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Classical Mechanics – Notes

Degree of freedom: Number of independent co-ordinates are required to describe the dynamics of the particle.
For example: (1) If particle moves along a predefined line (straight/curved) then
DOF = 1

(2)

(by knowing one variable other can be find out)

Hence DOF = 1
(3) If a particle moves on a predefined surface (flat, curved)
DOF = 2

(by knowing two variables, third variable can be find out)

Hence DOF = 2
(4) Now if a particle moves in 3 – D space, then
DOF = 3
(5) For many particles, total DOF = sum of DOF of all particles.
Constraints: Geometrical condition imposed in a system/particle is called constraint.
* Equation representing the constraints is called constraint equation.
For example:

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Here condition on particle is that it always remains on surface. So

DOF = 2
Types of constraints:
(1) Holonomic constraint: If constrained can be expressed as an algebraic equation in terms of co-ordinates. Then it is called
Holonomic.
For example: (i) Simple pendulum because the restriction is imposed on the position of the bob. The distance of the bob from
the point of suspension is fixed at the length of the string.
Definition: Constraints are called Holonomic if their equations do not contain velocities (that is, time derivatives of position
co-ordinates) of particles of the system, that is, restrictions are imposed only on the positions of the particles and not on
velocities.
For example: (ii) The motion of a particle sliding down a plane is holonomic because again here restriction is imposed on the
position of the particle, that is, it must always lie on the plane.
(iii) A bead moving on a circular wire is holonomic because position is confined on the wire.
(2) Non – Holonomic Constraints: If constraints is expressed as inequality or as non-solvable differential equation, then it is
called non-holonomic constraints.
For example: (1) A particle inside a sphere

(2) The molecules moving inside a gas container is non-holonomic because restrictions on the positions of the molecules are
only partial because through they are confined within the vessel, within the vessel there is no restriction on their position.
(3) A sphere rolling down a rough inclined plane without slipping is non-holonomic because there restrictions is not only o the
positions but also on the velocity of the point of contact. The condition is that the velocity of the point of contact is equal to
zero, that is where
velocity of centre of mass.
angular velocity of the sphere
radius

Another definition of Non-Holonomic constraints: If the restrictions are imposed on velocities and not on co-ordinates be
expressed by an equation containing position vectors and time only are called non-holonomic constraints.
If there is restrictions on velocity only, the motion is non-holonomic and if restrictions are on both position and velocity, then
also motion is non-holonomic.

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(3) Stationary (scleronomous) constraints: If constraint equations do not depend upon time.
(4) Time dependent (rhenomocus) constraints: If constraint equations depends upon time.
For example: (1) A simpe pendulum is a constrained system. It is holonomic and stationary system.
(2) A particle within a sphere whose radius is changing at a rate . The system is non-holonomic and time dependent.
The relation between degrees of freedom and constraints:

where number of particles

number of constraints
DOF
For example: In a mole of diatomic gas, there is restriction on the position of two atoms in a molecule. The restriction is that
the distance between the atoms of a single molecule must always be the same obviously constraints reduce the number of
independent variables required for system. Here for each molecule we need 5 in dependent variables instead of six.
Generalized co-ordinates: Though Cartesian co-ordinates are suitable in many problems on account of their simplicity but
not always. For example, the motion of the particles under the action of central force-field is most conveniently solved in polar

co-ordinates , the motion of a particle in a spherical symmetrical force-field is best solved in spherical polar co-

ordinates etc.
* Suitable variable chosen to describe dynamics of system are called generalized co-ordinates. It may or may not be co-
ordinate.

For example: (1) For a particle moving in x-direction x co-ordinate is generalized co-ordinate .
(2) For a thermodynamic system P, V, T are taken as generalized co-ordinates.
(3) For simple pendulum, angle made by a string with downward vertical is taken as generalized co-ordinates

* These co-ordinates are all independent of each other.

Generalized velocities: The total time derivative of the generalized co-ordinates are called generalized velocities

Lagrangian:
where

Generalized momenta:

Assumption of Lagrangian formulation: are independent

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This assumption is used while doing differentiation in Lagrangian equation.

Mathematically:

Lagrange’s equation: and so on.

Cyclic co-ordinates: If lagrangian depends on a velocity, but corresponding co-ordinate is not present, then that co-ordinate is
cyclic.

* If x is cyclic then

* If is cyclic, then .
Note: If in a question a conserved/constant quantity is asked, first of all check cyclic co-ordinate.

For example:

Lagrangian is depends upon velocity but co-ordinate x is not present.

cyclic co-ordinate

constant

* If
is present, but is missing
cyclic co-ordinate

constant

Important points: * If linear co-ordinate (x, y, z, r, s)

then represent linear velocity

* If angel , then

angular velocity

angular momentum

Q1. The equation of motion of a system described by the time-dependent. Lagrangian is

(CSIR-NET DEC 2014)

(a) (b)

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(c) (d)

Sol:

Now

or

So option (a) is correct.

Q2. Lagrangian of a particle is

Find x(t) if at

Sol:

or

or

where

or
So

Real and equal roots, so

at

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Differentiate w.r.t. t, we get

at

So

or

Q3.
Find Lagrangian equation of motion

Ans. .

Q4. If Lagrangian of a system is then solution of Lagrange’s yields (if q = 0 at t = 0)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

or

Divide by

{By separation of variables}

By integration

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or

Integrating
at

So

or

So option (a) is correct.

Q5. If , then is equal to

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct option: (c)

Q6. Lagrangian of a system is which of the following is not correct

(a) (b)

(c) (b)
Correct option: (c)

Q7. Lagrangian of a particle is . If x = 0 at x = 0, then as a function of x can be written as

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct option: (d)

Q8. . Find in terms of

Sol:

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and

or

So

Q9. The Lagrangian of particle of mass m moving in a plane L is given by , where

are velocity components and a is a constant. The canonical momenta by the particle are given by

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Correct answer: (d)
Lagrangian of some standard systems:
(1) Simple pendulum:

Here generalized co-ordinates = angle made by string

Here constant =

Equation of motion:

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If

or

where angular frequency

For simple pendulum, motion is harmonic for small amplitude, but anharmonic and oscillatory for large amplitude.
(2) Lagrangian of 1-D simple harmonic oscillator:

EOM:-

(3) Lagrantian of 2-D simple harmonic oscillator:

(4) Lagrantian of 3-D simple harmonic oscillator:

(5) Superposition of two perpendicular S.H.M with same frequency:

EOM in x-direction

Using equation (1)

Sol:

or
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EOM in y-direction:

Sol:

Using equation (2)

Squaring both sides

equation of path

Special case: * Phase difference straight line

If

Equation (1) becomes

or equation of straight line

If

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straight line

If

circle

or equation of circle

If

ellipse

equation of circle
* Phase difference , path is ellipse

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Important points: (i) When a particle is subjected to two perpendicular S.H.M of equal frequency, then resultant path can be
straight line, ellipse or circle.
(ii) If angular momentum of particle is non-zero, then path can be ellipse or circle only.
(iii) If angular momentum is zero, then path can be a straight line only.
(6) Lagrangian of a projectile know near earth:

Here cyclic co-ordinate

(7) Lagrangian of a spring pendulum:

Here natural length of spring which is not constant.

So DOF = 2

(8) Lagrangian of a particle moving in a sphere:

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fixed

Using spherical polar co-ordinate

Here = cyclic co-ordinate

= constant

or = constant

= constant

or = constant
(9) Lagrangian of conical pendulum:

* Bob of conical pendulum revolves about vertical axis in such a way that the angle made by string with vertical remains
constant

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(10) Lagrangian of spherical pendulum: In this case bob does not oscillate in fixed vertical plane

(11) A rod of length and mass M is suspended from one end and made to oscillate is fixed vertical pane write Lagrangian
of the rod. For small part

:
For simple pendulum

{density is same)

By integrating

(12) Double pendulum:

We choose as generalized co-ordinates the two angles

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Now change to polar co-ordinates

Then

Thus

(13) For a particle of charge e and mass m is placed in electric and magnetic field, then

where vector potential

scalar potential

or

(14) Find Lagrangian for system, where the pully is massless

(15) Set up the lagrangian for the following system the disk also have same ‘m’

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Let be the angle one disc has turned away from one equilibrium position. Then extension of the spring

Mass m is lowered by a distance

(16) Wedge block system:

Action (s):

Action (J):
Example: The motion of a particle in one-dimensional is described by the lagrangian

in suitable units. The value of the action along the classical path from x = 0 at t = 0 to at is

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol: Given

EOM:

Sol:
at

So

at

So

So

Difference w.r.t. t,

Now

Now

or

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Ques. A projectile of mass 1 kg is launched at an angle of from the horizontal direction at t = 0 and takes time T before

hitting the ground. If its initial speed is 10 the value of the action integral for the entire flight in the units of kg
(round off to one decimal place) is _____________

[Take g = 10 ].
Ans: 33.3
Solution:
Given the initial speed

and mass of flight

Time of flight (T) is given as

The Lagrangian for projectile is

L=T–V
Or

where

Here horizontal velocity component is

The vertical velocity component at t time is

Kinematic equation along y-axis

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So, Lagrangian is

Action integral for time of flight (T = 1 sec) is

Ques. A particle of mass m = 0.1 is initially at rest at origin. It starts moving with a uniform acceleration at t = 0.
The action S of the particle in units of J-s, at t = 2s is ______________
Ans: 26.6

Generalized force:

or generalized potential
Neilson form of Lagrange’s EOM:

Note: In some questions if force is given and we are asked to write Lagrangian equation of motion then instead of finding

P.E(V), we can find and use to write Lagranges EOM.

Example: A particle is moving on a plane under a force . Write EOM of the particle
Sol: In plane polar co-ordinates

r-equation:

-equation:

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or
Most important topic:
Conversion from Lagrangian to Hamiltonian
Or L to H
L: given, H = ?

Use: (1)

(2)
Conversion from Hamiltonian to Lagrangian
Or H to L
H: given, L = ?
Use: Hamilton’s equation

Example: (1) If the Lagrangian of a dynamical system in two dimensions is , then its Hamiltonian is

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Sol: Given

Now

And

{using equation (1)} {using equation (1)}

Now equation (2) becomes

or

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Option c is correct.

Example 2: A particle of mass m and co-ordinate q has the Lagrangian , where is a constant. The
Hamiltonian for the system is given by

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (b)

Example 3: The Hamiltonian of a relativistic particle of rest mass m and momentum p is given by ,
in units in which the speed of light c = 1, the corresponding Lagrangian is

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Sol: Given

Now
or

Putting the value of p, we get

So option (b) is correct.

Example 4: The Hamiltonian of a simple pendulum consisting of a mass attached to a massless string of length is

. If L denotes the Lagrangian, the value of is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:
Correct answer: (a)

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important equation

Example 5: If the lagrangian of a particle moving in one dimensions is given by , the Hamiltonian is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (a)

Poisson Bracket:
Properties of Poisson Bracket:

where are constants

in cyclic order

Relation between Poisson Bracket and commutator bracket.

For example:

(8) Poisson Bracket with component of angular momentum:

(9)

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Tensor of rank 2

Levi civita tensor tensor of rank 3

Properties of :

(1) if i = j, j = k or k = i {two indices are same}

(2) Its value is one when all indices are different and in cyclic order

(3) Its value is –1 if indices are different but not in cyclic order

(4) Values of remains unchanged when all indices are interchanged in cyclic order

{change in cyclic order}

(5) If two adjacent indices of are interchanged then it becomes –ve

# Einstein summation convention (rule):

or
{summation is present on the repeated indices}.

Example:

or

(1) very important or

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6) new definition of cross product

(7)

(8)

(9) Prove

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L.H.S:

So

Hence proved
Poisson’s theorem:
(1) If two quantities A and B are constant of motion (conserved), then their poisson bracket gives another conserved quantity

constant
(2) If a system has f degree of freedom then maximum number of independent conservative quantities possible for system is
2f.
Some important relation:

(1)

(2)

For example: (1) If are conserved quantity for a system, then

then is also conserved.

(2) If

Maximum number of independent conservative quantities possible for system are 4.

Example 1: A particle is moving under the action of a generalized potential . The magnitude of the
generalized force is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (c)

Example 2: For a simple Harmonic oscillator, the Lagrangian is given by , if

if the Hamiltonian of the system, the poisson bracket is given by

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

where

So

So option (a) is correct.

Example 3: The Poisson bracket of is equal to

(a) –x (b) y (c) (d)

Sol:

Example 4: The Poisson bracket of has the value _________ ?

Sol:

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Example 5: The value of Poisson bracket is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

So option (a) is correct.

Example: Evaluate Poisson bracket

Sol:

Example 7: The expression (where is the Levi-civita symbol, are the position,

momentum and angular momentum respectively and represent the Poisson bracket of A and B) simplifies to

(a) 0 (b) 6 (c) (d)

Sol:

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So

Example 8: The is the component of angular momentum, then is equal to

(a) (b) 0 (c) (d)

Correct answer: (b)

Example 9: The are the component of the angular momentum , then the quantity equal

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol: {Let it is a P.B}

Example 10: Lagrangian of a system is for system, value of Pisson bracket

is equal to

(a) (b) (c) (d) 0

Correct answer: (b)
Canonical transformation: There are a number of problems in mechanics for the solution of which it is often desired to
change from one set of position and momentum co-ordinates to a new set of position and momentum co-ordinates which may

be more suitable. Suppose are one set of co-ordinates and

are second set of co-ordinates.

The transformation is canonical if Hamiltonian equation of motion in the new set retains its form. If H is new Hamiltonian,
then

or any transformation of co-ordinate and/or momentum which leaves equation of motion unchanged is called CT

For CT, Poisson bracket of new variables w.r.t. old variables must be 1.

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If be two canonical then their combination. is also canonical transformation.

* For every CT is a canonical transformation, then is also a canonical transformation.

Example 1: Let (p, q) and (P, Q) be two pairs of canonical variables. The transformation

is canonical for
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

or
Example 2: The Hamilton’s canonical equation of motion in terms of Poisson brackets are

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Sol:

not depend upon t,

So

Similarly,
Example 3: Given that the linear transformation of a generalized co-ordinate q and the corresponding momentum p,

is canonical, the value of the constant a is ______________

Correct answer: 0.5
Example 4: Let q and p be the canonical co-ordinate and momentum of a dynamical system which of the following
transformation is canonical?

(I) (II)
(a) neither I nor II (b) both I and II (c) only I (d) only II
Correct answer: (d)
Generating function for canonical transformation: It is function of one old variable and one new variable in terms of which
the CT relations can be expressed

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Now (1)

{* Derivative w.r.t has –ve sign}

(2)

(3)

(4)

Example 1: This is

or

Taking log both sides

Example 2: Find generating function, F(a, p) for C.T

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Sol: We have to find

The equations are

Now express p and Q in terms (a, P)

From equation (1)

and

Now

By integrating

Using equation (3)

and

By integrating
Putting the value of p, using equation (2), we get

From equation (4) and (5) .

Example 3: Find generating function F(q, P) for C.T

Sol: This is

and
From equation (2)

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From equation (3)

By putting values of p and Q, we get

or

From equation (5) and (6)

Example 4: The generating function for the transformation

Ans:
Example 5: Consider a canonical transformation

Find F(p, Q)

Correct ans:
Example 6: Which of the following generating function represents parit transformation
(a) qQ (b) pQ (c) pP (d) qP
Correct ans: (b)
Sol: Check option (b)
F = pQ

inversion transformation

Example 7: A canonical transformation is made through the generating function and on

the Hamiltonian , where are constants. The equations of motion for (Q, P) are
[NET JUNE 2016]

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Sol: This is
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Differential equation is

By putting the values of p and q

Example 8:

A mechanical system is described by the Hamiltonian . As a result of the canonical

transformation generated by the Hamiltonian in the new coordinate Q and momentum P becomes

[NET DEC 2014]

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Correct ans: (d)
Conservation laws in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulation:

(1) Conservation of energy: If Lagrangian and Hamiltonian does not explicity depend on time, energy is conserved.
* Invariance of L/H under time translation leads to conservation of energy, this is called Homogeneity of time leads to
conservation of energy.

Example:
Energy is conserved because time is not present in the expression.
(2) Conservation of linear momentum:
* Invariance of L – H, under space translation (translation of origin of co-ordinate system from one point or place to other
place), leads to conservation of linear momentum.
* Homogeneity of space leads to conservation of linear momentum.
Important points:

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* If L, H contain , then linear momentum in x-direction cannot be conserved.

* If L, H contain two variables x and y, in the form , then are not conserved but

is conserved.

Example: Lagrangian of a system is then which of the following is conserved

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct ans:

* If we translate origin in x-direction, then L/H is invariant, then is conserved.

* If we translate origin in y-direction and L/H is invariant, then is conserved.

* If we translate origin in z-direction and L/H is invariant, then is conserved.

Conservation of angular momentum:
* If L/H is invariant under rotation of co-ordinate axes, then angular momentum (in direction of rotation of axes) is conserved.

* If L/H is invariant under rotation about x-axis then is conserved.

* If L/H is invariant under rotation about y-axis, then is conserved.

* If L/H is invariant under rotation about z-axis, then is conserved.

* If L/H is invariant under rotation about -direction then is conserved.

* Isotropy of space leads to conservation of angular momentum.
Conclusion: (1) When we rotate co-ordinate axes, about z-axis, then following terms does not change:

then conserved
(2) If we do rotation about x-axis, then following terms do not change:

then conserved
(3) If we do rotation about y-axis, then following terms do not change:

then conserved.
* To solve question related to angular momentum, use following points:
(*) If L/H is invariant under rotation (change of angle), then angular momentum is conserved.

Example:
This Lagrangian is written in polar co-ordinates but angle is not present anywhere, on changing angle, Lagrangian will not
change, so angular momentum is conserved.

Example:
Let us express it in terms of angle i.e. polar co-ordinates,

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we get,

L will change on changing angle so, angular momentum is not conserved.

General concept of conserved quantities: A physical quantity is said to be conserved if its total time derivative is zero. If

Example 1: If which of the following is conserved

(a) (b) (c) (d) all

Sol: If we do rotation around y-axis, do not change, so L will not change about y-axis.

is conserved.
Option (b) is correct.

Example 2: A particle moves in a potential , which component of the angular momentum is/are constant of
motion?

(a) none (b) (c) only (d) only

Sol: term is present, it will not change, during rotation around z-axis.

is conserved.

Example 3: Lagrangian of a system is then,

(a) energy and is conserved (b) only energy is conserved

(c) force on the particle is constant (d) kinetic energy of the particle is conserved
Sol: (1) t is not present in L. Therefore, energy is conserved.

(2) can be formed, so are not conserved. Now

(3)

(4) For K.E,

Force is not conserved, here, speed is also not conserved. Hence K.E is not conserved.

Exception: When particle moves under only magnetic field, its speed does not change, .

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Example 4: Lagrangian of a system is . The conserved quantities are

(a) energy (b) energy,

(c) energy, (d)

Sol: (1) t is not present in L, so energy is conserved.

(2)

or

(3) z is not present in L, but is present. So cyclic co-ordinates. This means is conserved.
So option (b) is conserved.

Example 5: The Hamiltonian for a system of two particles of mass at having velocities

is given by , where C is a constant. Which one of the following statements is

correct?
[GATE 2015]
(a) The total energy and total momentum are conserved
(b) Only the total energy is conserved
(c) The total energy and the z-component of the total angular momentum are conserved
(d) The total energy and total angular momentum are conserved

(1) is variant under rotation about z-axis.

Sol:

(2) Time is not present in L, so energy is also energy is also conserved.

So option (c) is correct.

Example 6: Lagrangina of a system is , which of the following statement is

correct.

(a) only is conserved (b) all are conserved

(c) none of are conserved (d) only is not conserved

Correct option: (b)

Example 7: A particle is moving under a potential , which of the following is correct

(a) the total energy of the particle is not conserved (b) linear momentum of the particle is conserved
(c) angular momentum of the particle is conserved (d) only z-component of angular momentum is conserved

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Correct option: (c)

Example 8: The Hamiltonian of a system is , then which of the following is conserved

(a) energy only (b) energy and (c) only (d) energy

Sol:

This Lagrangian is invariant under rotation about z-axis.

is conserved.
Option (b) is correct.

Example 9: Lagrangina of a system is , which of the following is/are

conserved

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (b) and (c)

Example 10:

Sol: Here is conserved.

To check it by another way

EOM:

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Similarly EOM for y:

Putting the value of in equation (1)

conserved.

Example 11: Lagrangina of a system is , which of the following is not correct

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Correct ans: (c)

Sol:
Check option (a):
cyclic

constant

(a) correct.
Check option (b): z is cylic co-ordinate

constant

(b) correct.
Check option (c):

EOM for y component:

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Put in equation (1)

So option (c) is incorrect.

Example 12: Hamiltonian of a particle is if at , then find relations

between x and y (find equation of path)

Correct ans:
Concept of Homogenous function: Example of homogenous function (total degree must be same at all places)

Property of Homogenous equation:

Small oscillations:
Normal modes: The mode of vibration in which all particles oscillate with same frequency is called normal mode.
* Amplitude and phase of particles may not be same in normal mode.
The angular frequency of oscillation of system is obtained by solving determinant equation

coefficient matrices for K.E and P.E

Normal co-ordinates: A set of co-ordinates which convert equation of motion into equation of S.H.M are called normal co-
ordinates.
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# Some important points:

(1) Number of frequencies of normal modes is equal to DOF of system.
(2) If a system is rigidly fixed at some points then all are non-zero.
(3) If a system is not fixed rigidly them some may be zero.
(4) Number of zero is equal to the number of possible free translation and free rotation.
Example 1:

DOF = 2
Number of =2
Here free translation of system is possible in x-direction. So one value of will be zero.
Example 2:

DOF = 3
Number of =3
Here free translation of system is possible in x-direction. So one value of will be zero.
Example 3:

DOF = 2
Number of =2
Free translation is not possible, so all is non-zero.
Example 4:

DOF = 6
Number of =5
Number of zero’ is 3.
Because free translation in x and y direction and free rotation around z-direction is possible.
Problem on calculation of for normal modes:
Problem 1:

Two masses connected by spring and oscillating longitudinally.

Sol: Let be the displacement of from their respective mean position.

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Now

or

where
Problem 2:

Calculate frequency of normal modes for longitudinal oscillation

Sol: Let be displacement from their respective mean position

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Now

Problem 3:

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or

we get

Relation between :

Put

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Conclusion: Mid particle (M) does not oscillate when . In this system M particle participates in only one mode of
oscillation.
Q4. Normal mode frequency for small oscillation of double pendulum:

By solving

Q5. Normal mode frequency of coupled pendulum:

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or

Now

By solving this, we get

Important:

where

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For minima:

For maxima:

Example 1: A particle of unit mass moves in a potential , where a and b are positive constants. The
angular frequency of small oscillations about the minimum of the potential is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

So

Since

and , where is stable equilibrium point

Hence

at

Thus
So option b is correct.
Example 2: The potential of a diatomic molecule as a function of the distance r between the atoms is given by

. The value of the potential at equilibrium separation between the atoms is

(NET JUNE 2012)

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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct ans: (d)

Example 3: Consider the motion of a classical particle in a one dimensional double-well potential . If
the particle is displaced infinitesimally from the minimum the positive x-axis (and friction is neglected), then
(NET JUNE 2012)

(a) the particle will execute simple harmonic motion in the right well with an angular frequency
(b) the particle will execute simple harmonic motion in the right well with an angular frequency
(c) the particle will switch between the right and left wells
(d) the particle will approach the bottom of the right well and settle there.
Correct ans: (b)
Example 4: The Lagrangian of a system is given by

where m and k are positive constants. The frequencies of its normal modes are

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct ans: (a)
Example 5: Two bodies of mass m and 2m are connected by a spring constant k. The frequency of the normal mode is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct ans: (a)
Central – force motion (Motion under central force)
A force is said to be central if it depends only on distance of particle from centre of force (origin) and it is along the position
vector (either in direction or in opposite direction)

Force is conservative, so energy is conserved. Lagrangian of particle under central force:

L=T–V

not depend t, so energy is conserved. Here is cyclic

The radial equation of motion

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From equation (1)

Using the value of ,

where

The total energy:

Using the value of

or
Conclusion: Central force motion is 2-d motion, it can be treated as 1-D motion of particle under effective potential.

Therefore, all concepts of 1-D potential V(x) can be used for .

Stable or unstable equilibrium orbit:

Only circular orbit can be stable or unstable orbit
i.e. for circle r = constant

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angular frequency

Turning point: The point where particle turns is called turning point. At these points .
Areal velocity: Area swept per unit time by position vector is called areal velocity.

Areal velocity

In central motion
l = constant
So areal velocity is also constant.

Example 1: A planet of mass moves in a circular orbit of radius in the gravitational potential where k is a
positive constant.
The orbital angular momentum of the planet is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:
For central force motion in circular orbit

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or

at

Example 2: Two particles of identical mass move in circular orbit under a central potential . Let

be the angular momenta and be the radii of the orbits respectively. If , the value of is
NET DEC 2011

(a) (b) (c) 2 (d) 1/2

Sol: For central force motion in circular orbit

or

Example 3: Consider a particle with a finite angular momentum moving in a central field defined by a linear restoring

force. The minimum allowed energy scales as a function of as

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct option: (c)
Example 4: A planet of mass m and an angular momentum L moves in a circular orbit in a potential, V(r) = -k/r, where k is a
constant. If it is slightly perturbed radially, the angular frequency of radial oscillations is
NET JUNE 2013

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct option: (b)

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Example 5: A particle moves under the influence of a central potential in an orbit , where k is a constant and r is the
distance from the origin. It follows that the angle varies with time as

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct option: (a)
Sol: Let us use

Put the value of r

Integrating

or
Differential equation of orbit under central force:

Radial EOM

So above equation (1) becomes

and

Trick: If . Then

For example:
Here n=2

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or
In polar form:

eccentricity

and relation between eccentricity and energy

Eccentricity Orbit Energy

e=1 Parabola E=0
e<1 Ellipse E = -ve < 0
e>1 Hyperbola E > 0 (+ve)
e=0 Circle

Relation between projection speed and nature of orbit: To find nature of orbit under inverse square force, always calculate
total energy
E = K.E + P.E

or

* Escape velocity: the min velocity with which a particle must be projected so that it goes out of gravitational field (at )

escape velocity
Circular velocity: When a body moves in circle, it has orbital speed

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By solving

So orbital velocity

Total energy:

or

For circular orbit:

Total energy

Example 1: The central force which results in the orbit for a particle is proportional to
JEST 2016
(a) r (b) (c) (d) none of these

Sol:
Comparing with

From equation (1)

So

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Option (d) is correct.

Example 2: A particle of mass m is moving under the central potential . If energy of particle is zero and its
angular momentum is L, then its distance of nearest approach from centre of force is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol: E = 0, parabola
So e=1

Example 3: A satellite is moving in a circular orbit around the earth. If T, V and E are its average kinetic, average potential
and total energies, respectively, then which one of the following option is correct?
GATE 2015
(a) T = –2T, E = –T (B) V = –T, E = 0 (c) V = –T/2, E = T/2 (d) V = –3T/2, E = –T/2

Sol:

and

So
So option (a) is correct.

Example 4: If in a Kepler potential, the pericentre distance of a particle in a parabolic orbit is while the radius of the

circular orbit with the same angular momentum is , then

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol: Kepler’s potential gravitational potential

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Parabolic orbit

So

or

For circle e=0

So

Example 5: A particle of mass under central force in orbit , find force law (how force depends on r)

Sol:

Here r is not in form of

Can’t use

Now

Now
Using the value of U, we get

or

or

Example 6: A particle moves in central potential in orbit . Find force law

Sol:

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Now
Using the value of U, we get

or

or
Example 7: A particle moves in a circle of radius R such that force acting on the particle is always directed towards a point on
periphery. Find force law
Sol:

From figure

Comparing with

So

or

Example 8: Under central force, equation of orbit of a particle is . Find force law

Sol:

We know that

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So from equation (1)

or

or
Example 9: A space station moving in a circular orbit around the earth goes into a new bound orbit by firing its engine
radially outward. The orbit is
(a) a large circle (b) a smaller circle (c) an ellipse (d) a parabola
Sol: Option (d) is incorrect, because, parabola is not a bound orbit.
Here the engine is gaining a speed radially outward, so net velocity will not be perpendicular to . New orbit will be ellipse.
Example 10: An interstellar object has speed v at the point of its shortest distance R from a (star) of much larger mass M.

Given , the trajectory of the object is

(a) circle (b) ellipse (c) parabola (d) hyperbola
Sol:

parabola
* {To check trajectory, energy will tell about this, so find energy}
Kepler’s laws of Planatery Motion: Kepler gave these laws on the basis of observation done by Tycho Brahe.
1st law: All the planets revolve around sun in elliptical orbit with sun at one focus of ellipse

2nd law: For planets, areal velocity is constant

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3rd law: Time of revolution of planets around the sun is related to semi-major axis (a) of ellipse as

or
Very important for NET:
Maximum, minimum speed, energy, angular momentum in elliptical orbit:

given

* If force is gravitation, then discussion will always apply for elliptical orbit (also for earth-satellite system).
Let us apply conservation of angular momentum:

(areal velocity = constant)

Now apply conservation of energy:

Using the value of , we get

or

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energy same at all points

Using the value of

or
Angular Momentum: Same at all points

Using the value of , we get

or

distance of nearest point

distance of far apart point

# Max, Min, energy, angular momentum in terms of ellipse parameters (a, b, e):

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Speed of planet at some general point (at distance r from sun):

* Time of revolution in elliptical orbit:

or proof of Kepler’s third law

Example 1: A particle of mass m moves in a central potential in an elliptic orbit where

and a and e denote the semi-major axis and eccentricity, respectively. If its total energy is , the
maximum kinetic energy is
NET JUNE 2018

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

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Example 2: In figure, shown a planet’s orbit around the sun is given. If be time is going from A to B via pericenter and

be time in going from B to A via apicenter. Then find the value of

Sol:

Example 3: A planet revolves around a star whose mass is 27 times mass of sun and its distance of planet from star is 3 times
distance between earth and sun. What is time of revolution of planet (in years) measured from earth.
Sol:

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Example 4: The greatest and least velocities of a planet around the sun are . Eccentricity of its orbit is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (a)

Example 5: A particle moving under central force has mass m, energy E and angular momentum L. If be turning point
then speed of the particle at this point is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

Example 6: For a particle moving under central force, which one of the following statement is always true?

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol: In central force motion

-equation

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or
Example 7: A satellite moves around the earth in a circular orbit of radius R centered at the earth. A second satellite moves in
an elliptic orbit of major axis is 8R, with the earth at one of the foci. If the former takes 1 day to complete revolution, the latter
would take
(a) 21.6 days (b) 8 days (c) 3 hours (d) 1.1 hour
Correct answer: 8 days
Example 8: An artificial satellite revolves around the earth in circular orbit, time of revolution of satellite is T and its energy
is E. If the satellite goes into other circular orbit in which its time of revolution becomes 8T then its energy in new orbit will

be come . Then value of is

Correct answer: 4
# Virial theorem:

or

# Condition for bounded orbit under central force:

condition for bounded motion

For bounded motion power of r in potential energy must be greater than (–2)
# Condition for closed out:
condition for bounded motion

or

Example 1: Consider a set of particles which interact by a pair potential , where r is the inter-particle separation and
is a constant. If a system of such particles has reached virial equilibrium, the ratio of the kinetic to the total energy of
the system is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (c)
Example 2: A classical particle with total energy E moves under the influence of a potential

. The average potential energy, calculated over a long time is equal to,

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Correct answer: (d)
Example 3: A planet revolves around the sun in elliptical orbit of semi-major axis ‘a’. Calculate its rms speed

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Answer:

Example 4: For quantum mechanical 1-D simple harmonic oscillator mass m and angular frequency . Calculate value of

in first excited state

Answer:

Example 5: If
What is condition on m for motion to be bounded

Sol:

or

For motion to be bounded so

Moment of inertia and inertia tensor:

Definition: Moment of inertia of a system of particles about an axis is defined as

where is distance of ith particle from the given axis.

For continuous system:

In terms of co-ordinates: M.I about x-axis

or

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Similarly M.I about y-axis

or
M.I about z-axis

or

Product of inertia:

Inertia tensor:
real symmetric matrix, hermitian matrix, eigen vectors orthogonal, eigen values real.

Moment of inertia about some axis in direction:

Parallel axes theorem: For any object (1D, 2D, 3D, uniform, non-uniform) M.I about two parallel axes one of which passes
through center of mass are related as

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Perpendicular axes theorem: For any object (1d, 2D) (uniform or non-uniform objects) M.I about axes are related as

if object lies on x-y plane

if object lies on y-z plane

if object lies on x-z plane

* all M.I are +ve

* Integral

# M.I of some standard cases (uniform objects, density = constant)

(1) M.I of a rectangular plate:

here z = 0

For uniform object (density = constant)

So equation (1) becomes

or
By solving this,

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Similarly
By perpendicular axis theorem:

(2) For square plate:

(3) Thin Rod:

or

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M.I of a thin rod about any axis through center and to length is and through end and to length is .
(4) Moment of inertia of uniform circular disc:

(Here z = 0 because object lies in x-y plane)

or

So equation (1)

By solving this, we get

or M.I of disc about diameter

or M.I of disc about axis

(5) M.I of an angular ring:

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By solving this, we get

M.I about diameter

or

M.I about its axis

(6) M.I of thin ring about its axis:

(7) M.I of thick spherical shell about its diameter:

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Equation (1) becomes

or
(8) M.I for solid sphere:

(9) M.I for thin spherical shell:

(10) M.I of solid sphere about a tangential axis:

or
(11) M.I of triangular plate about y axis:

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Here z = 0

{Area of equilateral triangle

Equation of AC is

or

or

Equation (1) becomes

or
By solving this, we get

Similarly

or

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(12) M.I of a solid cone about its axis:

Equation (1) becomes

By solving this,

or

(13) Calculate M.I of a thin hollow cone about its axis:

Sol:

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For upper half

Angular Momentum:

Resultant:

or

and

Along principal axis:

Compound Pendulum: Any rigid body directly suspended from a fixed point (support) and tend to oscillate under gravity are
called compound pendulum.

Now we have to find out angular frequency (Time of oscillation):

{where d = distance between centre of mass and point of suspension)

M.I about axis passing through point of suspension

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Lagrangian EOM,

or

For small oscillation,

So

or

where

Example 1: A hoop (ring) of diameter ‘D’ is pivoted at topmost point on circumference as shown in figure. The acceleration
due to gravity ‘g’ acting downward. What is the time period of small oscillation in the plane of the loop

(JEST 2019)

Sol:

Now

Example 2: In the figure, shown the point of suspension is at distance x from centre of rod. For what value of x, time period
of oscillation is minimum?

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Sol:

or

Here

So

If T is minimum, is also minimum,

Example 3: Calculate M.I of rectangular plate about the axis shown

or

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Example 4:

Find

Sol:

Now

Example 5: For square plate

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Here b = a

Example 6: M.I of rectangle about diagonal:

Example 7: 3 rodes of mass m, length l each are joined to form a triangular loop. Calculate its M.I about axis shown in figure

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Example 8: Two masses m each are placed at the point (x, y) = (a, a) and (–a, –a) and two masses, 2m each are placed at the
points (a, –a) and (–a, a). The principal moments of interia of the system are
NET DEC 2015

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol: We have to find principal M.I

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Calculate eigen values of II

By solving this, we get

Principal moment of inertia are

List of moment of inertia of some objects:

(1) Thin circular ring

(2) Thin circular disc

(3) Annular ring

(4) Thin rod

(5) Thin hollow cylinder

(6) Solid cylinder

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(7) Thin hollow sphere

(8) Solid sphere

(9) Right circular solid cone

(10) Elliptical plate

(11) Rectangular plate

(12) Solid cube

(13) Right circular hollow cone

Special theory of relativity: Mechanics at high speed

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* At high speed Newtonian concepts of mechanics fail.

* At high speed S.T.R gives correct result.
* At low speed S.T.R gives same result as Newtonian mechanics (both are correct).
Assumptions: (1) All laws of physics must be invariant (same) w.r.t all inertial frames of reference.
(2) Speed of light in vacuum is constant (i.e same w.r.t all inertial observers/frame of reference).
Note: If light travel in a medium, then speed of light may be different for different observer.
* Example:

If observer 1 notices/measure that momentum and energy is conserved then observer 2 will also notice the something.
Example:

Laws of physics have same form w.r.t two observers but values of physics quantities not be same w.r.t two observers.

2nd postulate: observer/object = c (in vacuum)

In vacuum, speed of any object w.r.t light/proton is equal to c.

Gallilean transformation (GT): It relates observation of two inertial frames of references in Newtonian Mechanics

or (1) GT for co-ordinates

{time is taken to be absolute in Newtonian mechanics}
Differentiate equation (1) w.r.t t

or GT for velocity
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GT states that speed of any object can be same w.r.t two frames of reference which are in relative motion.
But 2nd postulate of S.T.R states that light has same speed w.r.t all inertial frame of references.
Lorentz transformation:

where
where be two inertial frames of references (moving with constant velocity w.r.t each other).
Let (x, y, z, t) be the co-ordinates and time of an event w.r.t S frame.

Let be the co-ordinates and time of an event w.r.t frame and moves in +x direction w.r.t S.
{only those co-ordinates are changes along direction where the frame is moving}
If moves in y direction w.r.t S

If there are two events, then

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Inverse L-T relation:

For motion in 1-D:

For motion in 2-D or in 3-D:

{when motion is along x-direction}

Example 1: A pion moving with speed 0.6c emits a muon in the same direction. Speed of muon in the rest frame of pion is
0.4c. Calculate the speed of muon in the lab frame.
Sol:

Using above results

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or
Example 2: An electron is moving with a velocity of 0.85c in the same direction as that of a moving photon. The relative
velocity of the electron with respect to photon is
(a) c (b) –c (c) 0.15c (d) –0.15c

Sol:

So

or
Velocity of electron w.r.t photon = –c.

Example 3: Consider three inertial frames of references A, B and C. The frame B moves with a velocity with respect to A

and C moves with a velocity with respect to B in the same direction. The velocity of C as measured in A is

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Sol:

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Option (b) is correct.

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