DANILES, DANHILL J.

BSED IV/SMED 20
Chapter 3

Exercise #1.
For each group in the following list, find the order of the group and the order of each
element in the group. What relation do you see between the orders of the elements of a
group and the order of the group? ℤ12 , 𝑈(10), 𝑈(12), 𝑈(20), 𝐷4

Solution:
a. ℤ12 = 12
Since |0| = 1, where 0 is the identity element, then |1| = 12, where 12 ⋅ 1 = 0
(addition modulo 12). Also, (1)−1 = 12 − 1 = 11, where |11| = 12.
Thus,
|1| 12 12
|2| = |2−1 | = |10| = |2 ⋅ 1| = = = =6
(|1|, 2) (12,2) 2
|1| 12 12
|3| = |3−1 | = |9| = |3 ⋅ 1| = = = =4
(|1|, 3) (12,3) 3
|1| 12 12
|4| = |4−1 | = |8| = |4 ⋅ 1| = = = =3
(|1|, 4) (12,4) 4
|1| 12 12
|5| = |5−1 | = |7| = |5 ⋅ 1| = = = = 12
(|1|, 5) (12,5) 1
|1| 12 12
|6| = |6−1 | = |6| = |6 ⋅ 1| = = = =2
(|1|, 6) (12,6) 6
b. 𝑈(10)
𝑈(10) = ∅10 = ∅(2 ⋅ 5) = ∅(2) ∅(5) = 1 ⋅ 4 = 4
Since 𝑈(10) = {1,3,7,9} then |1| = 1, where 1 is the identity element. Hence,
|3| = 4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 34 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
|7| = 4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 74 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
|9| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 94 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 10)
c. 𝑈(12)
Note that 𝑈(12) = {1,5,7,11}, So |1| = 1, where 1 is the identity element. Thus,
|5| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 52 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
|7| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 72 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
|11| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 112 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)
d. 𝑈(20)
Note that 𝑈(12) = {1,5,7,11}, So |1| = 1, where 1 is the identity element. Thus,
|3| = |3−1 | = |7| = 4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 34 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 20)
|9| = |9−1 | = |9| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 92 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 20)
|11| = |11−1 | = |11| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 112 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 20)
|13| = |13−1 | = |13| = 4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 134 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 20)
|17| = |17−1 | = |17| = 4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 174 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 20)
 |19| = |19−1 | = |19| = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 192 = 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 20)
e. 𝐷4
Note that 𝐷4 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅90 , 𝑅180, 𝑅270 , 𝐻, 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝐷1 }, where |𝐷4 | = 2 ⋅ 4 = 8. So, since
|𝐻 | = |𝑉 | = |𝐷 | = |𝐷1| = 2, then
|𝑅0 | = 1, where 1 is the identity element
|𝑅90 | = |(𝑅90 )−1 | = |𝑅270 | = 4, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑅90 )4 = 𝑅0
|𝑅180 | = |(𝑅180 )−1 | = |𝑅180 | = 2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑅180 )2 = 𝑅0

Exercise #5.
Let 𝑎 belong to a group and |𝑎| = 𝑚. If 𝑛 is relatively prime to 𝑚, show that 𝑎 can be
written as the 𝑛𝑡ℎ power of some element in the group.

Solution:
In theorem 0.2, it gives us integers k, l while we know that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑚, 𝑛) = 1. Thus, 1 = 𝑘𝑚 +
𝑛𝑙.
Now,
𝑎 = 𝑎1
= 𝑎𝑘𝑚+𝑛𝑙
= (𝑎 𝑚 )𝑘 (𝑎 𝑙 )𝑛
= 𝑒 𝑘 (𝑎 𝑙 )𝑛
= (𝑎 𝑙 )𝑛
Therefore, 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑛 , where 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑙

Exercise #7.
Without actually computing the orders, explain why the two elements in each of the
following parts of elements from ℤ30 must have the same order: {2,28}, {8,22}. Do the same
of the following pairs of elements from 𝑈(15): {2,8}, {7,13}.

Solution:
a. In 𝛧30, 2−1 = 28 and 8−1 = 22.
⇒ |2| = |28| and |8| = |22|.
b. In U(15), 2−1 = 8 and 7−1 = 13.
⇒ |2| = |8| and |7| = |13|.

Therefore, the order of 𝛧30 are {2,28}, {8,22}. While, U(15) are {2,8}{7,13}.

Exercise #9.
If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are group elements and |𝑎| = 6, |𝑏| = 7, express (𝑎4 𝑐 −2 𝑏4 )−1 without using
negative exponents.

Solution:
Since |𝑎| = 6, so
 𝑎6 = 𝑒
𝑎2+4 = 𝑒
𝑎2 𝑎4 = 𝑒
𝑎2 = 𝑎−4 𝑒
𝑎2 = 𝑎−4
And
|𝑏 | = 7
𝑏7 = 𝑒
𝑏3+4 = 𝑒
𝑏3𝑏4 = 𝑒
𝑏3 = 𝑏−4 𝑒
𝑏3 = 𝑏−4

(𝑎4 𝑐 −1 𝑏4 )−1 = (𝑏4 )−1 (𝑐 −2)−1 (𝑎4 )−1

= (𝑏4𝑥−1 )(𝑐 −2𝑥−1 )(𝑎4𝑥−1 )
= 𝑏 −4 𝑐 2 𝑎−4
= 𝑏 3 𝑐 2 𝑎2
Therefore, 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 are the group elements and |𝑎| = 6, |𝑏| = 7 express (𝑎4 𝑐 −1 𝑏4 )−1
without using negative exponents as 𝑏3 𝑐 2 𝑎2 .

Exercise #11.
Find a non-Abelian subgroup of order 6 in 𝐷6 .

Solution:
𝑇(𝑛) = number of the divisor of n
𝐴(𝑛) = sum of all of the divisor of n

Subgroups of 𝐷6 (𝑛 = 6) = 𝑇(6) + 𝑎(6)

360
Since , where 𝑛 = 6, and 𝐷𝑛 = 𝐷6 , 𝑛 = 6, so,
𝑛
𝐷6 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅60 , 𝑅120, 𝑅180 , 𝑅240 , 𝑅300 , 𝐹, 𝑅60 𝐹, 𝑅120 𝐹, 𝑅180𝐹, 𝑅240 𝐹, 𝑅300 𝐹 }

Non-Abelians are {𝑅0 , 𝑅120, 𝑅240 , 𝐹, 𝑅120 𝐹, 𝑅240 𝐹 }, where F is any reflection in 𝐷6 .

Exercise #13.
What can you say about a subgroup of 𝐷4 that contains 𝑅270 and a reflection? What can you
say about a subgroup of 𝐷4 that contains 𝐻 and 𝑉?

Solution:
a. Since 𝐷4 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅90 , 𝑅180 , 𝑅270 , 𝐻, 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝐷1 } then let H be the subgroup of 𝐷4 which
contains 𝑅270 and a reflection H.
 Also, since 𝑅0 is the identity element of 𝐷4 implies 𝑅0 ∈ 𝐻. As 𝑅270 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒
(𝑅270 )−1 = 𝑅90 ∈ 𝐻1

Since 𝑅270 , 𝑅270 ∈ 𝐻1 ⇒ (𝑅270 )(𝑅270) = 𝑅180 ∈ 𝐻1 .

So, 𝐻1 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅90 , 𝑅180 , 𝑅270 , 𝐻 }.
Now, |𝐻1 | = 5 + |𝐷4 | = 8.
Therefore, 𝐻1 must contains remaining three reflections 𝑉, 𝐷, 𝐷1.
Thus, 𝐻1 contains all the 8 elements of 𝐷4 .

b. Let 𝐻2 be the subgroup of 𝐷4 that contains H and D. Since 𝐷, 𝐻, ∈ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝐷𝐻 = 𝑅270 ∈

𝐻2 .

Now, 𝐻2 contains 𝑅270 and reflection H implies 𝐻2 contains all the 8 elements of 𝐷4 .
Since 𝑅0 is the identity element of 𝐷4 implies 𝑅0 ∈ 𝐻3 .
As 𝐻, 𝑉 ∈ 𝐻3 ⇒ 𝐻𝑉 = 𝑅180 ∈ 𝐻3 .

Therefore, 𝐻3 = {𝑅0 , 𝑅180, 𝐻, 𝑉 }

Exercise #17.
For any group elements 𝑎 and 𝑥, prove that |𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 | = |𝑎|.

Solution:
|𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 | = |𝑎|
|𝑒𝑎| = |𝑎|
| 1 ⋅ 𝑎 | = |𝑎 |
|𝑎 | = |𝑎 |
𝑎=𝑎

𝑒 = (𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 )𝑛
• 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 −1 (𝑥𝑎𝑛 𝑥 −1 )𝑥
= 𝑥 −1 (𝑒𝑎𝑛 )𝑥
= 𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑛 𝑥
• 𝑒 = (𝑥𝑎𝑥 −1 )𝑛
= 𝑥𝑎𝑛 𝑥 −1
= 𝑥𝑒𝑥 −1

Exercise #27.
Show that 𝑈(14) = (3) = (5). [Hence, 𝑈(14) is cyclic:] Is 𝑈(14) = (11)? Show that
𝑈(20) ≠ (𝑘 ) for any 𝑘 in 𝑈(20). [Hence, 𝑈(20) is not cyclic.]

Solution:
A group of G is said to be cyclic group if there exist an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that every
element of G is generated by 𝑎.
𝐺 = 〈𝑎〉 = {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ ℤ} (multiplicative group) = {𝑛𝑎|𝑛 ∈ ℤ} (additive group)

Since the element a is known as generator of the group G. So, if G be a finite group of order
n and there exist an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that |𝑎| = |𝐺 | if and only if a is generator of G.
Thus, G is a cyclic group.

𝑈(14) = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ}1 ≤ 𝑥 < 14, gcd(𝑥, 14) = 1

⇒ 𝑈(14) = {1,3,5,9,11,13}
⇒ |𝑈(14)| = 6
To prove 𝑈(14) is a cyclic, we have to show that ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑈(14) such that |𝑥 | = 6 = |𝑈(14)|.
Now that |3| = 6 as 36 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14) implies 3 is the generator of 𝑈(14) is a cyclic group.

Also, 3−1 = 5 as 3 ⋅ 5 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 14) implies 5 is also the generator of 𝑈(14). hence, 𝑈(14) ≠
〈11〉.

Another,
𝑈(20) = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ | 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 20, 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑥, 20) = 1}
⇒ 𝑈(20) = {1,3,7,9,11,13,17,19}
|𝑈(20)| = 8

So, no elements of 𝑈(20) has order 8 = |𝑈(20)| ⇒ 𝑈(20) ≠ 〈𝑘 〉 for any 𝑘 ∈ 𝑈(20).

Therefore, 𝑈(20) is not a cyclic group.