What is a career?

A career is a series of work-related positions, paid or unpaid, that help a person grow in job skills,
services and fulfillment.- Gary Dessler(1999).
A career is a sequence of positions occupied by a person during the course of a lifetime. – Donald E.
Super and Douglas T. Hall (1978).
For example, a university faculty member can hold assistant, associate, and full professor positions.
A career has also been described in the context of mobility within an organization. For example, an
engineer may begin her career as a staff engineer. As her expertise, experience, and performance increase,
she may move through advisory engineering, senior engineering, and senior technical positions. Finally, a
career has been described as a characteristic of the employee.
What is Career Planning?
Career planning is a deliberate process through which someone becomes aware of personal skills,
interests, knowledge, motivations and other characteristics; acquires information about
opportunities and choices ; identifies career –related goals; and establishes action plans to attain
specific goals.- Gary Dessler
Career planning is the process by which one selects career goals and the path to those goals.-
William B. Werther and Keith Davis (1996:311).

a. Individual Component
A typical career planning process involves four major steps.
1. A self-assessment of one’s values, long-term concerns, interests, strengths and weaknesses. Also
included may be ratings of one’s current performance and longerterm career potential as assessed by the
organization.
2. Information gathering about career opportunities both inside the organization and outside.
3. Establishing career goals at least for the foreseeable future. It is at this point that one must genuinely
face the facts generated in the preceding steps.
4. Developing action plans to achieve career goals within established timeframes.
b. Organisational Component
Think of the organisations you served over a period of time. They would have provided you with
information about potential career opportunities and organisational perceptions of their readiness or long-
term potential to assist you.
Career concept is the conceptual structure underlying a person’s thinking concerning his/her
career. The structural elements refer to the way in which one’s ideas on career are organized.
The critical structural elements are time, permanence of career choice and direction of career
change. On these elements, career concept is of four types. They are:

A. Steady State Career Concept: This concept entails that person selects a job or field early in
life and stays with it for life. It does not have any movement except to higher positions or
professional skill.
A family doctor who sets up a medical practice in her hometown when she finishes her
medical training and keeps the same practice throughout her career until she retire at age 70 has
a steady-state career.

B. Transitory Career Concept: This concept entails that a person does not set any fixed job or
field permanently but move along from job to job with no particular pattern. The
individual is indifferent in choosing jobs and rolls over many types of job in life.
Paul Jones worked as the manager of a hardware store for two years. then worked in a
bank for a year. and is currently training to become a police officer.

C. Linear Career Concept: This concept is one in which individual chooses a field early in life
and stays in the field lifelong and moves upward within that field through the
organizational hierarchy or within a relevant reference group , such as professional
association.
Edwin L. An!.l. former chainnan of Procter & Gamble. Started working for Procter &
Gamble over 40 years ago ill a low level job and worked his way up Corporate ladder
through each of the corporate divisions 10 assume the top position.

D. Spiral Career Concept: This career concept involves a view that one develops in a given
field for a period of time; then one moves on to a related or a totally new area.
An associate professor of management with a spiral career leaves university teaching and
research to head up the human resources department at a large company. then. after working at
that job for 10 yean; leave to start a consulting company.
Changing concept of careers: The new realities of a global economy find employers using
more “offshoring” and “outsourcing” of jobs as well as cutting back their workforces and
employee benefits; more people are now working as independent contractors who shift among
employers rather than holding a traditional full-time jobs.
Career Stages :
Career Planning Factors
Researchers have found the following career factors that employees want to achieve:

 Career equity. Employees want equity in the areas of promotion, in-house training and out–house
training opportunities, participation in various organizational bodies, and such other areas where
employees have chance to participate.
 Supervisory Concern. Employees want their supervisors to play an active role in career development
and provide timely feedback on performance.
 Awareness of Opportunities. Employees want their organizations to help their career advancement in
terms of knowledge, skills and position along hierarchy. Organisations should have scope for
promotion and employees will get it without any discrimination with regular interval.
 Employment Interest. Employees need different types of information regarding organisational and
extra-organizational matters that affect their careers. They want organisation to provide them these
information that will help them to make plan for career development.
 Career Satisfaction. This is a vital factor today. Employees want satisfaction in jobs and in careers
regarding job autonomy, scope of taking self initiatives, leisure, participation in decision making and
other areas of concern.
Benefits of Career Planning
Career planning, particularly involvement of human resource management with it, gives manifold
benefits to the organisation and to the individual employee. Here is the list of a few of those benefits:
• Aligns strategy and internal staffing requirements of the organization.
• Develops promotable employees.
• Facilitates international placement.
• Assists with workforce diversity.
• Lowers turnover.
• Taps employee potential.
• Further personal growth.
• Reduces hoarding.
• Satisfies employee needs.
• Assist affirmative action plans.
Career Development Factors
Career development requires following actions/factors for its successful and unobstructed growth:
• Performance. Performance is the foundation of career success.
• Exposure. Career success vastly depends on and furthered by exposure. Exposure means
becoming known by those who decide on promotion, transfers, and other career opportunities.
 • Institutional reputation. Degrees acquired from reputed and quality academic institutions will
have more opportunity to succeed in terms of getting jobs, higher pay, and status.
• Networking. It is extremely important for employees to build a network of contacts who are
likely to be useful for the employees’ career development.
• Employer reputation. Organisational reputations are also strong factor for career success and
ling-term employability. Some organizations have a star reputation as breeding grounds for high-
potential employees.
• Mentors and Sponsors. Employees will have quick development if mentors or sponsors help
their career development by offering advice, giving instruction and opening up new opportunities.
• Organisational loyalty. Career development is affected by the organizational loyalty that is
exhibited in long-term service to the same organisation.
• Academic qualifications. Ongoing expansion of skills and knowledge makes an employee more
valuable and therefore more attractive to the organisation.
• Computer skill. Computer literacy is a must today to get competitive advantage in the
employment market as well as within the organisation.
• International experience. International experience is becoming an important growth opportunity
today. Industries like garments, pharmaceuticals, computer, automobiles, and other consumer
products are now in the international market
• Language skills. Conversant in lingua franca like English is a must for all employees of the
world. Besides that French, German, Japanese, Mandarin, etc language skill will be added
qualification for getting wide acceptability in the global job market.
• Key Subordinates. Competent, knowledgeable and skilled subordinates play a crucial role in
helping mangers achieve good performance.

Career Development :
Career Development is the lifelong series of activities that contributes to a person’s career
exploration.- Gary Dessler.
Career development focuses on assisting individuals to identify their major career goals and to
determine what they need to do to achieve these goals.- David A. DeCenzo

Comparison Between Training and Development

Definition of Training
• A planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behavior through learning
experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose,
in the work situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current
and future needs of the organization. - (Manpower Services Commission, 1981)

Ivancevich (1998) presents the following points in respect of training:

Training is the systematic process of altering the behavior of employees in a

direction that will achieve organization goals. Training is related to present job skills and
abilities. It has a current orientation and helps employees master specific skills and abilities
needed to be successful.
• Training is a learning experience in that it seeks a relatively permanent change in an
individual that will improve his or her ability to perform on the job.- DeCenzo and Robbins(
1997:240)
• Training is any process by which the aptitudes, skills, and abilities of employees to perform
specific jobs are increased. - Michael J. Jucius (1979: 221).
• Training is a systematic process to foster the acquisition of skills, rules, concepts, or
attitudes that results in an improved match between employee characteristics and
employment requirements.- Milkovich and Boudreau (1997).

Methods of Training Needs Analysis

Beardwell and Holden propose two elements for consideration in carrying out a training needs
analysis - the job requirements and the person requirements. In regard to the job, the following need
to be examined (Beardwell & Holden, p.342):
• Job description
• Job analysis
• Interview with job holders
• Interview with managers and supervisors
• Performance objectives
• Analysis of competencies
• Characteristics of people required (Person Specification)

Job description: Given the recent popularity of flexible work practices in many organisations, there has
been criticism levelled at too highly structured job descriptions. Job descriptions are, however, necessary
in order to give the employee a sense of purpose and to enable his or her immediate superiors to appraise
performance, but a culture must prevail which enables employees to deal with problems that may be
outside their immediate work domain.
Job analysis: Job analysis is a more sophisticated method of evaluating job functions and is often used to
discern the levels of skill necessary to do a job, primarily for the purpose of creating pay structures. The
information gleaned from such procedures can be useful in analysing the skill needs and requirement of
jobs.
Interview with job-holders: This is one of the most commonly used methods whereby a manager,
supervisor or member of the personnel department interviews the current job holder about the duties and
functions of the job. The interview can be structured in the sense of having a series of questions framed to
cover all aspects of the job.
Interview with managers and supervisors: Alternatively a personnel manager or senior manager can
interview the immediate supervisors of the job. Often descriptions arising are compared with the
interview responses of the job-holder to act as a double check for discrepancies or elements missed by
either party.
Performance objectives: the aim of increased quality, for example, will require performance objectives
to be laid down. In doing so, assessment must take place as to whether current employees need training to
reach these objectives.
Analysis of competencies: An analysis of competency requirements could be useful to match standards
(such as NVQ in UK) that are considered relevant to the various jobs involved.
Characteristics of people required (Person Specification): the effort to identify skills and competency
requirements often forgets the characteristics of the people required for the job, although this will to some
extent have emerged in the competencies analysis. Beardwell and Holden present the following aspects
for consideration in relation to the individual:
• Personal profiles .
• Performance appraisal .
• Assessment centre techniques.
• ‘Global review’ and training audits .
• Relating resources to the training objective.

Training Benefits
How Training Benefits the Organization

 Leads to improved profitability and / more positive attitude toward profit orientation.

 Improves the job knowledge and skills at all levels of the organization.

 Improves the morale of the workforce.

 Helps people identify with organizational goals.

 Helps create a better corporate image.

 Fosters authenticity, openness and trust.

 Improves the relationship between boss and subordinate.

 Aids in organizational development.

 Learns from the trainee.

 Helps prepare guidelines for work.

 Aids in understanding and carrying out organizational policies.

 Provides information for future needs in all areas of the organization.

 Gets more effective decision-making and problem solving.

 Aids in development for promotion from within.

 Aids in developing leadership skill, motivation, loyalty, better attitudes, and other aspects that
successful workers and managers usually display.

 Aids in increasing productivity and/or quality of work.

 Helps keep costs down in many areas e.g., production, personnel, administration, etc.

 Develops a sense of responsibility to the organization for being competent an knowledgeable.

 Improves labor-management relations.

 Reduces outside consulting costs by utilizing competent internal consulting.  Stimulates preventive
management as opposed to putting out fires.

 Eliminates sub optimal behavior (such as hiding tools.)

 Creates as appropriate climate for growth, communication.

 Aids in improving organizational communication.

 Helps employees adjust to change.

Benefits to the Individual Which In Turn Ultimately Should Benefit the Organization
 Helps the individual in making better decisions and effective problem-solving.

 Through training and development, motivational variables of recognition, achievement, growth,

responsibility and advancement are internalized and operationalized.

 Aids in encouraging and achieving self-development and self – confidence.

 Helps a person handle stress, tension, frustration and conflict.

 Provides information for improving leadership knowledge, communication skills and attitudes.

 Increases job satisfaction and recognition.

 Moves a person toward personal goals while improving interaction skills.

 Satisfies personal needs of the trainer (and trainees!).

 Provides trainee an avenue for growth and a say in his/her own future.

 Develops a sense of growth in learning.

 Helps a person develop speaking and listening skills; also writing skills when exercises are required.

 Helps eliminate fear in attempting new tasks.

Benefits in Personnel and Human Relations, Intra- and Intergroup Relations and Policy
Implementation

 Improves communication between groups and individuals.

 Aids in orientation for new employees and those taking new jobs through transfer or promotion.

 Provides information on equal opportunity and affirmative action.

 Provides information on other governmental laws and administrative policies.

 Improves interpersonal skills.

 Makes organization policies, rules, and regulations viable.

 Improves morale.

 Builds cohesiveness in groups.

 Provides a good climate for learning, growth, and coordination.

 Makes the organization a better place to work and live.

Training is a process that involves various steps.

The number of steps is being debated by writers and experts but it centers around 3 to 7 steps.
French (1997) prescribes 7 steps: determining the need for skills training, translating skills needs
into training objectives, selecting trainees, determining the curriculum and choosing training
methods, formulating the budget, selecting and training trainers and establishing evaluation
procedures.
Carolane (April 1993:18) suggests five steps in training and development process: needs
analysis, instructional designs, validation, implementation and evaluation and follow up.
Werther and Davis (1996:287) maintain 5 steps: need assessment, training and development
objectives, program content and learning principles, actual program, evaluation.
 Werther and Davis (1996:287) maintain 5 steps: Need assessment, training and development
objectives, program content and learning principles, actual program, evaluation. However, we have
set the following nine (9) steps of the training shown in a diagram and let us look at the diagram:
Step- 1 : Training Need Assessment
Need assessment diagnoses current problems and future challenges to be met through training. The
purpose of the need assessment is to identify the specific job performance skills needed, to analyze
the skills and needs of the prospective trainees.
How to ascertain training Needs: The training needs of an employee can be ascertained by
the following areas mechanism:
(1) Observation at the place of work i.e. the examination of the job performance and present skill levels of
employees to find out the gap in skills which will exhibit the need for training.
(2) Interview the supervisors and employees to know the duties and functions of job incumbents, and
their levels of satisfaction with the present job performance of employees. Any dissatisfaction will call for
training.
(3) Comparative study of performances of good and bad employees with a view to identify the gap which
will need to bridge up with the training.
(4) Production reports of each employee by the supervisors to identify the gap between budgeted and
actual performance.
(5) Review of personnel records to know employees’ past academic records, test performance, work
performance etc.
(6) Review of job description to know the nature of jobs to be done by an employee in a position within
the organization.
(7) Task analysis -an analysis of the job requirements to discern the level of skill necessary to do a job
and to know the need for job redesigning to fit with the demand of the day.
(8) Examine the problems that employees have and analyse them to identify the need for training.
(9) Employees' suggestions regarding changes in jobs and job conditions and any such changes will need
further training to the employees.
(10) Examine the organizational needs, that is, the number of employees with various combinations of
skills needed at each level.
(11) Assess the performance objectives to know whether current employees need training to reach these
objectives.
(12) Person analysis to know the characteristics of the people required for the job and any discrepancy
will call for training.

Step – 2 : Set Training Objectives: Once training needs have been determined, concrete, measurable
training objectives should be set. Objectives specify what the trainee should be able to accomplish after
successfully completing training program.
Step- 3 : Selection of Trainees: The next logical step of the training program is the selection of right
person/employee for the program. Both the organization and the individual would benefit if a deserving
employee is chosen for the training program. here are at least four considerations important in selecting
trainees:
(a) Legal guidelines: The civil, commercial and industrial laws of the country should be taken as a
guideline for selecting a person for the training.
(b) Employee needs and motivation: Employees have to fit with the demand of the job requirements.

(c) Skills obsolescence and retraining: If the existing skills of an employee have become
obsolete due to change.
(d) Multi-skilling: Today, job diversity and dynamism of environment calls for knowledge,
skill, and expertise needed to sustain in competitive market.
Step 4 : Curriculum Development and Selection of Training Methods
This step of training is involved with developing overall curriculum of the training in consistent
with the objectives of the training. That is, to set the array of courses to be offered.

Training methods are grouped into two broad types: on -the -job and off –the-job training. Let us
learn one by one.
1. On- the- job Training : On- the- job training is a primary skills training approach. It is the
most widely used method of training. Under this method, the employee is placed into the real
work situation and shown the job and the tricks of the trade by an experienced employee or the
supervisor. It is learning by doing.
Methods of On-the – Job Training
There are several methods of on-the-job training. They are discussed below:
– Apprenticeship Training: Employees are placed in the actual job temporarily
under the guidance of a master worker.
– Coaching: Coaching is a way of training in which a coach, generally a supervisor
and/or a manager, attempts to provide a model of work with the trainee to copy
and do exactly as it is.
– Pre-employment Training: This training is given to the prospective job
candidates before employment is given to prepare them for the actual job.
– Vestibule Training: It gives skills training to individuals after they are hired but
before they are assigned to specific jobs.
– Job Instruction Training (JIT): This is a standard instruction to do a particular
job prepared by the supervisors to train operatives.
Methods of Off-the-Job Training : Off-the-job training refers to the type of training in
which trainees are taken from the job and placed in a training institutes or academic
organizations in different places where they will be provided training. Off-the-training has a
number of methods:
1) Lectures: This is quick and simple way of providing knowledge to large number of
trainees particularly in giving rules, procedures or methods.
2) Conference and Seminar: It is a formal meeting of trainees in which the leader seeks to
develop knowledge and understanding by obtaining oral participation of trainees.
3) Audio-visual based training: Here, materials like videodiscs, videocassettes, and films
are used in skills training with the limitation that there is no interaction between the trainer
and the trainee.
4) Programmed instruction: It is a systematic method for training job skills involving
presentation of questions or facts, allowing the person to respond and giving the learner
immediate feedback on the accuracy of his or her answers.
5) Interactive video-training: It combines a computer and key-board, a video screen
material stored on a video disc, and video camera.
6) Simulation Exercise: It explicitly places the trainees in an artificial environment that
closely mirrors actual working conditions. Simulation activities include case studies,
experimental exercises, complex computer modeling, and vestibule training.
7) Case studies :
8) Problem solving: An opportunity is given to the trainee to identify and solve real problems.

Induction Training Beardwell and Holden propose that one of the most important initial steps in
the training process is the induction programme. The new recruit often perceives the new work
environment as perplexing and even frightening. Many organisations try to reduce uncertainty in the
new employee by presenting them with lots of information concerning the organisation, such as:
• the history of the organization
• the mission statement and organisational objectives
• company ethics • the structure of the organisation • personnel policies
• terms of employment • payment systems and benefits • holidays and sickness arrangements
• rules and regulations of the organisation • discipline and grievance procedures
• trade unions and/or staff associations • welfare and social facilities • health and safety measures
• job description • introduction to immediate supervisor • introduction to fellow workers.

Step- 5: Validation of the Training Programme: Validation of the training programme would be
made to make it effective and result oriented. It should be listed before a representative audience.
Based on final revisions of pilot results a budget is prepared for the training programme.
Step-6: Develop Budget : At this stage of the training program development process, human
resource management will prepare a training budget through in interactive process with other steps to
conduct the training program without any financial constraints.
Step-7: Selection of Trainers: Effective trainer is one of the fundamental prerequisites for the
successful training. Organisations may use their own staff or may bring trainers from outside under
contract or may use a combination of both the options for giving training.
Step-8: Implementation of Training Programme: Training programme is now ready for
implementation. All physical facilities are to be arranged and make fit for the trainees and trainers.
Step-9: Evaluation of Training Programme: Training must be evaluated by systematically
documenting the outcomes of the training in terms of how trainees actually behave back on their jobs
and the relevance of the trainees behaviour to the objectives of the organisation.

Methods of Training Evaluation

• Questionnaire (Feedback form) or happiness sheets are a common way of eliciting trainee
responses to courses and programmes.
• Tests or examinations are common on formal courses, which provide a certificate, (test-retest
method).
• Projects are initially seen as learning methods but they can also provide valuable information to
instructors.
• Structured exercises and case studies are opportunities to apply learned skills and techniques
under the observation of tutors and evaluators.
• Tutor reports: Report of the trainers’ about trainees’ containing valuable assessment from a
different perspective.
• Interviews of trainees: It is done at post-course or instruction period. Interview may be taken
informally or formally, individually or in group or by telephone.
• Observation: Observation of courses and training by those devising training strategies in the
training department and received information would be compared with trainee responses.
• Participation and discussion during training needs.
• Pre-post performance method

Management Development
Management development has been defined as:
A conscious and systematic process to control the development of managerial resources in
the organisation for the achievement of goals and strategies. (Molander, 1986)
An attempt to improve managerial effectiveness through a planned and deliberate learning
process. (Mumford, 1987)
Management development is any attempt to improve managerial performance by imparting
knowledge, changing attitudes or increasing skills. - Dessler (2000:280)
 Differentiating Characteristics of Management Development
Management development can be differentiated from other types of training in four
important ways:
1) Management development is a broader concept and is more concerned with developing
the whole person rather than emphasizing the learning of narrowly defined skills;
2) It emphasizes the contribution of formal and informal work experiences;
3) The concept of management development places a greater responsibility on managers to
develop themselves than is placed on most employees to train themselves; and
4) Managers are developed as much for jobs that they will be doing as for the jobs that they
are doing.

Management Education and Training Are Not Development

Beardwell and Holden argue that management education and training are important components
in a development programme but they do not, by themselves, constitute management
development. According to them, when we educate managers, we seek to introduce, extend or
improve their learning and understanding about the managerial world they occupy. For example,
managers on a postgraduate Diploma in Management Studies will study and learn about the
psychology of individuals and organisations. This will begin to raise their awareness and
understanding about human behavior and how to manage people more effectively in the ‘reality’
of the workplace.
Management training tends to be specific and short-term. It is primarily concerned with teaching
managers the skills to perform their jobs more effectively. For example, managers will attend
short courses during their careers on a whole range of business topics such as financial planning,
improving communication skills, etc.
Management development, as you have seen from its definition above, is a systematic process to
control the development of managerial resources in the organization. Dessler (2001) opines that
management development is any attempt to improve managerial performance by imparting
knowledge, changing attitudes, or increasing skills.
Success of management development depends on variety of forces of factors. They are:
(1) Extensive and visible involvement of chief executive officer or top management support, by
educating senior executives about the program, and involving them at every stage, and frequently
publicizing successes and positive results of the program;
(2) A clearly articulated and understood development policy and philosophy;
(3) Careful blending of new ways of doing things with organizational norms to make the program
polished and professional;
(4) Linkage of development policies and philosophies to the business strategies, objectives and
challenges;
 (5) Ensure compatibility between individual training and organization structure and systems to make
it adaptive;
(6) Use existing resources, including training programs, information systems, and people to control
costs and builds a supportive climate;
(7) Create multiple feedback loops to make it more effective; and
(8) Promote volunteerism and choice to ensure employee more committed to the program.
Model of Management Development
Step-1. Creating a framework of values, beliefs and ethical standards is vital for an effective
management development programme.
Step-2. Organization is now in a position to decide and prioritize the values and competences it
requires from its managers.
Step-3. The analysis of existing strengths and weaknesses and a comparison with required
competencies and values would provide the organization inputs to decide its strategy for management
development.
Step -4. Human resource management now can take the course of recruiting new managers to bridge
up the gap or to develop the expertise, knowledge, talent and capability of existing managers by
investing in development programs.
Step -5. An effective performance measurement and feedback systems need to be created and
introduced that will serve the individual and team objectives as well as involve a system of individual
and team appraisal on both formal and informal basis.
Step -6. Now, implantation phase of the management development programme.
Step -7. At the end of the management development process, we shall evaluate whether it is
successful or not.

Methods of Management Development

The available techniques may be grouped for convenience in two categories: On-the-job and off the-
job development methods.
1. On-the –Job Methods: The major on-the-job management development methods are:
Coaching, Job Rotation, Understudy assignment
Mentoring, Committee Assignment/Junior Board , Action Learning
2. Off-the-Job Methods
Off-the-job management development techniques are wide in variety. Few of the popular methods
are discussed in a nutshell below:
Lectures and Conferences, Computer-assisted Instruction
Seminar , Laboratory Technique, In-house development center
Programmed Instruction or Manual, Behavioural Modeling
In-basket Training, University-related programme, In-house development center, Programmed
Instruction or Manual etc.

Evaluation Methods of Management Development Programme

• Evaluation of management development program normally is carried out at three stages- input;
process and output stage (Rae 1986). Multiple criteria are being used for this purpose
(Kirkpatrick, January, 1996). To conduct evaluation effectively, a range of methods can be
employed. They are:
• Test-retest method: Participants are given a test before they begin the programme and the same
test is being conducted after the development programme. The difference between results will be
the measure of result of development programme.
• Pre-post performance method: This method is directly related to job behaviour. The
participants are rated on his /her work behaviour by the immediate supervisor or by the 360-
degree methods before and after completion of the programme in the actual work/job in the
organisation. The positive outcome will exhibit the effectiveness of the development program.
• Experimental control-group method: This is a method to compare the performance of the
trained group with non-trained group. The result of the performance in the same type of job
would be the effect of development program.
• Attitudes surveys and psychological tests: An attitude survey is conducted after the
development programme to mark the attitudinal changes that have been brought about into the
person by the programme. This could be done by the standard psychological tests too.
• Observation Method: The participants are observed during the process of development program
by the trainer and are evaluated by him about his level of improvement. The managers and others
could do this too in the jobs in and out of the organization. Their comments about the
participants would be a good measure of the effectiveness of the development programs.