UNIT IV

MATERIAL
CHARACTERIZATION
TESTING
 OVERVIEW
 Characterization describes those features
of composition and structure (including
defects) of a material that are significant
for a particular preparation, study of
properties or use and suffice for
reproduction of the material.
 USES OF MATERIAL
CHARACTERIZATION
TESTING
 Contaminants
 Purity
 Active ingredients
 Polymer additives
 Fillers
 Solvents
 Failure analysis
 Material comparisons
 METHODS
 Chemical characterization
 Toxicological characterization
 Physical characterization
 Electrical characterization
 Morphological characterization
 Mechanical characterization
 OBJECTIVES
 To measure accurately the physical
properties of materials
 To measure accurately the chemical
properties of materials
 To determine accurately the structure of
material at atomic and microscopic level
structures
 APPLICATIONS
 Surface chemical analysis
 Near surface chemical analysis
 Atomic and nano-scale chemical analysis
 Surface imaging
 Defect analysis
 Analytical imaging
 Non-destructive internal imaging
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
APPLICATION
 SCALE
 The scale of structures observed in materials
characterization ranges from angstroms
(imaging of individual atoms and chemical
bonds) upto centimeters (imaging coarse
grain structures in metals).
 The geometric length scale of materials has
more than twelve orders of magnitude.
 SCALE RANGE

Nano scale 1 to 100 nanometers

Micro scale 1 to 1000 micrometers

Macro scale Millimeter to km scale

 MATERIAL
CHARACTERIZATION
TESTING
 It is the process of measuring and
determining physical, chemical, mechanical
and microstructural properties of materials.
 Based on scale of testing,
- microscopy testing
- macroscopic testing
Based on testing composition
- spectroscopy and nuclear
spectroscopy
 MICROSCOPY
 Microscopy is a technique that allows the
determination of both the composition and
the structure of material.
 The process of viewing the structure on a
much finer scale not possible with naked
eye.
MICROSCOPIC PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS
 Contaminants & purity
 Ingredients
 Chemical bonding
 Molecular pattern
 Crystal structure
 Nano size
 Ions
 MICROSCOPIC
INSTRUMENTS
 Optical Microscope
 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
 Field Ion Microscope
 Scanning Tunneling Microscope
 Scanning Probe Microscope
 Atomic Force Microscope
 X-ray diffraction topography
 SPECTROSCOPY AND
NUCLEAR SPECTROSCOPY
 To reveal chemical composition,
composition variation, crystal structure
and photoelectric properties of materials.
Common instruments:-
 Ultraviolet visible spectroscopy
 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
 Thermoluminescence
 Photoluminescence
 Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
 MACROSCOPIC
 Physical and chemical changes are observed
through naked eye.
 This process yields information about colour,
luster, shape, composition,etc.,
Properties of materials :-
 Density
 Volume
 Strength
 Hardness
 Roughness
 MACROSCOPIC
INSTRUMENTS
 Differential thermal analysis
 Mechanical testing involves tensile,
compressive, creep, fatigue, hardness
testing, etc.,
 Dielectric thermal analysis
 Thermo gravimetric analysis
 Differential scanning calorimetry
 Impulsive excitation technique
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY
a) MAGNIFICATION
- The amount or degree of visual
enlargement of an observed object or
enlargement of image.
- It is measured by multiples of 2x, 4x
and 10x .

Magnification = Image / Object

MAGNIFICATION INSTRUMENT

1x Naked eye

2x to 50x Magnifying glass

Spectroscopic
10x to 20x
microscope
Upright/inverted
50x to 1500x
microscope
2000x to 1,000,000x Electron microscope
 RESOLUTION
 Ability to distinguish two very small and
closely spaced objects as separate entities.
 It is determined by wavelength of light,
light gathering power of objective and
condenser lenses.
 LENS
 Observation magnification is the product
of magnification of each of the lenses.
 This generally ranges from 10x to 1000x
with some models even reaching upto
2000x magnification.
 OBJECTIVE LENS
 It consists of several lenses to magnify an
object and project a larger image.
 According to the difference of focal
distance, lenses of different magnification
are available such as 4x, 10x, 40x and
50x.
TYPES OF OBJECTIVE LENS

 Plan lens
 Achromatic lens
 Semi-apochromatic lens
 Apochromatic lens
 Immersion lens
PLAN OBJECTIVE LENS
ACHROMATIC OBJECTIVE
LENS
APOCHROMATIC OBJECTIVE
LENS
PARTS OF OBJECTIVE LENS
IMMERSION OBJECTIVE
LENS
 OCULAR LENS
 A lens mounted on the observer side.

 The image magnified by the objective lens is

further magnified by the ocular lens for
observation.

 It consists of one to three lenses and also

provided with mechanism called field stop,
which removes unnecessary reflected light and
aberation.
 TYPES OF 7X AND 15X LENS
 Huygens lens
 Ramsden lens
 Periplan lens
 Compensation lens
 Wide filed lens
 Super field lens
HUYGENS &RAMSDEN LENS
PERIPLAN LENS
WIDE FIELD LENS
SUPER FIELD LENS
 CONDENSER LENS
 A lens to be mounted under the stage.
 This lens can adjust the amount of light to
uniformly illuminate objects.
 It is useful for high magnification.
Types :-
 Abbe condenser lens
 Achromatic condenser lens
 Universal condenser lens
ABBE CONDENSER LENS
ACHROMATIC CONDENSER
LENS
UNIVERSAL CONDENSER
LENS
 ABERRATION
 It is the property of optical systems such as
lenses that cause light to be spread out over
some region of space rather than focused to a
point.
 It cause the image formed by the lens to be
blurred or distorted.
 Chromatic and spherical aberration.
 NUMERICAL APERTURE
 It is the measure of its ability to resolve
fine specimen detail.
Numerical Aperture (NA) = n sinα
 DEPTH OF FIELD
 It is the axial depth of the space on both the
sides of the object plane within which the
object can be moved without detectable loss
of sharpness in the image.
 Object appear acceptably sharp in the image
while the position of the image plane is
maintained.
 DEPTH OF FOCUS
 It is the axial depth of the space on both
the sides of the image plane.
 The image appears acceptably sharp while
the position of the object plane and the
objective are maintained.
 OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
 The optical microscope (light microscope),
is a type of microscope that commonly
uses visible light and a system of lens to
generate magnified images of small
objects.
 PRINCIPLE
➢ It is based on its ability to focus a beam
of light through specimen, which is very
small and transparent, to produce an
image.
➢ The image is then passed through one or
two lenses for magnification for viewing.
➢ The transparency of the specimen allows
easy and quick penetration of light.
Construction:
The object is placed on a stage and may be directly viewed through one
or two eyepieces on the microscope.
Types of Microscope:
1.Bright field microscope (Compound light microscope)
Types:
(a). Simple microscope (b).Compound microscope
2. Dark field microscope- Object is illuminated against a dark
background.
3. Polarized light microscope- Used to determine crystal orientation of
metallic objects.
4.Phase –contrast microscope-Used to increase image contrast by
highlighting small details of differing refractive index.
5.Fluorescence Microscope- Used to view material stained with
fluorescent dyes for specific purposes.
6. Digital microscope –equipped with a digital camera allowing
observation of a sample via a computer
OTHER MICROSCOPIC TYPES
 Some of the physical design differences allowing specialization for
certain purposes.
 Stereo microscope-low powered microscope which provides a
stereoscopic view of the sample, used for dissection.
 Comparison microscope-Has two separate light paths allowing direct
comparison of two samples via one image in each eye.
 Inverted microscope- for studying samples from below, useful for
cell cultures in liquid or for metallography.
 Epifluorescence microscope- designed for analysis of samples which
include fluoro phores.
 Confocal microscope- used variant of epifluorescent illumination
which uses a scanning laser to illuminate sample for fluorescence.
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF
OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
CROSS SECTION OF OPTICAL
MICROSCOPE
 ADVANTAGES
 Easy to use
 Small and light weight
 Offers high level observational quality
 Unaffected by electromagnetic fields
 It doesn’t require radiation to operate
 Requires very little training
 DISADVANTAGES
 Resolution limited to micro meters
 Low magnification
 Separate sample preparation
 Poor surface view
 Cannot operate in darkness
 Cannot provide three dimensional image
 APPLICATIONS
 Nano physics
 Biotechnology
 Pharmaceutical research
 Medical diagnosis
 Microelectronics
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
 A electron microscope is a microscope
which uses a beam of accelerated
electrons as a source of illumination.
 The wavelength of electron can be upto
100,000 times shorter than that of visible
light phtons.
 The electron microscope have higher
resolution power than the light
microscope.
 TYPES OF ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
 SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
 SEM uses a focused electro probe to
extract structural and chemical
information point by point on the
specimen.
 It uses a wide range of scale from
nanometer to micrometer.
 PRINCIPLE
 SEM is a type of electron microscope that
produces images of a sample by scanning
the surface with a focused beam of
electrons.
 The electrons interact with atoms in the
sample producing various signals that
contain information about the surface
topography and composition of the
sample.
WORKING NATURE OF SEM
SECTION VIEW OF SEM
COMPONENTS OF SEM
 Electron gun
 Condenser lens
 Vacuum chamber
 Deflector coils
 Secondary electron detector
 Image display and recording
 Specimen stage
 Electron gun – it produces a high energy
electron. Tungsten is normally used in guns
because its high melting point and low cost.

 Condenser lens – it is placed below electron gun

and used to adjust the width of the electron beam.
It is used to focus the electron beam.

 Deflector coils – scanning coils deflect the

electron beam horizontally and vertically over the
specimen surface (rastering)
 Vacuum chamber – SEM’s require a
vacuum to operate. Without vacuum, the
electron beam generated by the electron
gun would meet at constant interference
from air particles in the atmosphere. The
vacuum at 10-3 to 10-4 Pa is maintained.
 Specimen stage – specimen sits while
being imaged.
 Secondary electron detector – fluorescent
substance is coated on the tip of the detector and
high voltage upto 10kV is applied to it. The
secondary electrons emitted are attracted to this
high voltage and generate light. This light is
converted into electrons which is amplified into
electric signal.
 Image display and recording- the output signals
from the secondary are amplified and then
transferred to display unit.
 CONSTRUCTION
 Electron gun
 Condensing lens to condense electron
beam
 Scanning coil placed in between
condensing lens and sample.
SPECIMEN LOADING STAGES

 Surface preparation
 Mounting specimen
 Specimen coating
 SURFACE PREPARATION
 Fracturing
 Cutting
 Mechanical polishing
 Milling by the ion beam
 Contrast enhancement
MOUNTING SPECIMEN
 Bulk specimen – mounted by conductive
paste or adhesive tape.
 Powders and particles
SPECIMEN COATING
 For non-conductive specimen , surface
needs to be coated with thin metal film so
that the surface has conductivity.
 WORKING OF SEM
 Electron beam is emitted from an electron
gun fitted with tungsten filament cathode.
 The energy ranging from 0.2keV to 40keV
and is spotted by condenser lens to spot
about 0.4nm to 5nm in diameter.
 The beam passes through pairs of scanning
coils or deflector plates in the electron
column, which deflect beam in x and y axes.

 When the primary electron beam interacts

with the sample, the electrons lose energy by
repeated random scattering and absorption.
 The energy exchange between the electron
beam and the sample results in the
reflection of high energy electrons by
elastic scattering.
 Emission of secondary electrons,
backscattered electrons and characteristic
x-rays by inelastic scattering.
 The beam current absorbed by the
specimen can also be detected and used to
create images of distribution of specimen
current.
 Electronic amplifiers are used to amplify
the signals and is displayed on computer.
OUTPUT TYPES SCATTERED
ELECTRONS
X-RAYS
 Emitted from beneath the sample surface
which provide element and mineral
information.
SECONDARY ELECTRONS
 When incident electron beam enters the
specimen, secondary electrons are
produced from the emission of the valence
electrons of the constituent atoms in the
specimen and used for surface
morphology.
BACKSCATTERED ELECTRONS :-
 Electrons scattered backward and emitted
out of the specimen, when incident
electrons are scattered in the specimen.
 Used to observe topography of the
surface.
MAGNIFICATION :-
 In the range of about 6X orders of
magnitude from about 10 to 3,000,000
times.
 Magnification is controlled by current
supplied to scanning coils and voltage
supplied to deflector coils.
 APPLICATIONS
 Failure analysis
 Dimensional analysis
 Process characterization
 Surface 3D
 Particle identification
 Elemental analysis
 Reverse engineering
 ADVANTAGES
 Rapid, high resolution image
 Excellent depth of field
 Low vacuum mode enables imaging of
insulating and hydrating samples.
 Quick identification of the elements
present.
 DISADVANTAGES
 Size restrictions may require cutting the
sample
 SEM’s are expensive and large
 It is limited to solid, inorganic samples
 Small risk radiation exposure.
 Training required to operate.
 Maintenance required to keep steady
voltage and currents to electromagnetic
coils.
 TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
 It utilizes energetic electrons to provide
morphologic, compositional and
crystallographic information on samples.
 The transmitted electrons that have passed
through the thin sample are detected to form
images, which is the reason to call it as
“transmission” electron microscopy.
 PRINCIPLE
 An image formed from the interaction of the
electrons with the sample as the beam is
transmitted through the specimen.

 The image is then magnified and focused

into an imaging device, such as fluorescence
screen, a layer photographic film or sensor.
WORKING OF TEM
 METHODS OF SPECIMEN
PREPARATION
 Ultra microtome – specimens must be
very thin so that the electrons are able to
pass. This is done by cutting thin slices of
specimen by using ultra microtome.
 Ultrasonic disc cutting – used for
electronic materials.
 Dimpling – it produces a specimen with a
thinned central area and outer rim of
sufficient thickness to permit ease of
handling.
 Ion milling – final form of specimen
preparation. Charged argon ions are
accelerated to the specimen surface by
using high voltage.
 Mechanical milling - to prepare samples
for imaging on TEM. Polishing needs to
be done to high quality for sample
thickness and remove scratches on the
sample.
 Chemical itching – In metallic specimen,
the samples are thinned by using acid.
 Ion etching – sputtering process that can
remove very fine quantities of material. Inert
gas is passed through an electric field to
generate plasma stream that is directed
towards the sample.
 Replication – examining fresh fracture
surface for metal alloys.
 CONSTRUCTION
 It consists of electron gun.
 Specimen is placed between Condenser
lens and objective lens.
 The magnetic projector lens is placed
above the fluorescent screen.
 COMPONENTS
 Electron source
 Electromagnetic lenses
 Vacuum chamber
 Condensers
 Sample stage
 Phosphor or fluorescent screen
 Condenser lens
 Objective aperture
 ELECTRON SOURCE
 The emission source or cathode , which
may be tungsten filament or needle. The
gun is connected to high voltage of 100-
300kV. And emit electrons either by
thermionic or filed electron emission into
vacuum.
ELECTROMAGNETIC LENSES
 Electromagnetic lenses are designed to act
similar link optical lens by focusing parallel
electrons at constant focal distance.

 Vacuum chamber – to increase free path of

electron gas interaction in order of 10-4 Pa.
 CONDENSERS
 Condenser lens used for beam formation.
 Objective lens used for beam focus.
 Projector lens used to expand the beam on
to phosphor screen.
SAMPLE STAGE
 Specimen holder into the vacuum with
minimal loss of vacuum.
PHOSPHOR OR FLUORESCENT
SCREEN
 Phosphor screen made up of 10-100µm of
zinc sulfide for direct observation by the
operator.
CONDENSER LENS
 Focus the electrons into the specimen.

OBJECTIVE APERTURE

A small laser bored hole in a flat strip of

molybdenum placed near the objective lens.
It is adjusted to adjust contrast of the image.
WORKING
 TEM employs high voltage electron beam to
create image.
 Electron gun emits electrons to travel through
microscope’s vacuum tube.
 Electromagnetic lens focus the electrons into
fine beam.
 Beam passes through the specimen of less than
200nm thickness.
 During transmission, speed of electrons
directly correlates to electron wavelength.

 The faster electrons move, the shorter

wavelength and detailed image with greater
quality.
 Different parts are shown according to
density appears on screen.
OPERATION MODES OF TEM
 Two types of electrons exist – unscattered
(diffraction of beam)and scattered electrons
(interaction with material).

 Imaging mode

 Diffraction mode

 TEM resolution is about 0.2nm.

ADVANTAGES
 Highest spatial resolution (0.2nm or 2Å)
 Smaller area crystallographic information
 Powerful magnification over one million
times or more.
 Wide variety of applications in scientific,
educational and industry fields.
DISADVANTAGES
 Significant sample time (1-4hours)
 Some materials are not stable in high
energy electron beam.
 Large and expensive.
 Laborious sample preparation.
 Images are black and white.
APPLICATIONS
 Metrology at 0.2nm resolution.
 Identification of nm sized defects on IC’s.
 Microstructure and nanostructure size and
morphology.
 Research and studies
 Semiconductor analysis and manufacturing
of computer and silicon chips.
COMPARISION OF SEM AND
TEM
DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES

 Diffraction occurs when a wave

encounters an obstacle or a slit.
 It is defined as bending of waves around
the corners of an obstacle or through an
aperture into region of geometrical
shadow of an obstacle/aperture.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES
 REFRACTION – the change in the
direction of a wave passing from one
medium to another caused by change in
speed.
 Reflection – abrupt change in the direction
of propagation of a wave that strikes the
boundary between different mediums.
 INTERFERENCE – net effect of the
combination of two or more wave trains
moving on interesting or coincident paths.
 Addition of amplitude of individual waves
at each point affected by more than one
wave.
DIFFRACTION GRATING
 Arrangement of equivalent to a large
number of parallel slits of equal widths
and separated from one another by equal
opaque spaces.
DIFFRACTION PRINCIPLE
 Bragg’s law – determines the angles of
coherent and incoherent scattering from a
crystal lattice.
 When x-rays are incident on a particular
atom, they make an electronic cloud move
just like an electromagnetic wave.
 BRAGG’S LAW
Two conditions :
 Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
 Difference in path length must be an
integral number of wavelengths.
 PATTERN OF DIFFRACTION

 Fresnel’s Diffraction : Forms cylindrical

wave front with source of screen at finite
distance.
 Fraunhofer Diffraction : Forms plane
wave fronts with observation distance at
infinite distance.
 COMMON METHODS OF
DIFFRACTION
 Electron diffraction
 Neutron diffraction
 X-ray diffraction
 FACTORS AFFECTING
INTENSITY OF DIFFRACTION
 Structure factor
 Polarization factor
 Lorentz factor
 Multiplicity factor
 Temperature factor
 Absorption factor
 ADVANTAGES
 Data generation is quick
 Testing is cheap but equipment
installation is costlier
 DISADVANTAGES
 Sample preparation is complex
 May have chance of absorption of
radiation
 Source is costlier
 Most of diffraction method need vacuum
 APPLICATIONS
 Measure micro stresses in crystalline
materials
 Measure changes in crystal plane spacing
 COMMON METHODS OF
DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES
SPECTROCSOPY TECHNIQUES
 SPECTRUM – It is a plot of the response as
a function of wavelength or more commonly
frequency.

 SPECTROSCOPY – deals with production,

measurement and interpretation of spectra
arising from the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with matter.
 SPECTROMETRY– It is measurement of
spectrum responses and instrument which
perform such measurements.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM –
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy
that is transmitted through the space at
enormous velocities.
 It deals with reflection, refraction,
interference and diffraction.
 PRINCIPLE OF
SPECTROSCOPY
 The beam of electromagnetic radiation
passed onto a sample and observe how it
responds to such stimulus.
 These responses are usually recorded as a
function of radiation wavelength.
 A plot of the response as a function of
wavelength is referred to as a spectrum.
 BEER LAMBERT LAW
 The quantity of light observed by a
substance dissolved in a fully transmitting
solvent is directly proportional to the
concentration of the substance and the
path length of the light through the
solution.
 COMMON METHODS OF
SPECTROSCOPY
 Ultraviolet Visible Spectroscopy (UV)
 Electron Spin Response Spectroscopy
 Atomic Spectroscopy
 Infrared Spectroscopy and Raman
Spectroscopy
 Mass Spectroscopy
 Nuclear Spectroscopy
 APPLICATION OF
SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
 To understand the constitution of matter from
atoms to complex molecules.
 Investigations of crime samples.
 Studies on environmental samples.
 Mineralogy
 Studies on diverse materials existing in
nature from deep sea to space missions.
 ADVANTAGES OF
SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
 Cure monitoring of composites using optical
fibers
 Estimate weather wood exposure times
 Estimate different composition in food
samples
 Measurement of toxic compounds in blood
samples
 Electronic structure analysis
 DISADVANTAGES OF
SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS
 The radiation may be easily contaminated
 Cost of spectroscopy equipment is high
 Not suitable for all kind of materials
 Need low working temperature at certain
conditions.
 TYPES OF SPECTROSCOPY
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY OR
FLAME SPECTROSCOPY
 It is based upon the absorption or
emission of electromagnetic radiation by
atomic particles.
 It is performed on gaseous medium.
 Widely used in metals and non-metals
 TYPES OF SPECTROSCOPY
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY OR
FLAME SPECTROSCOPY
 It is study of electromagnetic radiation
absorbed and emitted by atoms.
 Liquid samples are aspirated into a burner or
nebulizer/burner combination, desolvated,
atomized and sometimes excited to higher
energy electronic state.
 PRINCIPLE
 The electrons of atoms in the atomizer can
be promoted to higher orbitals for a short
amount of time by absorbing a set quantity
of energy.
 Ex: a light of given wavelength
 This amount of energy is specific to a
particular transition in a particular element
and each wavelength corresponds to only one
element.
 TYPES
 ABSORPTION – light of wavelength
radiates through the atom vapour. The atom
absorb some of light.
 EMISSION- sample is heated to excitation
of sample atoms. These atom decay to lower
energy state through emission.
 FLUORESCENCE- a short wavelength is
absorbed by the sample atoms and longer
wavelength is emitted and measured.
 COMPONENTS
 Lamp source – cathode lamp or diode laser
lamp
 Nebulizer – to form mist or aerosol of
sample
 Atomizer – atomize sample to atomic state
 Monochromator –to produce narrow band of
radiation
 Detector – photo sensitive element
 CONSTRUCTION AND
WORKING
◦ First step is atomization, a process which
sample is volatilized and decomposed to
produce gas phase atoms and ions.

◦ Ex: inductively coupled plasmas, flames and

electro thermal atomizers.

◦ The flame can be considered to be a dilute

gaseous solution of the atomized sample held
in place by the aspirator-burner.
 CONSTRUCTION AND
WORKING
◦ Radiation from a suitable source is passed through
the automized sample and into the slit of a
photometer or spectrometer.
◦ Radiation of specific wavelength is emitted by the
hollow cathode lamp onto the gaseous atoms in
the automizer.
◦ The monochromator focuses the specific
wavelengths onto thr detector.
◦ The detector finds the amount of light absorbed.
 CONSTRUCTION AND
WORKING
◦ The concentration of atoms in the sample is
directly proportional to the absorbance

APPLICATIONS

◦ Presence of metals as a impurity

◦ Determination of lead in petrol

◦ Determination of calcium and magnesium in

cement
Advantages
◦ High sensitivity
◦ Easy to use
◦ Inexpensive
◦ Quick, convenient, selective and sensitive
analysis.
Disadvanatges
◦ Different cathode lamp for different elements
◦ Only one element detected
◦ Accurate concentration cannot be measured.
UV/VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
◦ UV-V is spectrometry is based upon
absorption of electromagnetic radiation in the
visible and ultraviolet regions of the spectrum
resulting in changes in the electronic structure
of icons and molecules.

◦ The wavelength of UV and visible light are

substantially shorter ranges from 200 to
700nm.
 PRINICIPLE
 Diminution of abeam of light after it
passes through a sample or after
reflection from a sample surface.
 Absorption measurements can be at a
single wavelength or over an extended
spectral range.
 Energy transitions of bonding and non-
bonding outer electrons and molecules,
usually delocalized electrons.
WORKING SETUP
 COMPONENTS
Light Source- Tungsten filaments lamps (or) Hydrogen-

Deuterium lamps

Monochromator - Monochromaters generally is

composed of prisms and slits.

 The radiation emmited from the primary source is

dispersed with the help of rotating prisms.

 WORKING
 Polychromatic light from the source is
focused on the entrance slit of a
monochromator, which selectively
transmits a narrow band of light.
 This light then passes through the sample
is determined by measuring the intensity
of light reaching the detector without the
sample ( the blank) and comparing it with
the intensity of light reaching the detector
after passing through the sample.
 APPLICATION
 Routine qualitative and quantitative
measurements.
 Used to find relative purity of a solution.
 Widely Application to both organic and
inorganic compounds.
 ADVANTAGES
 Minimum damage to sample.
 Better result at lower concentration.
 Very rapid calibration.
 High sensitivity.
 Good accuracy
 DISADVANTAGES
 Lack of sensitivity.
 Instrument is expansive.
 Have limited application to identify the
functional group or particular molecule as
a result of absorption spectra.
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC
TECHNIQUES
 Electrical properties are a physical
property of conducting materials, is often
necessary to accurately measure the
resistivity of materials.
 ELECTRICAL TECHNIQUES
 Electrical properties are a key physical
property of conducting materials, is often
necessary to accurately the resistivity of
materials.
COMMON METHODS
 Dielectric strength
 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
(EIS)
 Arc resistance
 EMF shielding test
 Two – probe method and four-probe method.
 ELECTROCHEMICAL
IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPY
 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
(EIM) is a highly sensitive
characterization techniques used to
establish the electrical response of
chemical systems in a nondestructive
manner.
 It is an electrochemical technique to
measure the impedance of a system in
dependence of the AC potentials
frequency.
 PRINCIPLE
 An electrochemical cell is used to house the
chemical reaction and is electrically
connected to the electrochemical
spectrometer to obtain the electrically
solution.
 EIS systems are operated using computer
programs specifically designed for EIS
testing.
 Therefore, prior to conducting an EIS
experiment it is essential that all components
of the system be attained.
 COMPONENTS
 Three electrodes (working electrode,
counter electrode, reference electrode)
 Electrolytic solution
 Insulating material
 Display unit
 CONSTRUCTION AND
WORKING
 EIS studies utilize a three electrode mode
which is comprised of working electrode
(the sample material), a counter
electrode(commonly graphite or platinum)
and a reference electrode.
 While electrode geometries may vary the
general experimental setup remains
similar to the procedure outlined below.
WORKING SETUP
 The three electrodes are mounted on an
electrode stage and secured.
 The electrolytic solution is prepared and
transferred to the sample counter.
 A metallic sample container would
provide additional pathways for electrons
during experimental leading to reduction
in the EIS current response as electrons
move into the metal rather than the
reference electrodes.
 Therefore, the sample container should be
composed of an insulating material such
as glass or plastic which will not interfere
with the transfer of electrons during
testing.
 The electrode mount is then placed on the
sample container such that a portion of
each electrode is submerged in the
electrolytic solution.
 Four leads are used to attach the three
electrodes to the EIS frequency response
analyzer.
 A working lead and a counter lead is used
to carry current whereas working sense
lead and reference leads are used tos ense
voltage.
 EIS working sense leads connects the
exposed end of the electrode to the EIS.
 The reference lead is attached to the
reference electrode and counter lead is
connected to the counter electrode.
ADVANTAGES :-
 Useful on high resistance materials such
as paint and coatings.
 Time dependent data is available
 Non-destructive
 Quantitative data available
 Use service environments.
DISADVANTAGES :-
 Expensive
 Complex data analysis for quantification
APPLICATIONS:-
 Provide information about corrosion
kinetics and coatings evaluation
 It is accurate and reproducible technique.
 It provides data about electrochemical
control mechanism.
 It characterizes the state of the rebar and
the morphology of the corrosion.
MAGNETIC TECHNIQUES
 Magnetic methods are potential methods
for evaluation of surface manifestations
such as micro structural degradation,
residual stresses, surface roughness and
defect detections in surface coatings of
magnetic substrate.
Methods :-
 Magnetic adhesive force method
 Magnetically inductive method
 Magnetic Barkhausen emission method
 MAGNETIC ADHESIVE
FORCE METHOD
 It uses the distance dependency of the
magnetic attractive force between a
ferromagnetic substrate and a permanent
magnet touching the surface of coating,
which must be made from a non-magnetic
material.
 Used to find the holding power of the
magnet.
MAGNETICALLY INDUCTIVE
METHOD
 It is based on measuring the magnetic flux
that passes through a non-ferromagnetic
coating into a ferromagnetic substrate.
MAGNETICALLY BARKHAUSEN
EMISSION METHOD
 Magnetic flux perturbations and acoustic
emission are generated when an induced
magnetic field is swept in a hysteresis
loop in ferromagnetic materials.
 This is referred to as MBE.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
TECHNIQUE
 It have very high potential for material
characterization and well known non-
destructive testing.
 Able to indicate non-destructively and
quickly change of residual stresses,
texture, microstructure states and
mechanical properties.
 useful tool for materials characterization
and damage assessment of in-service
engineering components.
 PRINCIPLE
 Magnetic hysteresis occurs when an
external magnetic field is applied to a
ferromagnetic such as iron and the atomic
dipoles align themselves with it.
 Even when the field is removed, part of
the alignment will be retained, the
material has become magnetized.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
METHODS
 Magnetic Barkhausen noise
 Incremental permeability
- non- resonant methods
- resonant methods
 Upper harmonics
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
METHODS
 Magnetic Barkhausen noise
 Incremental permeability
- non- resonant methods
- resonant methods
 Upper harmonics
ADVANTAGES :-
 Non-destructive technique
 Used for nano material characterization
 Immediate result
 Accuracy in measurement of dielectric loss
 DISADVANTAGES
 Limitation of lateral resolution
 Need very thin samples
 Characterization limited to dielectric
permittivity
 Multiple steps
 Need technical knowledge
APPLICATIONS:-
To find microstructure, texture, hardness
depth, phase content, residual stress, aging
and grain size.