Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

H2 Topic 2

Kinematics

Circus stuntmen being shot out of cannons are human projectiles. In the absence of air resistance,
they move in parabolic paths until they land in a strategically placed net.
Taken from College Physics, Serway/Faughn

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-1
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Content

• Rectilinear motion
• Non-linear motion

Learning Outcomes

Candidates should be able to:

(a) Define displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.

(b) Use graphical methods to represent distance travelled, displacement,

speed, velocity and acceleration.
(c) Find displacement from the area under a velocity-time graph.

(d) Use the slope of a displacement-time graph to find the velocity.

(e) Use the slope of a velocity-time graph to find the acceleration.

(f) Derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations which
represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line.
(g) Solve problems using equations which represent uniformly accelerated
motion in a straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a
uniform gravitational field without air resistance.
(h) Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform
gravitational field with air resistance.
(i) Describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction
and a uniform acceleration in a perpendicular direction.

References:
1 Advanced Level Physics by Loo Kwok Wai
2 College Physics by Young and Geller
3 Physics for Scientist and Engineers (5th Edition) by Serway

Physics Tip!
To understand Physics, you must be able to understand it
(i) Qualitatively – Define, Explain, State, Describe, Discuss, Suggest…
(ii) Quantitatively – Calculate, Measure, Determine, Show, Estimate, Suggest…
(iii) Graphically – Sketch, Determine, Estimate, Deduce…
(iv) Pictorially – Sketch (applied to diagrams)

In plain English, you must be able to explain Physics in words, equations & numbers, graphs
and diagrams.

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-2
 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

Data
speed of light in free space, c = 3.00 × 108 m s-1
permeability of free space, o = 4 × 10-7 H m-1
permittivity of free space, o = 8.85 × 10-12 F m-1
(1/(36)) × 10-9 F m-1
elementary charge, e = 1.60 × 10-19 C
the Planck constant, h = 6.63 × 10-34 J s
unified atomic mass constant, u = 1.66 × 10-27 kg
rest mass of electron, me = 9.11 × 10-31 kg
rest mass of proton, mp = 1.67 × 10-27 kg
molar gas constant R = 8.31 J K1 mol1
the Avogadro constant, NA = 6.02 × 1023 mol-1
the Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38 × 10-23 J K-1
gravitational constant, G = 6.67 × 1011N m2 kg2
acceleration of free fall, g = 9.81 m s2

Formulae
1 2
uniformly accelerated motion, s = ut + at
2
v2 = u2 + 2as
work done on/by a gas, W = pV
hydrostatic pressure, p = gh
GM
gravitational potential,  = 
r
displacement of particle in s.h.m. x = xo sin t
velocity of particle in s.h.m., v = vocost

=  x o2  x 2
3
mean kinetic energy of a molecule of an ideal gas E = kT
2
resistors in series, R = R1 + R2 + . . .
1 1 1
resistors in parallel, = + +...
R R1 R2
Q
electric potential, V =
4 o r
alternating current/voltage, x = xo sin t
transmission coefficient, T  exp(2kd)

8 2 m(U  E )
where k =
h2
radioactive decay, x = xoexp(t)
0.693
decay constant,  =
t1
2

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Not to worry about the approved

date. It is up to the vendor to
apply to SEAB for approval

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-6
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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-8
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Kinematics is a branch of Newtonian (or classical) mechanics concerned with describing the
motion of objects without considering factors that cause the motions.

In this topic we will concentrate on two types of motion,

 Motion along a straight line (Rectilinear motion)
 Motion on a plane (Non-linear motion)

The following vector and scalar quantities are usually used to describe motion:
 Distance (scalar)
 Displacement (vector)
 Speed (scalar)
 Velocity (vector)
 Acceleration (vector)

2.1 Rectilinear Motion

Learning Outcomes

(a) Define displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.

2.1.1 Distance and Displacement

Distance, d The total length of path covered by a moving object irrespective of the
direction of motion.
Distance is a scalar quantity.

Displacement, s The linear distance of the position of the moving object from a given
reference point.
Displacement is a vector quantity.

Figure 1

B
Considering Figure 1 above, the distance travelled by the particle to move from A to B is the
actual length of the irregular path (in bold). The length of the straight line that joins A to B is
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the magnitude of the displacement of the particle from A while the arrow provides its
direction.

Displacement of an object
= (displacement of final position from a fixed reference point) – (displacement of initial
position from the same reference point)
x = xf - xi

Graphically: initial position

= f - i

i
final position

Reference
Point
f

Example 1

Two teams had to travel from Kallang to Marina Bay during an Amazing Race. Team A took
the MRT directly from Mountbatten to Marina, while team B took a bus that bypassed City
Hall first.

Marina Bay
Team A
10 km Bus
6 km
MRT
7 km
Kallang
Team B
City Hall
What is the distance travelled and the magnitude of the displacement for both teams?
Answers:
Team A Distance = 10 km Team A Displacement = 10 km
Team B Distance = 13 km Team B Displacement = 10 km

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-10
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Example 2
Mr Tan travels 10 km east to Town A before turning back and travelling 18 km west to Town
B. Determine the total distance travelled by Mr Tan to (i) town A, d A (ii) town B, dB, (iii) the
displacements, sA and sB when Mr Tan is at town A and B respectively.

Solution

8 km 10 km

Town B Origin Town A

To differentiate between the east (right) and west (left) directions, take the direction towards
the east to be positive:

(i) Total distance travelled to town A from origin, dA = 10 km

(ii) Total distance travelled to town B from origin , dB = 10 + 18 = 28 km

(iii) The displacement of Mr Tan at town A from origin is, sA = + 10 km

The displacement of Mr Tan at town B from origin, sB =  8 km

2.1.2 Speed and Velocity

Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.
Average speed, <u> Average speed is the ratio of the total distance travelled to the time
interval during which a particle travels over that distance.
d
<u> =
t
Speed is a scalar quantity.

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time. It acts in the direction of
change of displacement.

Average velocity, <v> Average velocity is the ratio of displacement to the time interval
during which the displacement occurs.
s
<v> =
t
Velocity is a vector quantity.

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Example 3
Using information from Example 2, and given that Mr Tan took 10 minutes to drive to Town
A and another 20 minutes to Town B, what is his average speed and velocity for the entire
journey?

Solution

Total Distance Total Displacement

Average speed <u>  Average velocity 
Time Taken Time Taken
28000 8000
 
30  60 30  60
 15.55  16 ms -1  4.444  4.4 ms -1
= 16 m s-1 = – 4.4 m s-1

2.1.3 Instantaneous Speed and Velocity

Instantaneous speed of a particle is equal to the magnitude of its instantaneous velocity.

Instantaneous velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time interval t
becomes infinitesimally short so

Mathematically,
Δs ds
Instantaneous velocity, v= lim or v=
Δt  0 Δt dt

Note: The mathematical equations you see here are standard forms used in derivative
calculus. The mathematical expression lim f ( x) simply means the value of function
x 0

f ( x) when x approaches zero. The expression s refers to a change in the quantity

Δs
s. Hence instantaneous velocity, v can be expressed as v= lim . i.e. the ratio of
Δt 0 Δt

a very small change in displacement (s) to a small change in time (t). Or simply
ds
v=
dt

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2.1.4 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. It acts in the direction of the change
of velocity. An object is said to be accelerating if its velocity is changing, either in magnitude
or direction.

Average Acceleration, <a> It is the ratio of the change in its velocity divided by the
v
time interval over which this change occurs. <a>=
t
Instantaneous Acceleration, a Defined as the limit of average acceleration as the time
v
interval t goes to zero, that is, a  lim
t 0 t

Acceleration is a vector quantity.

Points to Ponder
 A car moving in the eastward direction with a speed of 50 km h -1 makes a gentle turn
towards the northward direction while maintaining its speed. Is the car accelerating?
Why?

Since the direction of the car is changing, its velocity is changing as well. Hence the
car must be accelerating

 If a car is travelling to the right, can its acceleration be to the left? Explain.

Yes. One example is when a car is braking.

 Which car(s) in the diagram below is/are increasing in speed? Explain.

In diagrams (a) and (d). In both cases, the acceleration and velocity vectors are in
the same direction.
In general, when v and a are in the same direction, the object is moving faster.
When v and a are in the opposite direction, the object is slowing down.

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Learning Outcomes

(b) Use graphical methods to represent distance travelled, displacement, speed, velocity
and acceleration.
(c) Find displacement from the area under a velocity-time graph.
(d) Use the slope of a displacement-time graph to find the velocity.
(e) Use the slope of a velocity-time graph to find the acceleration.

2.2 Graphical Methods for Linear Motion

2.2.1 Finding velocity from Displacement-Time Graphs

We can represent the displacement of any object from a reference point using a displacement
– time graph. The displacement-time graph expresses how the displacement of a particle or
ds
body changes with time. Since v= , the velocity at any instant can be found from the
dt
gradient (slope) of the displacement-time graph.

The illustration below distinguishes between finding average velocity and finding the
instantaneous velocity from a displacement-time graph.
s/m s/m

Q Q

s
P P
t
0 t/s 0 t/s
Fig 2(a) Fig 2(b)

s
The ratio in Fig 2(a) gives the magnitude of the average velocity for the time interval Δt.
t
The instantaneous velocity at Q is found by finding the gradient of the tangent (slope) at point
Q as shown in Fig 2(b).

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Example 4
(a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the displacement-time graph given. Note that the
velocity-time graph expresses how the instantaneous velocity of a particle or body
changes with time.

s/m s/m s/m

0 0 t/s 0 t/s
t/s
v/m s-1 v/m s-1 v/m s-1

0 0 t/s 0 t/s
t/s

(b) Determine the following information from a displacement – time graph shown below.
You may assume that the graph from t = 0 s to t = 2 s is a straight line.

s/m
Displacement
at t = 5 s  20 m
20
Average velocity
0 m s-1
from t = 0 s to t = 10 s
Instantaneous speed
10 m s-1 0 2 5 10 t/s
at t = 1 s
Instantaneous velocity
at t = 1 s  10 m s-1

20

Point to Ponder
Is it possible to find the total distance travelled from the displacement – time graph? Why?

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-15
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2.2.2 Finding displacement from Velocity-Time Graphs

We can also represent the motion of an object using a velocity – time graph.

ds
Since v=
dt
t
 s   v dt
0

The displacement can be calculated by finding the area under the velocity-time graph.

v/m s-1
v/m s-1

Fig 3

0 t1 t2 0
t/s t1 t2 t/s
The shaded area in Fig 3 represents the displacement of the object from time t1 to t2.

Can you now sketch the displacement-time graph given the velocity-time graph? (Consider
the graphs which you have sketched earlier in Example 4).

Example 5
Determine the following information from a velocity – time graph shown below.
v / m s-1
Displacement
at t = 10 s 32 m
20
Average Velocity Area Area
from t = 0 s to t = 10 s 3.2 m s-1 20 m 18 m

Instantaneous Velocity
20 m s-1 5 8 10 t / s
at t = 10 seconds 0 2
Average Acceleration Area
-8.0 m s-2 70 m
from t = 0 s to t = 5 s
Instantaneous 20
0 m s-2
Acceleration at t = 5 s

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-16
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2.2.3 Finding Acceleration from Velocity-Time Graphs

dv
Since a  , the acceleration at any instant can be found from the gradient (slope) of the
dt
velocity-time graph.

Example 6
Sketch the acceleration-time graph for the velocity-time graph given.

v/m s-1 v/m s-1 v/m s-1 v/m s-1

0 0 t/s 0 t/s 0 t/s

t/s
-2
a/m s
a/m s-2 a/m s-2 a/m s-2

t/s

0 t/s
0 0 t/s 0
t/s

Def

2.3 Equations of Motion

Learning Outcomes

(f) Derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations which represent
uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line.

It would be very tedious if we had to plot a velocity – time graph or displacement – time
graph each time we need to solve a kinematics problem. Thankfully, we can solve
kinematics questions with equations of motions derived from the graphs above. However,
these equations of motions apply only to uniformly accelerated motions in a straight line.

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-17
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2.3.1 Derivation of Equations of Motion

Consider a particle moving with uniform (constant) acceleration, a, in a straight line.

u : initial velocity v : final velocity

a : acceleration t : time taken
s : displacement along a straight line
From the velocity – time graph, the instantaneous acceleration at time t is the gradient of the
graph at the same time.

Hence,
vu
a velocity /m s-1
t
or
v  u  at (Eqn 1)
v

u
We can also write down the average velocity <v> as t
1
 v   (u  v) time/s
2
Since displacement is the area under the graph, we get Example of uniformly
(u  v) accelerated motion
s t
2
(u  u  at )
Substituting v  u  at , s  t
2

1
Simplifying, we get s  ut  at 2 (Eqn 2)
2

Example 7

Show that the 3rd equation of motion is v  u  2as by substituting equation 1 found earlier
2 2

into equation 2.
v u
From eqn 1, t  ,
a
Substitute it into Equation 2 above, we get
2
 v u  1  v u 
s  u   a 
 a  2  a 
vu  u 2 1  v 2  2uv  u 2 
s   
a 2 a 
1 2
s
2a
 v  u2 

 v  u 2  2as
2
proven

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-18
 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

2.3.2 Sign Conventions

The equations of motion are in fact vector equations, and vectors have magnitude and
directions. For all rectilinear vector problems, we can indicate the directions using either the
positive or negative sign.

For example, if we take the direction towards our right as positive, then the direction towards
our left will be negative. Whatever direction that we define as positive would not affect our
final solution, but it is important to state and keep track of your directions correctly.

Example 8
Junjie threw a ball vertically upwards with a velocity of 15.0 m s-1, find the time taken to
reach maximum height. Take g = 9.81 m s-2

Solution
Taking upwards as positive Let downwards be positive All directions be positive
u = 15.0 m s -1
u =  15.0 m s-1 u =15.0m s-1
v = 0.0 m s-1 v = 0.0 m s-1 v = 0.0 m
a =  9.81 m s-2 a = 9.81 m s-2 a = 9.81 m s-2
using v  u  at , using v  u  at , using v  u  at ,
vu vu vu
t t t
a a a
0  15 0  (15) 0  15
  
9.81 9.81 9.81
 1.53 s  1.53 s  1.53 s

WRONG!

As can be seen, it does not matter if you choose the upward direction or the downward
direction as positive initially. So long as you stick with the convention chosen throughout
your problem, you would arrive at the same result.

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-19
 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

Example 9
Superman wanted to leap from the ground to the top of the Taipei 101
building, 500 m above the ground.

(a) What is the minimum initial velocity required for him to reach the top of
the building?
(b) What is his initial velocity if he reached the top of the building in 1.0 s?

Solution
(a) For minimum initial velocity, the maximum height of his jump will be just equal that of
the building. When he reaches the top of the building, his velocity will be 0 m s-1.

Taking upwards as positive

u = ?, v = 0 m s-1, a = 9.81 m s-2, s = 500 m, t = ?
Using v 2  u 2  2as
02  u 2  2( 9.81)(500)
u 2  9810
99.0mmss-11
u =99.0 (to 3 sf)

(b) Taking upwards as positive

u = ?, v = ?, t = 1.0 s, s = 500 m, a = -9.81 m s-2
1
Using s  ut  at 2 , we get
2
500  u  0.5( 9.81)
u u 505 msm1 s-1
= 505
= 510 m s-1 (
to 2 sf)

Example 10
Lois Lane was held captive by Lex Luthor in an airplane travelling at a constant velocity of
100 m s-1. The plane passed superman, who was initially stationary. Superman then chased
after the plane with an acceleration of 30 m s-2 until he reached the top speed of 180 m s-1.
How far would superman have flown when he caught up with Lois Lane?
v/m s-1
Solution 1 – Graphical Method
180
For superman to catch up with the plane, the area under Superman
both graphs must equal. 100
100 × t = 0.5 × 6.0 × 180 + 180 × (t-6.0)
80t = 540 Lex Luthor
t = 6.75 s
0 6.0 t t/s
Therefore total distance travelled by superman is

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-20
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100 × 6.75 = 675 m

Solution 2 – Equations of Motion
Note that acceleration is 30 m s-2 for 1st 6.0 seconds and zero subsequently. Kinematics
equations only applies for constant acceleration motion therefore care must be taken to solve
this problem in 2 segments:

For the first 6.0 seconds,

Considering the airplane, total displacement of airplane is 100 × 6.0 = 600 m
Considering Superman, given u = 0 m s-1, a = 30 m s-2, v = 180m s-1, s=?
Using v 2  u 2  2as ,
1802  0  2(30)s
 s  540 m

After the first 6.0 seconds, Superman flies 80 m s-1 faster than the airplane and is 60 m away.

Therefore, time taken for Superman to catch up the plane from that point onwards is simply
t  60 / 80  0.75s

Hence total displacement from starting point is 6.75×100 = 675 m

Learning Outcomes

(g) Solve problems using equations which represent uniformly accelerated motion in a
straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field
without air resistance.

Steps to solve kinematics problems using the equations of motion:

1. Define the positive direction.
2. Write down all data given with the correct sign.
3. Write down all the 3 equations of motions. Identify unknowns in each equation.
4. Find the connection between the unknown and the data given.
5. Decide which equation(s) to use, and in what order.
6. Start solving.

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-21
 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

Example 11
(a) The figure below shows a simple device for measuring your reaction
time. A friend holds the strip vertically, with thumb and forefinger at
the dot on the top. You then position your thumb and forefinger at the
other dot on the bottom, being careful not to touch the strip. Your
friend releases the strip and you try to pinch it as soon as possible after
you see it begin to fall. The mark at the place where you pinch the strip
gives your reaction time.

(i) How far from the bottom dot should you place the 50 ms? [1.23 cm]
Taking downwards as +ve,
u = 0 m s-1, t = 50 ms, a = +g = +9.81 m s-2, s=?

Choose an appropriate equation of motion

1
Use s = ut + at2
2

s = 0 + ½ 9.81 (0.050)2
= +0.0123 m

(ii) Explain clearly how many times higher should the marks for 100,
150, 200 and 250 ms be? [4, 9, 16 and 25 times]

Since s = ½ g t2
therefore s is directly proportional to the square of time t,
hence the marks for 100, 150, 200, and 250 ms are at distances
that are 22, 32, 42, and 52 greater than the 50 ms mark.

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Example 12
A boy throws a ball vertically upwards and catches it 3.0 s later at the same location
Neglecting air resistance,
(a) (i) find the speed with which the ball leaves his hand,
Taking upwards as +ve
v = - u, t = 3.0 s, a = - 9.81 m s-2

Using v = u + at
– u = u + (–9.81)(3)
u = 14.7 m s-1

Hence speed = 14.7 m s-1

(ii) find the maximum height to which it rises.

At maximum height, the ball will be instantaneously at rest.

Taking upwards as +ve

u = + 14.7 m s-1; v = 0 m s-1, t = 1.5 s, a= - 9.81 m s-2

Using s = ut + ½ at2
s = 14.7 (1.5) - ½ 9.81 (1.5)2
= 11.0 m

Hence, max height is 11.0 m

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(b) Sketch from 0 to 3 seconds,

(i) an acceleration-time graph,
(ii) a velocity-time graph, and
(iii)a displacement-time graph.

Indicate clearly on your graphs, the values of the times at which

(1) the ball leaves his hand,
(2) it comes to its maximum height,
(3) it reaches his hand again.

Acceleration / ms-2

0 t/s
1.5 3.0
-9.81

Velocity / ms-1
14.7

0 t/s
1.5 3.0

-14.7

Displacement / m

11.0

0 t/s
1.5 3.0

(1) (2) (3)

_ _ _

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2.4 Motion under Gravity (Free Fall)

In kinematics, we often deal with motion that is under the influence of gravity. If a ball is
dropped from rest, the displacement, velocity and acceleration are in the same direction
(downwards). Hence we can apply kinematics equations to derive information of the motion
required.

2.4.1 Air resistance is negligible

For this case, the only force acting on the ball is gravity. After time t, the velocity of the ball
released from rest would be given by:

v = u + at
= gt (since u = 0)

Thus the displacement and velocity changes with time as shown in the graphs below
s /m
v /m s-1

t /s t /s
0 0

Learning Outcomes

(h) Describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with
air resistance.

2.4.2 Motion due to Air resistance

In practice, if the air resistance is taken into consideration, the velocity of the falling object
will not increase with time indefinitely. In general, the air resistance opposing motion tends
to increase approximately with the square of the speed at high velocities and increase
proportionately with speed at low velocities.

Hence, the larger the velocity, the greater the larger the retarding force (air resistance). The
actual acceleration is the combined free-fall acceleration and the retardation due to air-
resistance.

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Topic 2: Kinematics 2-25
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Air Resistance

Taking downward as positive FR

Net force  m a  m g  F R
FR velocity
a  g 
m

Weight
mg
For bodies falling from great heights (aeroplane, clouds), the air resistance can be very large,
so much that the retardation is equal to g. As such, the net force is 0 N and we say that the
body has reached terminal velocity, vT. Bodies falling in a fluid medium behave in the same
way.

Example 13
Sketch the v-t and a-t graphs of a body falling from a great height when air resistance is not
negligible.

Solution
a /m s-2
v /m s-1

10

t /s 0 t /s
0

Note:
In general g is not a constant. It decreases with height above the Earth’s surface. However,
for height << Earth radius (e.g. few hundred metres), g varies negligibly with height and can
be taken as a constant (= 9.81 m s-2)

“Released” or “dropped” implies that initial velocity u equal to 0 m s-1

“Thrown or “fired” implies that initial velocity u is not equal to 0 m s-1

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Example 14
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity vo. Sketch its velocity-time graph
showing the time until the ball reaches the thrower’s hand, in the case when
(a) air resistance is neglected, labelled A
(b) air resistance is considered, labelled B
Explain qualitatively the shapes of both graphs.

v / m s1
vo

t’
t/s
tu td
t’’
– vd B

– vo A

The slope of the graph without any air resistance is a straight line with a constant negative
slope because

the acceleration due to gravity is constant and is directed downwards.

When the ball is on its upward journey, the slope of graph B is steeper than that for graph A
because

the retarding effect of air resistance acting in the same direction as the ball's weight is
such that the net deceleration of the ball due to the weight of the ball and air resistance is
greater than that due to gravity alone.

When the ball is on its downward journey, the slope of graph B is gentler than that for graph
A because
the retarding effect of air resistance is such that the net acceleration of the ball downwards
due to the weight of the ball and the opposing effect of air resistance is less than that due to
gravity alone.

When the ball is at the maximum height, the slope of graph B is equal to that for graph A
because

at the maximum height, the ball is instantaneously at rest, hence air resistance is zero, and
the acceleration of the ball is due to gravity alone.
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For the upward journey, the area under graph B is less than for graph A because

some energy is used to overcome air resistance, and so the gain in gravitational potential
energy maximum height reached is less than its initial kinetic energy. Hence the maximum
height reached is less than the case for that without air resistance.

When the ball is on its upward journey, the time taken to reach maximum height is less for
graph B (t’’) than for graph A (t’) because

with air resistance, the ball experiences a greater retarding force and hence deceleration
on its upward journey, and so is decelerated to rest in a shorter time.

Considering graph B alone, the time tu taken for the ball to reach the top when going up less
than the time td for the ball to reach the thrower’s hand when coming down because

on the upward journey, there is a greater deceleration as the air resistance helps to
decelerate the ball, whereas on the downward journey, there is a less acceleration as the air
resistance opposes the downward acceleration of the ball.

Consider graph B alone. The velocity with which the ball leaves the thrower’s hand is vo.
The velocity of the ball just before it reaches the thrower’s hand is –vd . The magnitude of
vd is less than that for vo because

some energy is used to overcome air resistance, and so the kinetic energy that the ball
returns to the thrower's hand is less than before.

Example 15
A body is thrown vertically upwards. Which of the following provides the correct
explanation when the times of flight for the upward motion tu and the downward motion td (to
return to the same level) are compared if air resistance is not ignored?

A td > tu, because the body moves faster on its downward flight as the downward
acceleration is larger.
B. td > tu, because at a given speed the net acceleration when the body is moving
downwards is smaller than the net deceleration when it is moving upwards.
C td < tu, because at a given speed the net acceleration when the body is moving
downwards is greater than the net deceleration when it is moving upwards.
D td = tu, because the net acceleration when the body is moving downwards is equal
to the net deceleration when it is moving upwards.

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2.5 Non-linear Motion

Learning Outcomes

(i) Describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform
acceleration in a perpendicular direction.

So far, we had only considered objects along straight-line paths. Now let us look at objects
moving in a plane, that is, two-dimensional motion. Projectile motion deals with the motion
of a particle or body when it undergoes motion in which there is a uniform velocity in one
direction and a uniform acceleration in a perpendicular direction.

Examples in which projectile motion can occur include the following:

a. A body moving in a perpendicular to uniform gravitational field.
b. A charged particle moving perpendicular to uniform electric field.

When an object is projected into the air at an angle  with respect to the ground with speed v,
the body will move in a parabolic path. An example of projectile motion is an Olympic
athlete throwing a javelin

Though the motion is two-dimensional, it can be analyzed by considering the straight line
motion in the horizontal direction and vertical direction independently.

Vx = U x Ux
Vy = 0

Ux = Ucos Vx = Ucos
Uy = Usin U Vy = -Usin

Vx

Uy 
- Vy

Ux

Horizontal motion
The body is moving with a constant velocity. There is no resultant force in the horizontal
direction and therefore the horizontal acceleration is zero.

Horizontal Acceleration ax = 0
Horizontal Velocity vx = ux + axt = ux
Horizontal Displacement sx = uxt + ½axt2 = uxt

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Note the length of the vectors representing the horizontal and vertical components of
the velocity at each stage of the motion. The length of the horizontal component is
constant.

Vertical motion
The body moves under the influence of gravity with a constant acceleration (g) hence the
vertical velocity changes with time. Taking downwards (gravity) as positive, the kinematics
equation for motion applies to this case

Vertical Acceleration ay = g
Vertical Velocity vy = uy + gt
Vertical Displacement sy = uyt + ½gt2
Time independent Eqn vy2= uy2 + 2gsy

Note: A parabola is a shape found commonly in mathematics. In fact, if you plot quadratic
equations (ax2 + bx + c) in a graph, you get a parabola.

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Velocity of projectile at any time is given by the vector sum of vx and vy at that time.

2 2
In magnitude, v = vx  v y
vy
In direction,  = tan-1
vx

Notes: In kinematics and subsequent Physics topics, we would have to resolve vectors in the
perpendicular directions to solve problems. Hence it is important to revise your
vectors.

2.5.1 Maximum Height

u
At the maximum height, vy = 0
Using vy 2 = uy 2 + 2 ay y
= ( u sin )2 – 2 g H
u 2 sin 2 θ
 maximum height reached , H =
2g

2.5.2 Time to reach Maximum Height

At the maximum height, vy = 0
Using vy = uy + ay t
= u sin – g tup
u sin
tup =
g

2.5.3 Total Time of Flight, T

tup = tdown
 T = 2 tup
2 u sin
T =
g

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2.5.4 Alternative derivation for Total Time of Flight, T

Considering the whole motion,

when the projectile has reached
the ground, y = 0 u

Taking the upward direction as 

positive, ay = – g , uy = u sin
Range, R
Using sy = u y t + ½ a y t 2

0 = ( u sin ) t + ½ (– g) t 2

For y = 0, t ( u sin – ½ g t ) = 0
2 u sin
 t = 0 or t = = T
g

2.5.5 Range, R
The maximum horizontal distance covered by the projectile is known as the horizontal range,
R.
2 u sin
R = vx T = (u cos)
g
u 2 sin 2
R =
g

For a given speed of projection, u, the horizontal range is maximum when

sin 2 = 1   = 45
u2
thus maximum range, Rmax =
g

IMPORTANT!
EQUATIONS FOR RANGE, TIME OF FLIGHT, MAXIMUM HEIGHT ETC
SECTION 2.5.1 to 2.5.5 CANNOT BE USED W/O PROOF FOR NUMERICAL
PROBLEMS.
Except for MCQ where working is not required

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The figure below shows a projectile launched with an initial speed of 50 m s -1 at various
angle of projection. Note that the complementary values of angle of projection result in the
same value of R.

u = 50 m s-1

Problem Solving Hints for Projectile Problems in Gravitational Field

1. Resolve the initial velocity into the x and y components.

2. Solve the constant velocity horizontal motion and constant accelerated motion vertically.
Note the x and y motion share the same t.

Example 16
An object is projected at an angle to the horizontal in a gravitational field and it follows a
parabolic path, PQRST. These points are the positions of the objects after successive equal
time intervals, T being the highest point reached.

The displacements PQ, QR, RS and ST

A are equal
B decrease at a constant rate
C. have equal horizontal components
D increase at a constant rate

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Example 17
From the top of a building we throw three identical rocks. One is thrown vertically upwards,
one horizontally sideways, and one dropped vertically downwards. The rocks thrown
vertically upwards and horizontally have the same initial speed. Which rock takes the shortest
time to reach the ground? [Ignore air resistance]

A The one thrown vertically upwards

B The one thrown horizontally sideways.

C. The one dropped vertically downwards.

D Both the rocks thrown horizontally sideways and dropped vertically downwards

Example 18
A fighter plane was flying horizontally at 90 m s-1 at a height of 800 m when it released a
bomb.

(a) State the initial horizontal and vertical velocities of the bomb.
Since the bomb is on the plane and hence it will initially travel with the velocity of the
plane,

ux = 90 m s-1 in the direction of flight of the plane.

uy = 0 m s-1

(b) Determine the time needed for the bomb to reach the ground.
Remember that for a projectile problem, we can always solve the vertical and horizontal
motions separately. They are independent.

Taking downwards as +ve,

ux = 90 m s-1, uy = 0 m s-1, ax = 0 m s-2 ,ay = +g = + 9.81 m s-2 , sy = +800 m

Using sy = uy t + ½ ay t2
800 = 0 + ½ (9.81) t2
= 12.8 s

(c) Determine the horizontal distance the bomb travelled before it reached the ground,
assuming air resistance is negligible.
Taking downwards as +ve,
ux = 90 m s-1, uy = 0 m s-1, ax = 0 m s-2, ay = +g = + 9.81 m s-2 , sy = +800 m, t = 12.8 s
Using sx = ux t + ½ ax t2
sx = uxt + ½ (0) t2
= 90 (12.8)
= 1150 m
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Example 19
A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 15 m s-1 at an angle of 60o to the horizontal, as
shown in the diagram below.
B

(a) Explain why AB represents the velocity of the ball and not just its speed.
AB represents the velocity as the length of the arrow gives an indication of the
magnitude of the velocity and the direction provides its initial direction of projection.

(b) Calculate, for this ball, the initial values of

(i) the vertical component of the velocity,
uy = 15 sin 60
= 13 m s-1

(ii) the horizontal component of the velocity.

ux = 15 cos 60
= 7.5 m s-1
(c) Assuming that air resistance can be neglected, use your answers in (b) to determine
(i) the maximum height to which the ball rises,
Taking upwards as +ve,
uy = +13 m s-1, at max. height: vy = 0 m s-1, ay = – 9.81 m s-2

Using v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 132 +2(-9.81)(sy)
sy = 8.61 m

(ii) the time of flight, that is, the time interval between the ball being thrown and
returning to ground level,
Since the ball returns to ground level, sy = 0

Using sy = uyt + ½ ayt2

0 = 13t + ½ (–9.81)(t)
t(13 – 4.905) = 0
hence t = 0 or t = 2.65 s

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(d) Use your answers to (b) to sketch the path of the ball, assuming air resistance is
negligible. Label this path N.

(e) (i) On your sketch in (d), draw the path of the ball, assuming that air resistance cannot be
neglected. Label this path A.
(ii) Suggest an explanation for any differences between the two paths N and A.

A N

In the horizontal direction, the ball experiences a net deceleration, therefore the
horizontal speed decreases resulting in a shorter range.

As the ball rises, it has to do work against air resistance, hence mechanical
energy is lost and the maximum height is reduced (as per Conservation of
Energy)

As the ball rises, it experiences a net deceleration greater than g because air
resistance is acting in the same direction as the gravitational force. Hence, its
vertical speed decreases to zero in a shorter time. As a result, it reaches a max
height sooner, explaining why the max height is displaced to the left compared
to path N.

Path A is asymmetrical because horizontal speed is not uniform and in the

vertical direction, the vertical acceleration experienced by the ball is not
constant.

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Kinematics Summary

Scalar: Distance is length of path taken by the object.

Speed is defined as distance travelled per unit time.

Vector Displacement of an object measures the change in position of the object

along a straight line and is defined as the distance and direction of a position
of a point as measured from a reference position.

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time. It acts in the

direction of change of displacement. It is a vector quantity.

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. It acts in the direction
of the change of velocity.

Graph v
Gradient = acceleration
Area = Displacement

Equations of Motion for a body traveling in a straight line with constant acceleration.
v = u + at
Note: Need to know how to
s = ut + ½ at2
v2 = u2 + 2 a s derive these eqns from
s = ½ (u+v)t definitions of velocity and
acceleration
Note: Usually, the direction of the initial velocity u is taken as the positive direction.
Vector (v, s or a) which has an opposite direction is given a negative sign.

Object falling in a Uniform Gravitational Field with Air Resistance

v Terminal As the object falls, its velocity increases and

velocity the air resistance acting on the object also
increases. This opposes the downward motion
and causes the acceleration to decrease. At a
point when the weight is offset by the air
(Take downwards resistance, the net force and hence the
as positive) acceleration is zero, the object moves with a
constant terminal velocity.
t

Motion of a Body Moving Vertically in a Uniform Gravitational Field with air resistance
Consider a body thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity u in a
uniform gravitational field with air resistance v

As a body rises, both air resistance and weight act downward, causing a
larger resultant force. Its initial upward deceleration is greater and it takes a W Air resistance
shorter time to reach the greatest height.

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As a body falls, it accelerates downwards, and air resistance opposes its Air resistance
weight, causing a smaller resultant force. The magnitude of the acceleration
is smaller and it takes a longer time to reach the original position.
v
The gradient of the graph on the upward journey is steeper than that of the
downwards journey. When its velocity is 0 m s-1, the gradient of the graph is
W
9.81 ms-2.
v / m s-1
u
(Take upwards
as positive)

t/s

Projectile Motion

A mass is projected with speed u at an angle  in a space with no air resistance.

u

ux = u cos  uy u
uy = u sin 
u= u x2  u y2 
ux

For a projectile motion, the horizontal and vertical components of the motion are
independent of each other.

horizontal: Fx = 0, ax = 0, vx is constant,
ux = u cos  vx = ux, sx = u xt .

vertical: Fy = W, ay is constant (9.81 m s-2 downwards)

uy = u sin 

vy = uy + ayt
1
s y = uy t + ay t2
2
vy2 = uy2 + 2 ay sy

vy = 0 (at highest point)

Note: Time is the only quantity that is the same for both the horizontal and vertical motions.

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vy v
vx
 vx
u
u sin  vx 
u
vy v
 
u cos 

Special cases:

Initial vertical velocity Initial horizontal velocity

u
u Vertical
uy = u, ay = 9.81ms-2 (down)
Vertical
Horizontal uy = 0
ux = 0, ax = 0, ay = 9.81ms-2 (down)

v = u + at Horizontal
1 ux = u, ax = 0,
Apply s = ut + a t2 in 2 directions
2
v2 = u2 + 2 a s

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Kinematics Tutorial

Self-Attempt Questions

Rectilinear Motion: Concept of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and

acceleration
1. A stone is thrown upwards from the top of a cliff. After reaching its maximum height, it
falls past the cliff-top and into the sea.

The graph shows how the vertical velocity v of the stone varies with time t after being
thrown upwards. R and S are the magnitudes of the areas of the two triangles.
v (a) What is the height of the cliff-top above the
sea?

(b) What is the magnitude of the maximum

R
height reached by the stone as measured
t from the cliff-top?
S
(c) What is the total distance travelled by the
stone from the instant of release until it hits
the sea

A R B S C R+S D S–R

Ans: D, A, C, Modified from N98/I/3

2. The average speed of a moving object during a given interval of time is always:
A the magnitude of its average velocity over the interval
B the distance covered during the time interval divided by the time interval
C one-half its speed at the end of the interval
D one-half its acceleration multiplied by the time interval.
Ans: B

Rectilinear Motion: Graphical Analysis

3. Which of the following four displacement versus time graphs represents the motion of
an object moving with a constant speed?

A I B II C III D IV
Ans: B

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4. A car accelerates from rest on a straight road. A short time later, the car decelerates to
a stop and then returns to its original position in a similar manner, by speeding up and
then slowing to a stop. Which of the following graphs best describes the motion?

IV

A I B II C III D IV
Ans: D

Discussion Questions

5. (a) Define displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.

(b) Are the following situations possible? Use suitable real-life examples to illustrate
your answers.
(i) Can a body have zero velocity and be accelerating?
(ii) Can a body have zero acceleration but a non-zero velocity?
(iii) Can a body be moving in one direction but accelerating in the opposite
direction?
(iv ) Can a body be accelerating when its velocity is constant?
(c) Using your definition of displacement, explain how it is possible for a car to travel a
certain distance and yet have zero displacement.
(d) Explain why it is technically incorrect to define speed as distance travelled per
second. Include in your answer the correct statement defining speed.

6 The graph represents how displacement varies with time for a vehicle moving along a
straight line.

During which time interval does the acceleration of the vehicle have its greatest value?
[N02/I/3]

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7 A car is travelling along a straight road. The graph shows the variation with time of its
acceleration during part of the journey.

At which point on the graph does the car have its greatest velocity?

[N96/I/4]
8 The figure below shows a velocity-time graph for a journey lasting 65 s.

Velocity / m s

(a) Using information from the graph, obtain

(i) the acceleration in section A and E separately.
(ii) the distance travelled in section B and C separately.

(b) Describe qualitatively in words what happens in section E and F of the journey.
(c) Sketch a corresponding distance-time graph. Detailed calculations of the distance
travelled are not required.

[N97/II/1 part]

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9 The graph below shows the speeds of two cars A and B which are travelling in the same
direction over a period of time of 40 s. Car A, travelling at a constant speed of 40 ms-1
overtakes car B at time t=0 s. In order to catch up with car A, car B immediately
accelerates uniformly for 20 s to reach a constant speed of 50 m s-1.

Speed/m s-1
B
50

40 A

25
0
0 20 40 Time/s

(a) How far does car A travel during the first 20 s?

(b) Calculate the acceleration of car B in the first 20 s.

(c) How far does car B travel in this time?

(d) What additional time will it take for car B to catch up with car A?

(e) How far will each car have then travelled since t = 0?

(f) What is the maximum distance between the cars before car B catches up with car
A?
[N93/II/2]
Self-Attempt Questions
Rectilinear Motion: Equations of Motion

10. A car, initially at rest, travels 20 m in 4.0 s along a straight line with constant
acceleration. The acceleration of the car is:

A 0.40 m s-2
B 1.3 m s-2
C 2.5 m s-2
D 4.9 m s-2
Ans: C
11 (a) An MRT train accelerates uniformly from rest for 8.0 s until its velocity reaches
20 m s. Find
(i) its initial acceleration,
(ii) its distance travelled from rest.
(b) The MRT train then travels for another 30 s at this constant velocity of 20 m s .
Calculate the additional distance travelled for this section of its journey.
(c) The MRT train then decelerates uniformly to come to rest in a further 10 s. Find
(i) its deceleration over this section of its journey,
(ii) the additional distance travelled for this section of its journey.
(d) For this motion, sketch
(i) a velocity-time graph, 780
s/m

(ii) an acceleration-time graph, 20

v / ms-1
2.5
a / m s-2 680

(iii) a displacement-time graph.

Ans: 2.5 m s2, 80 m, 600 m, 2.0 m s2, 100 m, 0 8 38 48 t/s 0 8 38 48
80
t/s
0 8 38 48

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Discussion Questions

12. In a traffic accident, a motorist claims that he applied his full brakes when he saw the
pedestrian but it was too late therefore the accident occurred. Traffic police arrested the
motorist for speeding and driving recklessly. Based on the information given below,
explain how the police arrived at the conclusion and estimate the speed of the motorist
before he saw the pedestrian.
- The speed limit for the road is 50 km h-1.
- Skid marks found on the road was about 100 m long
- The maximum retarding force from the vehicle gives a deceleration of 5 m s -2
- Human reaction time cannot be faster than 0.20 seconds

13. A ball is dropped from a height of 6.0 m. Assume that there is negligible air resistance.
(a) (i) find the velocity of the ball just before it hits the ground
(ii) find the time taken by the ball to reach the ground after release.
(b) Assuming that no energy is lost on rebound, sketch a graph of velocity against time
for the ball for 3 impacts with the ground and its corresponding displacement-time
graph and distance-time graph.
(c) If the ball only retains 80 % of its kinetic energy on each impact, sketch a new
graph of velocity against time for the ball for 3 impacts with the ground and its
corresponding distance-time graph.

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14. The graph below shows the variation with time t of the velocity v of a ball from the
moment it is thrown with a velocity of 26 m s vertically upwards.
30
v / m s 1

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 t/s

10

20

(a) State the time at which the ball reaches its maximum height.

(b) State the feature of a velocity-time graph that enables the acceleration to be
determined.

(c) Hence determine the initial deceleration of the ball. Explain why it can be greater
than 9.81 m s-2.

(d) State and explain the time at which the acceleration is g.

(e) Sketch an acceleration-time graph of the ball, indicating clearly the time given in
(d).

(f) Sketch on the graph above, a v-t graph if air resistance is negligible.

[N03/III/1 part]

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15. The acceleration g, of free fall is determined by timing point of P

the fall of a steel ball by using light-gates as shown in release a
the diagram. The ball passes points X at time tx, and X
point Y at time ty after release from P. light beam

h Photogate
2h
Show that g can be expressed as .
(t 2y  t x2 ) light beam
[Modified from N10/I/5] Y

ground Q

16. Cindy throws a ball vertically upwards with a velocity of 8.0 ms-1 from the edge of a
cliff
(a) Find the maximum height of the ball
(b) If the cliff is 100 m deep, find the time taken for the ball to hit the bottom of the
cliff
(c) Crystal throws a rock (of the same size as the ball) vertically downwards with
velocity of 8.0 ms-1, would the rock or the ball has a greater speed when it
reaches the bottom of the cliff?
(i) If we ignore air resistance
(ii) If air resistance cannot be ignored

Non–Rectilinear Motion: Projectile

Self-Attempt Questions

17. In the absence of air resistance, a bullet shot horizontally from a gun will
A strikes the ground much later than one dropped vertically from the same point at
the same instant
B strikes the ground vertically downwards
C strikes the ground at the same time as one dropped vertically from the same point
at the same instant
D strikes the ground much sooner than one dropped from the same point at the same
instant

Ans: C

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18. The airplane shown is in level flight at an altitude of 0.50 km and a speed of 150 km h-1.
At what distance d should it release a heavy bomb to hit the target X?
Take g = 10 m s.
150 km h

A 150 m
B 295 m
C 417 m
D 2550 m
Ans: C
19. Which of the curves on the graph below best represents the vertical component vy
versus t for a projectile fired at an angle of 45 above the horizontal?
vy P
Q
R

O t
S T
U

A OP
B QU
C QR
D ST
Ans: B
20. (a) A small ball rolls horizontally off the edge of a tabletop that is 1.20 m high. It strikes
the floor at a point 1.52 m horizontally from the edge of the table. Neglecting air
resistance,
(i) How long is the ball in the air?
(ii) Find the speed at the instant it leaves the table.
(iii) Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the ball’s velocity just
before striking the floor?
(iv) Hence, determine its velocity just before striking the floor.
(b) If a similar ball is dropped vertically from the same level as the tabletop, state and
explain your answer clearly, for this ball, the duration it is in the air.

Ans: 0.495s. 3.07 m s1,vx = 3.07 m s1, vy = 4.86 m s1, 57.7o from horizontal, no change

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Discussion Questions

21. An airplane, diving at an angle of 53o with the vertical, releases a bomb at an altitude of
730 m. The bomb hits the ground 5.0 s after release. Neglecting air resistance,
(a) Determine the speed of the aircraft?
(b) How far did the bomb travel horizontally during its flight?
(c) What were the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity just before
striking the ground?
(d) Hence state the velocity of the bomb just before striking the ground.
(e) Explain the effect on your answers in (b), (c) and (d) if air resistances were not
neglected.

22. A golf ball is struck at ground level and follows a parabolic trajectory. The speed of the
golf ball as a function of time is shown below, where t = 0 s is at the instant the ball is
struck.

Neglecting air resistance,

(a) State the horizontal velocity of the golf ball.
(b) How far does the golf ball travel horizontally before returning to ground level?
(c) What is the initial vertical component of the golf ball's velocity?
(d) What is the maximum height above ground level attained by the ball?

23. a) A motorcycle stunt-rider moving horizontally takes off from a point 1.25m above the
ground, landing 10 m away as shown in the diagram. What was the speed at take
off?

b) A stuntman on a motorcycle plans to ride up a ramp in order to jump over a river 50

m wide. If he intends to ride at the maximum speed of 30 ms-1, what is the range of
angles  of ramp he should use to jump over the river?

 
50 m

c) What minimum velocity must the stuntman have in order to jump over the river?
[J93/I/3 modified]

9646 Physics
Topic 2: Kinematics 2-48
 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

Data Based Question

24 A table from a car driver’s handbook reads as follows:
On a dry road, a car in good condition driven by an alert driver will stop in the
distances shown in the table.

Speed / ms-1 Thinking distance* / Braking distance^ / Overall distance /

m m m
5.0 3.0 1.9 4.9
10 6.0 7.5 13.5
15 9.0 17 26
20 12 30 42
25 15 47 62
30 18 68 86
35 21 92 113

*Thinking distance is the distance travelled by the car during the driver’s reaction
time
^Braking distance is the distance in which the car stops after the brakes have been
applied

(a) Explain why thinking distance is directly proportional to speed whereas

braking distance is not. Describe in words the relationship between braking
distance and speed.
(b) What constant value of negative acceleration has the author of the table used
in calculating the braking distances?
(c) Calculate the overall stopping distance for a car travelling at 50 ms-1
(d) What would be the effects on the thinking distance and the braking distance
of each of the following conditions?
(i) The road is wet
(ii) The driver is not fully alert

[J89/II/9]

9646 Physics
Topic 2: Kinematics 2-49
 Dunman High School (Senior High Physics Department)

Challenging Questions

25 Robin Hood believed that he could hit a falling object if he aimed directly at the object
and fire his arrow at the same time as the object is dropped. Prove or disprove Robin
Hood

26 Robin Hood was out in the hills chasing a bandit running away from him when he
fired an arrow that hit him as shown below. Given that the bandit was 25 m away
from Robin Hood when Robin Hood fired his arrow, find the speed of the bandit.

30 ms-1

60o
25 m

30o

9646 Physics
Topic 2: Kinematics 2-50