential economic benefits by
significantly increasing and expanding power
transfers through presently constrained power
delivery systems, thus providing power at lower
cost to a greater number of customers.
PERFORMANCE
COMPARISON
 Comparative Evaluation of CCT
UPFC

TCSC

STATCOM

SVC

Base

0 5 10 15 20 25
CCT in Cycles
 Cost Comparison
Shunt capacitor $8/kVAR
Conventional series capacitor $20/kVAR
Conventional phase shifter $20/kVAR
SVC $40/kVAR
TCSC $40/kVAR
STATCOM $50/kVAR
UPFC series portion $50/kVAR
UPFC shunt portion $50/kVAR
Control
Attributes
for
Various
FACTS
Controllers
STATISTICAL SURVEY
 Statistical Survey of FACTS
Applications
Two Electronic Databases have been used:-
1. IEEE Xplore: 1,130,773 documents
2. ScienceDirect: 6,709,316 documents

The survey spans over the last 15 years

1. First Period : 1990-1994,
2. Second Period : 1995-1999, and
3. Third Period : 2000-2004.
 Number of Publications (General)

1990-94 1995-99 2000-04

350
295
300
263 260
250 222

200 172
158
150 124
98
100 77
64 66
50 33
18 19
7 4 6 2
0
SVC TCSC TCPS STATCOM SSSC UPFC
 Number of Publications (Stability)

1990-94 1995-99 2000-04

120 114
103
100 94
90
82 80
80

60 52

38
40 32
26 28

20
5 8 6
4 1 2 1
0
SVC TCSC TCPS STATCOM SSSC UPFC
 Statistical Survey of FACTS
Applications

% increase of publications in different problems

SVC TCSC TCPS STATCOM SSSC UPFC
3rd / 2nd 18.5 38.7 -48.4 283.1 247.4 165.3

% increase of publications in power system stability

SVC TCSC TCPS STATCOM SSSC UPFC
3rd / 2nd 26.7 14.6 -69.2 110.5 366.7 221.9
 Statistical Survey of FACTS
Applications

% ratio of publications in power system

stability to other problems

SVC TCSC TCPS STATCOM SSSC UPFC

66 146 51 46 65 61
 SUMMARY &
CONCLUSIONS
 Summary
„ An ac power system is a complex network.
„ Each transmission line can be represented
as series inductors and shunt capacitors.
„ The total series inductance determines at a
given voltage, the maximum transmittable
power.
„ The shunt capacitance influences the
voltage profile along the transmission line.
 Summary
„ The transmitted power over a given line is
determined by the line impedance, the
magnitude of, and phase angle between the
end voltages.
„ The capability of a power system to remain in
synchronism after disturbances is
characterized by its transient, dynamic, and
voltage stability.
„ The stability requirements usually determine
the maximum transmittable power at a
stipulated system security level.
 Summary
„ The power transmission capability of
transmission lines can be increased by reactive
compensation and phase angle control.
„ Reactive compensation and phase angle
control have been applied by fixed or
mechanically switched circuit elements.
„ The recovery from dynamic disturbances was
accomplished by generous stability margins at
the price of relatively poor system utilization.
 Summary
„ Since the 1970s, energy cost,
environmental restrictions, …etc, have
delayed the construction of both
generation facilities and, in particular,
new transmission lines in different
countries.
„ In this time period, there have also been
profound changes in the industrial
structure and significant geographic
shifts of highly populated areas.
 Summary
„ In the late 1980s, EPRI formulated the
vision of FACTS in which various power-
electronics based controllers regulate
power flow and transmission voltage
and, through rapid control action,
mitigate dynamic disturbances.
„ The main objectives of FACTS are to
increase the useable transmission
capacity of lines and control power flow
over designated transmission routes.
 Summary
„ There are two approaches to the
realization of power electronics-based
FACTS controllers:
„ one employs conventional thyristor-
switched capacitors and reactors, and
quadrature tap-changing transformers.
This has resulted in SVC, TCSC, and TCPS.
„ the other self-commutated switching
converters as synchronous voltage
sources. This approach has produced the
STATCOM, SSSC, UPFC, and IPFC.
 Summary
„ The thyristor-controlled group employs
capacitor and reactor banks with fast solid-
state switches in traditional shunt or series
circuit arrangements.
„ The thyristor switches control the on and off
periods of the fixed capacitor and reactor
banks and thereby, in effect, realize a
variable reactive (shunt or series)
impedance.
„ Except for losses, they cannot exchange real
power with the ac system.
 Summary
„ The synchronous voltage source (SVS) type
FACTS controller group employs self-
commutated dc to ac converters, using gate
turn-off thyristors, which can internally
generate capacitive and inductive reactive
power for transmission line compensation,
without the use of ac capacitor or reactor
banks.
„ The converter, supported by a dc power supply
or energy storage device, can also exchange
real power with the ac system, in addition to
the independently controllable reactive power.
 Summary
„ The converter-based SVS can be used
uniformly to control transmission line
voltage, impedance, and angle by
providing reactive shunt compensation,
series compensation, and phase
shifting, or to control directly the real
and reactive power flow in the line by
forcing the necessary voltage across
the series line impedance.
 Summary
„ As a reactive series compensator, the SVS can
provide controllable series capacitive
compensation without the danger of sub-
synchronous resonance.
„ Its capability to maintain the maximum
compensating voltage independent of the line
current, and to provide capacitive as well as
inductive compensation, results in a much wider
control range than possible with controlled series
capacitor compensation.
„ This makes it highly effective in power flow
control, as well as in power oscillation damping.
 Summary
„ The arrangement of two synchronous voltage
sources, one in shunt-connection and the
other in series-connection, results in the novel
UPFC.
„ This arrangement can provide concurrent or
individual voltage, impedance, and angle
regulation or, alternatively, independent real
and reactive power flow control and thus can
readily adapt to particular short term
contingencies or future system modifications.
 Summary
„ The arrangement of two or more synchronous voltage
sources, each in series with a different line, results in the
unique IPFC.
„ The IPFC scheme provides, together with the
independently controllable reactive compensation in each
line, a capability to transfer real power between lines.
„ This capability makes it possible to properly equalize power
flow among lines, to transfer power demand from
overloaded to underloaded lines, as well as to compensate
against resistive voltage drops and the corresponding
reactive line power.
„ In general, the IPFC provides a highly effective scheme for
the control of a multi-line transmission system.
 Summary
„ The deployment of increasing number of FACTS controllers
will make it necessary to reconceptualize the control of the
transmission system as a dynamic entity in order to
prevent undesirable interactions and obtain attainable
maximum economic and operating benefits.
„ A hierarchical control appears to be a promising candidate
scheme.
„ Its ultimate form and operation, however, will depend not
only on the successful development of the necessary
control and communication technologies and protocols, but
also on the eventual structure of the evolving power
delivery industry.