D.

C Motors
Principle:

For a given d.c generator, if prime mover is disconnected, and instead of taking
power from it, if power is fed into it, it starts rotating, then, it biomes ‘Motor’. There is
no constructional difference between a d.c motor and DC generator. Same machine can
be made operate as motor and generator.
A D.C motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. The operation of d.c motor is based on the fact that when a current (I) carrying
conductor of length (l) is placed in magnetic field of density (B), it experiences a
force(F). The magnitude of this force is given by F = B.I , l Newton and direction of
force is given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Now, consider a magnetic field between two poles N and S as shown in figure
below.

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 If current carrying conductor is placed in this field, both the fields are distorted.
On left side of conductor, the flux is strengthened and on right side. It is weakened. Due
to this, the conductor move from left to right as shown.

The direction of force can be changed by either by reversing the direction of

current through conductor or reversing the direction of magnetic field.
Now, consider a 2-Pole d.c motor as shown below. Armature conductors under N-

Pole are assumed to carry currents in downwards (crosses) and those under S pole, to
carry currents upwards ( dots). By applying Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, the direction of
force on these conductors is found to be clock wise. Say after, half revolution, the
conductors which were under N pole come to S pole and vice versa, producing now
rotation in anti clock wise direction which is just opposite to previous one. Hence, the
result is that armature is stationary. To make the rotation unidirectional, the current

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direction through conductors must be changed by the time they pass from one pole to
other pole. This achieved by using “Commutator’. Commutator is mechanical switch and
its function is to make output of a d.c machine unidirectional. This output is rotation in
motors and current in generators.
Back Emf :
Before going to state up the
discussion of back emf, let us recollect the
concept of magnetic drag which is an
electro-mechanical coupling term in
generators. Magnetic drag means
conductors tend to rotate armature in
opposite direction to the direction of
rotation of prime-mover. Hence prime
mover has to do mechanical work against it
and this mechanical work will be converted into electrical energy. It is cleared from
above discussion that unless otherwise there is some opposition force, it is not possible to
convert energy from one form to other. When we rub our two hands, heat will be
generated due to the friction between hands. In d.c generators, this opposition is magnetic
drag and in d.c motor, it is ‘Back Emf’.
As soon as the armature starts rotating,
dynamically induced emf is produced in it, the direction
of this emf is found to be opposite to that of applied
voltage by applying Fleming’s Left hand Rule. It is
shown in figure. The magnitude of this emf is equal to
φ .Z .N P
× volts. The applied voltage has to push
60 A
current against this back emf and it does some electrical
work. This electrical work done will be converted into mechanical energy. By
considering this back emf, Armature resistance drop, brush drop, the circuit symbol of a
d.c motor is shown below.

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 V = Eb + I a Ra + B.D
This equation is called ‘Voltage or Emf equation’ of D.C
Motor.

Types of D.C Motors:

D.C motors are classified depending up on the way how field windings are
connected to armature winding. The classification of d.c motors is same as that of d.c
generators.

1. Separately excited D.C Motor :

V = Eb + I a Ra + B.D
Ia = Ia
Vf
If =
Rf

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2. Self excited D.C Motors :
a. Shunt Motor:

V = Eb + I a Ra + B.D
I a = I L − I sh
V
I sh =
Rsh
b) Series Motor :

V = Eb + I a Ra + I se Rse + B.D
I a = I se = I L

c) Compound Motors :
i) Long-Shunt Motor :

V = Eb + I a Ra + I se Rse + B.D
I a = I L − I sh
V
I sh =
Rsh

ii) Short-shunt Motor :

V = Eb + I a Ra + I L Rse + B.D
I a = I L − I sh
V AB V − I se Rse Eb + I a Ra
I sh = = =
Rsh Rsh Rsh

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Mechanical Power Developed:
Consider a conductor which is free to move on two conducting rails a shown in
figure.

If a small dc voltage source is connected across the rails, a current ‘I’ will flow
through the conductors. Since the conductor which carrying current placed in a magnetic
field [B], it will experience a force ‘F’ and is given by.
F = B.I .l Newton
The direction of this force is determined using FLH Rule .Under the action of the
force, the conductor will move with a velocity of ‘u’ m/sec. Then, work done by the force
per second or mechanical power developed is P = F × u
= B.I .l.u watts
Once the conductor starts moving in the magnetic field with velocity ‘u’ m/sec, an
emf called ‘back emf [Eb]’ is induced in it. [The direction of this induced emf is found to
be opposite to applied voltage according to FRH rule]. This value is given as = E b = Blu

Mechanical power developed = P = BIlu

= Blu.I
= Eb.I
This expression gives the electrical equivalent power of Mech .power developed
in the armature. Or the electrical power ‘EbI’ is being converted into mechanical power.

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Condition for Maximum Mechanical Power Developed :
Mechanical power developed in the armature
= Pm = Eb. I a

But, Eb = V − I a Ra ( Neglecting Brush Drop)

Then, multiplying above equation with Ia,
Eb I a = V .I a − I a2 Ra
Pm = VI a − I a2 Ra
Differentiating above equation both sides with respect to Ia and equating the result
dPm
to zero, we get, = V − 2 I a Ra = 0
dI a

V = 2 I a Ra

V
Or I a Ra =
2
Since V = Eb + I a Ra

V V
V = Eb + or Eb =
2 2
Thus gross mechanical power developed by a motor is maximum when back emf
is equal to half the applied voltage.
Example : A 440 V shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.8 ohm and field resistance
of 200 ohm. Determine the value of back emf when giving a mechanical output of 7.46
KW at 85 % efficiency.
Solution :
Given efficiency = η = 85 %
Mechanical output = Po = 7.46 KW
Electrical input =
Po 7.46
= Pi = = = 8.776 KW
η 0.85

Pi 8.776 × 10 3
Line current I L = = = 19.95 A
V 440

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 V 440
Shunt field current I sh = = = 2 .2 A
Rsh 200
Armature current I a = I L − I sh = 19.95 − 2.2 = 17.75 A

Back emf Eb = V − I a Ra = 440 − (17.75 × 0.8) = 425.8 V

Example : A 25KW, 250 V, D.C shunt generator has armature and field reistance of 0.06
ohm and 100 ohms respectively. Determine the total power developed when machine
working as i) generator delivering 25 KW output and ii) motor taking 25 KW input.
Solution :
i) As Generator:
25000
Line current = I L = = 100 A
250
Shunt field current
250
= I sh = = 2 .5 A
100
Armature Current I a = I L + I sh
= 2.5 + 100
= 102.5. A
Electrical Power generated in armature = E g I a

= (250 + 102.5 × 0.06) × 102.5

= 26.25.KW
ii) As Motor:
25000
Line current = I L = = 100 A
250
Shunt field current
250
= I sh = = 2 .5 A
100
Armature Current I a = I L − I sh
= 100 − 2.5
= 97.5. A

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 Electrical Power generated in armature = Eb I a

= (250 − 97.5 × 0.06) × 97.5

= 23.8.KW
Torque equation :
Torque is defined as the turning moment of force about an own axis. It is
measured by the product of the force and radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius ‘r’ acted upon by a
circumferential force ‘F’ which causes it to rotate at ‘N’ rpm.
Then, Torque T = F × r Newton-metre
Work done by this force in one revolution
= Force × dis tan ce
= F × 2.π .r
= 2.π .T . jouls
N
No. of revolutions per second =
60
N 2.π .N .T
Work done per second = 2.π .T × = watts.
60 60
= Power developed in armature.
We know that electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature
is equal to E b .I a

2.π .N .T
If Ta is the Torque developed in armature, then E b I a =
60
φ .Z .N P
But, E b = ×
60 A
φ .Z .N P 2.π .N .T
Therefore, × × Ia =
60 A 60
1 φ .Z .P
T= × I a N-m
2π A
Out of this total torque or armature toque Ta, some will be wasted for meeting
iron and friction losses. The torque which is available for doing useful work is known as
‘Shaft Torque Tsh’. Then, the motor output is given by

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 2.π .N .Tsh
Po = .
60
It is observed from above equation that the mechanical output power in in terms
of mechanical quantities N and Tsh . In case of generators, the output power is expressed
in terms of mechanical quantities V and I. If a machine is to be ideal, one of its output
parameters ( voltage in generators and Speed in motors ) must be maintained constant
against changes in other parameter ( current in generators and torque in motors). How
best these quantities are maintained constant is measured in terms of ‘Voltage
Regulation’ in generators and ‘Speed Regulation’ in motors.

In shunt motors, since flux is proportional to Ish and Ish in turn proportional to ‘V’,
flux is maintained constant. Then, torque is proportional to armature current Ia. In case of
series motor, since flux is proportional to armature current, torque is proportional to
square of armature current. The following figure shows the flux wave and armature
conductors.
As conductors pass from one
pole to other pole say N-Pole to S-Pole,
the direction of current through
armature conductors change from
‘cross’ to ‘dot’ to make rotation of
armature always anti clock wise.
In actual machine, the force exists between main pole and teeth of armature as
shown below.

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 (But not between main pole and conductor, it exists but very less) due to large
reluctance of air gap path. Due to the armature flux, the resultant will be as shown above.

Example : A d.c motor takes an armature current of 110 A at 480 V. the armature
resistance is 0.2 ohm. The machine has 6 no. of poles and armature is lap connected with
864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05 wb. Calculate i) speed ii) gross torque
developed by armature.
Solution :
Armature current = Ia = 110 A
Supply Voltage = V = 480 V
Armature resistance = 0.2 ohm
No. of Poles = P = 6
No .o f armature conductors = Z = 864
Flux under pole = Φ = 0.05 wb
Back Emf = Eb = V − I a Ra = 480 − 110 × 0.2 = 458 V

φ .Z .N P
And also Eb = ×
60 A
0.05 × 864 × N 6
458 = × or N = 636 RPM
60 6
Mechanical power developed = Pm = Eb .I a = 458 × 110 = 50380 watts

2.π .N .Ta
And also Pm = 50380 =
60
50380 × 60
or Ta = = 756.43 N-m
2.π × 363
Example : Determine the developed torque and shaft torque of 220 V, 4-pole series motor
with 800 wave connected armature conductors supplying a load of 8.2 KW by taking 45
A from the mains. The flux per pole is 25 mwb and its armature resistance and field
resistance is 0.6 ohm. Also calculate friction and windage losses.
Solution :
Suply voltage = V= 220 V
No. o poles = P = 4

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 No. of armature conductors = Z = 800
Mechanical output = 8.2 KW
Input current =I = 45 A
Ra+ Rse = 0.6 ohm
Back emf

Eb = V − I a Ra − I se Rse = 220 − 4.5 × 0.6 = 193 V

Mechanical power developed = Pm = Eb I a = 193 × 45 = 8.685 KW

2.π .N .Ta
=
60
To find ‘N’:
φ .Z .N P
Eb = ×
60 A
0.025 × 800 × N × 4
193 = or N = 289.5 rpm
60 × 2
8685 × 60
Ta = = 286.47 N-m
2.π × 289.5
8200 × 60
Shaft Torque = Tsh = = 270.48 N-m
2.π × 289.5
Iron and friction losses = Armature Mech. Power – Shaft Output
= 8685 − 8200 = 485 watts
Example : A d.c series motor takes 40 A at 220 V and runs at 800 rpm. If the armature
and field resistances are 0.2 ohm and 0.1 ohm respectively and iron and friction losses are
0.5 KW. Find the torque developed in the armature. What will be the output of the motor.
Solution :
Iron and Friction losses = Wi = 500 W

Back emf Eb = V − I a (Ra + Rse )

= 220 − 40(0.2 + 0.1)

= 208.V
Mech. Power developed in armature
Pm = E b . I a

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 = 208 × 40 = 8320 watts
2.π .N .Ta 2.π × 800 × Ta
And also, Pm = 8320 = =
60 60
8320 × 60
Then, Ta = = 99.31 N-m
2.π × 800
Motor Output = Mech. Power developed – Friction loss
= 8320 – 500 = 7820 watts.
Example : The armature winding of a 200 V, 4-pole , series motor is lap connected. There
are 280 slots and each slot has 4 conductors. The current is 45 A and flux per pole is 18
mwb. The field and armature resistances are respectively 0.3 ohm and 0.5 ohm . the iron
and friction losses amount to 800 W. the pulley attached to its armature has the diameter
of 0.41 m. Find the Pull in Newton at the rim of the pulley.
Solution :
No. of Poles = P = 4
No. of conductors = 280 x 4 = 1120
Armature current = Ia = 45 A
Flux per Pole = Φ= 18 mwb
Back Emf = Eb = V − I a (Ra + Rse )

= 200 − 45 × 0.8 = 164 V

Mechanical power developed = Pm = Eb .I a

= 164 × 45 = 7380 watts

Iron and Friction losses = 800 watts
Output at shaft = 7380 - 800 =6580 watts
φ .Z .N P
Back Emf = E b = ×
60 A
.018 × 1120 × N × 4
164 = or N = 488 rpm
60 × 4
2.π .N .Tsh 2.π × 488 × Tsh
Output at shaft = 6580 = =
60 60
Or Shaft Torque = Tsh = 128.7 N-m

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 dia 0.41
Radius of Pulley = r = = = 0.205 m
2 2
Shaft Torque = Tsh = Pull on rim x Radius
128.7 = F × 0.205
128.7
F= = 627.8 Newton
0.205
Example : A 4 pole, 240 V, wave connected shunt motor gives 11.19 KW when running
at 1000 rpm and drawing armature and field currents of 50 A and 1 A respectively. It has
540 conductors. Its armature resistance is 0.1 ohm. Assuming a total brush drop of 2 V,
find i) Total torque ii) useful torque iii) useful flux per pole iv) rotational losses and
v) Efficiency
Solution :
Shaft Output = Psh = 11.19 KW
Speed of motor = 1000 rpm
Armature current = Ia = 50 A
Shunt filed current = Ish = 1 A
No. of conductors = Z = 540
Armature resistance = Ra =0.1 ohm
Brush drop = 2 V
Back Emf = Eb = V − I a Ra − B.D

= 240 − (50 × 0.1) − 2 = 233 V

Mechanical power developed = Eb .I a = 233 × 50 = 11650 watts

2.π .N .Ta 11650 × 60

And also 11650 = or Ta = = 111.25 N-m
60 2.π × 1000
2.π .N .Tsh 2.π × 1000 × Tsh
Shaft output = Psh = 11190 = =
60 60
11190 × 60
Or Tsh = = 106.85 N-m
2.π × 1000
φ .Z .N P Eb . A × 60 233 × 2 × 60
Since, E b = × or φ = = = 12.94 mwb
60 A Z .N .P 540 × 1000 × 4
Rotational Losses = Mechanical power developed – shaft output

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 = 11650-11190 = 460 watts
Electrical input to the motor = Pi = V .I L = 240 × 51 = 12240 watts

Shaft.output 11190
Efficiency = × 100 = × 100 = 91.42%
Electrical.Input 12240

Example : A 220 v d.c generator supplies 4 KW at a terminal voltage of 220 V, the

armature resistance being 0.4 ohm. If the machine is now operated as motor at the same
terminal voltage with same armature current. Calculate the ratio of generator speed to
motor speed. Assume that the flux per pole is made to increase by 10 % as the operation
is changed over from generator o motor.
Solution :
As a Generator:
Armature resistance = Ra = 0.4 ohm
4 × 10 3
Line Current I L = = 18.18 A
220
Emf generated E g = V + I a Ra

= 220 + (18.18 × 0.4) = 227.31 V

And also E g ∝ φ .N g

As a Motor
Back Emf = Eb = V − I a Ra

= 220 − (18.18 × 0.4) = 212.73 V

And also E b ∝ φ m .N m

∝ 1.1φ .N m

Eg 227.31 φ .N g
Then, = =
Eb 212.73 1.1φ .N m

Ng
Or = 1.1753
Nm

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Example : A d.c shunt generator driven at 750 rpm feeds 100 KW of electric power into
230 V mains. If engine fails being machine connected across same mains, it continues as
motor and it draws 9 KW power from mains. Find the speed of machine during its
operation as motor. Given that the armature and shunt field resistances are 0.08 and 115
ohms respectively.
Solution :
As a Generator:
Electrical output = 100 KW
100000
Load Current I L = = 434.78 A
230
230
Shunt field current = I sh = = 2A
115
Armature current I a = I L + I sh

= 434.78 + 2 = 436.78 A
Generated emf = E g = V + I a Ra = 230 + 436.78 × 0.08 = 264.94 V

And this E g ∝ N .φ or 264.94 ∝ 750 × φ

As a Motor :
Electric input = 9000 W
9000
Line Current = I L = = 39.13 A
230
Armature current = I a = I L − I sh

= 39.13 − 2 = 37.13 A
Back Emf E b = V − I a Ra

= 230 − 37.13 × 0.08 = 227.03 V

And this Eb ∝ N 2 .φ or 227.03 ∝ N 2 .φ

Eg 264.94 750.φ 750

Therefore, = = =
Eb 227.03 N 2 .φ N2
750 × 227.03
Or N2 = = 643 rpm
264.94

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Characteristics of D.C motors:
After knowing that we have many types of d.c motors, our aim is to select a
particular motor for a particular purpose. Unless otherwise a motor is analyzed in
different aspects, it not possible to fix up its place of use. Generally , motors are analyzed
using three characteristics. Viz., 1. Torque and Armature Current characteristics
2. Speed and Armature Current characteristic
3. Speed and Torque characteristic
Before going to start up this topic, the following points must be kept in mind.
φ .Z .N P V − I a Ra
1. Back emf Eb = V − I a Ra = × or N∝
60 A φ
2. Armature Torque = Ta ∝ φ .I a
3. As mechanical load increases, armature current increases.
1.Shunt Motor :
The figure shows the connection diagram
of a shunt motor. D.C shunt motor behaves as
separately excited d.c motor because its excitation
does not depend up on armature induced emf as in
shunt generator.
Since, Eb = V − I a Ra

V − I a Ra
and N ∝ , as Ia increases, speed decreases due to armature resistance drop IaRa
φ
drop, but this is countered by a decrease in ‘Φ’
caused by armature reaction. Since IaRa drop
effect predominates, the speed falls some what
with load shown.
Since, T ∝ φ .I a and ‘Φ’ is practically

constant, T ∝ I a . Torque ‘T’ increases as

armature current ‘Ia’ increases linearly as shown.

87
 V − I a Ra
Since, N ∝ , as ‘T’ increases, ‘N’ decreases linearly as shown. In fact,
φ
speed remains substantially constant. Such characteristic is known as ‘Shunt
characteristic’. ( Induction motor also possesses a similar characteristic)
2.Series Motor :
The figure shows the connection diagram of
d.c series motor. In this,
V − I a Ra − I se Rse
N = K.
φ
V − I a (Ra + Rse )
= K.
φ
As load increases, Ia increases, voltage across armature decreases, Φ also
increases. Due to these two effects, speed decreases
drastically as shown. It also observed that at no load,
the motor current and flux tends to become zero and
as a consequence, the motor speed tends to increases ti
infinity. This is a dangerous situation and the
centrifugal forces developed at this peed will destroy
the armature. Hence, a series motor must not be
allowed to run under no-load conditions, even accidentally.
Since, T ∝ φ .I a

And T ∝ I a2 ( since φ ∝ I a )

Or T = K T I a2

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 The relation between torque and armature
current is shown. It is cleared from figure that for a
given armature current a series motor produces more
torque than a shunt motor. After saturation point of
poles is reached, torque and armature current relation
is linear because after this point flux dos not increase
even armature current increases.

The relation between speed and torque is shown

in figure. This characteristic is similar to speed vs
armature characteristic as torque is proportional to
armature current. This type of characteristic is called
‘Series Characteristic’ and is ideally suitable for traction,
cranes etc where large starting torques are needed.
3.Compound Motors :
The figure shows the connection
diagram for compound motor. In cumulative
compound motor, the series field aids the
shunt field so that the flux per pole increases
with armature current and as a consequence
N-Ia characteristic lies between that of shunt
( Φ is constant) and a series (variable Φ which is proportional to Ia) motor as shown.

In differentially compound motors, flux per pole decreases with increase in

armature current causing motor speed to increase as shown. This motor can be designed
to give full speed equal to no load. How ever under accidental over load conditions, the
flux per pole reduces almost to zero, and motor may acquire dangerously high speeds like
in an overloaded series motor. Because of this speed instability, differential compound
motors are no longer used in practice.

89
 Unlike the series motor, the compound motor has a finite no load speed (No) as
shown in figure. The Speed –Torque characteristics for various types of d.c motors are
drawn for comparison in following figure.

90