Reviewer in Mathematics in the Modern World

1.1: Mathematics in our World

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?

 Mathematics is the study of pattern and structure.

 Mathematics is fundamental to the physical and biological sciences,
engineering and information technology, to economics, and increasingly to
the social sciences.
 Mathematics is a useful way to think about nature and our world.
 Mathematics is a tool to quantify, organize, and control our world, predict
phenomena, and make life easier for us.

WHERE IS MATHEMATICS?

 Many patterns and occurrences exist in nature, in our world, in our life.
 Mathematics helps make sense of these patterns and occurrences.

WHAT ROLE DOES MATHEMATICS PLAY IN OUR WORLD?

 Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in our world.

 Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in the
world.
 Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own
ends.
 Mathematics has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable.

PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

 Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world
and can also be seen in the universe.
 Nature patterns which are not just to be admired, they are vital clues to the
rules that govern natural processes.

Check out some examples of these patterns that you may be able to spot
the moment you decided to go for a walk.

1. Patterns can be observed even in stars that move in circles across the sky
each day.
2.  The weather season cycle each year. All snowflakes contain six-fold
symmetry which no two are exactly the same.
3. Patterns can be seen in fish patterns like spotted trunkfish, spotted puffer,
blue spotted stingray, spotted moral eel, coral grouper, red lionfish, yellow
boxfish, and angelfish. These animals and fish stripes and spots attest to
mathematical regularities in biological growth and form.

4. Zebras, tigers, cats, and snakes are covered in patterns of stripes; leopards
and hyenas are covered in a pattern of spots, and giraffes are covered in a
pattern of blotches.

5. Natural patterns like the intricate waves across the oceans; sand dunes on
deserts; formation of the typhoon; water drop with ripple and others. These
serve as clues to the rules that govern the flow of water, sand,  and air.

6. Other patterns in nature can also be seen in the ball of mackerel, the v-
formation of geese in the sky,  and the tornado formation of starlings.
PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES
Mathematics is all around us. As we discover more about our environment, we
can mathematically describe nature.
The beauty of a flower, the majestic tree, and even the rock formation exhibits
nature’s sense of symmetry.
Have you ever thought about how nature likes to arrange itself in patterns in
order to act efficiently?
Nothing in nature happens without a reason, all of these patterns have an
important reason to exist.
TYPES OF PATTERNS
1. SYMMETRY – a pattern with a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion
of balance or an object is invariant to any various transformations  examples are
reflection, rotation or scaling
 1.1 Bilateral Symmetry - is symmetry in which the left and right sides of the
organism can be divided into approximately mirror images of each other along
the midline. This exists in living things like insects, animals, plants, flowers, and
others.
Animals can further be classified as either cyclic or dihedral.
Plants on the other hand often have radial or rotational symmetry, as to flowers
and some group of animals.
There is also what we call a  five-fold symmetry which is found in the
echinoderms, the group which includes starfish (dihedral-D5 symmetry), sea
urchins, and sea lilies.
Radial symmetry suits organisms like sea anemones whose adults do not move
and jellyfish(dihedral-D4 symmetry). Radial symmetry is also evident in different
kinds of flowers.
Take a look at the following living things...
2. FRACTALS – a pattern with a curve or geometric figure, each part of which
has the same statistical character as the whole.

A fractal is a never-ending pattern found in nature. The exact same shape is

replicated in a process called “self- similarity.”
The pattern repeats itself over and over again at different scales. For example, a
tree grows by repetitive branching.
This same kind of branching can be seen in lightning bolts and the veins in your
body.
Now, try to examine a single fern or an aerial view of an entire river system, find
out if you’ll see fractal patterns.

What have you noticed in these pictures?

3. SPIRALS -  are a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of
circular shapes that revolve around it.

A logarithmic spiral or growth spiral is a self-similar spiral curve which often

appears in nature.
It was first described by Rene Descartes and was later investigated by Jacob
Bernoulli. 
 Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples, hurricanes.
1. 2: Fibonacci Sequence
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

 The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is found by

adding up the two numbers before it.
 Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so
forth.

 Mathematically it can be expressed as   .

 This is named after Fibonacci, who is also known as Leonardo of Pisa or
Leonardo Pisano.
 Fibonacci numbers were first introduced in his Liber Abbaci (Book of
Calculation) in 1202.

The Habbit Rabbit

            “A man put a pair of rabbits in a place where no one else is there. How
many pairs of rabbits will be produced from that pair in a year? If supposedly that
every month each pair produces a new pair, which from the second month
onwards becomes productive?”
                                                This problem can be best understood in this
diagram:
 The sequence encountered in the rabbit problem 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
55, 89, 144, 233, 377, …. is called the Fibonacci sequence.
 Each term in the sequence is called the Fibonacci numbers.

      Fibonacci Sequence can also be seen in shape and nature. 

      An example of this is shown in the so-called Golden Rectangle...
 GOLDEN RECTANGLE:
         Take a look at this rectangle. This is a golden rectangle.

    Definition: 

 A Golden rectangle is a perfect rectangle.

 A golden rectangle can be broken down into squares.
 To create a golden rectangle, we need to break it down to smaller squares
based on the Fibonacci sequence then divide each with an arc, the pattern
begins to take shapes, this is a Fibonacci spiral in which we can see in
nature.
 The Golden rectangle created an interesting pattern and come out with the
sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55...which represents a Fibonacci
Sequence.

FIBONACCI NUMBERS IN NATURE

 These flower petals exhibit the Fibonacci number, white calla lily contains 1
petal, euphorbia contains 2 petals, trillium contains 3 petals, columbine
contains 5 petals, bloodroot contains 8 petals, black-eyed Susan contains 13
petals, Shasta daisies 21 petals, field daisies contains 34 petals and other
types of daisies contain 55 and 89 petals.

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE

        The sunflower seed conveys the Fibonacci sequence. The pattern of two
spirals goes in opposing directions (clockwise and counter-clockwise ). The
number of clockwise spirals and counter-clockwise spirals are consecutive
Fibonacci numbers and usually contains 34 and 55 seeds.
1.3 Golden Ratio
GOLDEN RATIO

 It was first called the Divine Proportion in the early 1500s in Leonardo da

Vinci’s work.

 Mathematically two quantities are in the Golden ratio if  (a+b) divided by a is
equal to a divided by b which is equal to 1.618033987…and represented by
(phi), provided that a is greater than b.

                                            Take a look at this...

Examples:

1. If a = 3 and b = 2 then a/b = 1.5

2. If a = 5  and b = 3 then a/b = 1.666666...
3. If a = 8 and b = 5 then a/b = 1.6
4. if a = 13 and b = 8 then  a/b= 1.625
5. If a = 21 and b = 13 then a/b = 1.615384615...
   These examples show the relationship between a and b which represents a
golden ratio.
   The quotient of a and b is somewhat close to the value of a golden ratio which
happens to be equal to 1.618033987...
    In the same manner, the golden ratio can also be noticed in Arts let us name a
few...

1. The exterior dimension of the Pathernon in Athens, Greece embodies the

golden ratio.
2. In Timaeus Plato describes five possible regular solids that relate to the
golden ratio which is now known as Platonic Solid.
3. Euclid was the first to give a definition of the golden ratio as a dividing line in
the extreme and mean ratio in his book the Elements.
4.  Leonardo da Vinci used the golden ratio to define the fundamental portions
of his works. He incorporated the golden ratio in his paintings such as" The
Last Supper", "Monalisa" and "St. Jerome in the Wilderness".
5.  Michael Angelo di Lodovico Simon was considered the greatest living
artist of his time. He used the golden ratio in his painting " The Creation of
Adam ".
6. Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino was a painter and an architect from a
renaissance. In his painting "The School of Athens", the division between the
figures in the painting and their proportions are distributed using the golden
ratio.

Golden Ratio in Architecture:

Let us have some architectural structures that exhibit the application of the
Golden Ratio:

Great
Pyramid of
Giza built
4700 Bc in
Ahmes
Papyrus of
Egypt, the
ratio of its
base to the
height is
roughly
1.5717
which is
close to the
golden
ratio.

Notre
Dame is a
Gothic
Cathedral
in Paris.
Taj
Mahal is
found in
India and
used the
golden ratio
in its
constructio
n and was
completed
in 1648.
Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres in Paris, France which also
exhibits the golden ratio.

The United Nation Building, the window configuration reveal the

golden proportion.

Eiffel Tower, found in Paris France, and erected in 1889 which is an

iron lattice.

 
CN Tower in Toronto, the tallest tower, and free-standing structure in
the world, contains the golden ratio in its design.
1.4. Mathematical Language and
Symbols
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

 The mathematical language is the system used to communicate

mathematical ideas.
 This language consists of some natural language using technical terms
(mathematical terms) and grammatical conventions that are uncommon to
mathematical discourse, supplemented by a highly specialized symbolic
notation for mathematical formulas.

       -The mathematical notation used for formulas has its grammar and shared
by mathematicians anywhere in the globe.

 Mathematical language must be precise, concise, and powerful, these must

be its characteristics.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

1.) Precision in mathematics is a culture of being correct all the time. Definition
and limits should be distinct. Mathematical ideas are being developed informally
and being done more formally, with necessary and sufficient conditions stated
upfront and restricting the discussion to a particular class of objects.
2.) Concise in mathematics must show simplicity. Being concise is a strong part
of the culture in mathematical language.  Mathematicians desire the simplest
possible single exposition. 
3.) Mathematical language must also be powerful. It is a way of expressing
complex thoughts with relative ease. The abstraction in mathematics is the desire
to unify diverse instances under a single conceptual framework and allows easier
penetration of the subject and the development of more powerful methods.
How does Expression differ from sentences?
EXPRESSION VERSUS SENTENCES

 An expression (or mathematical expression) is a finite combination of

symbols that is well-defined according to rules that depend on the context.
The symbols can designate numbers, variables, operations, functions,
brackets, punctuation, and groupings to help determine the order of
operations and other aspects of mathematical syntax.
 An expression is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols used to
represent the object of interest, it does not contain a complete thought, and it
 cannot determine if it is true or false. Some types of expressions are
numbers, sets, and functions.
 A sentence (or mathematical sentence) makes a statement about two
expressions, either using numbers, variables, or a combination of both. A
mathematical sentence can also use symbols or words like equals, greater
than, or less than.
 A mathematical sentence is a correct arrangement of mathematical symbols
that states a complete thought and can be determined whether it’s true, false,
and sometimes true/sometimes false.

CONVENTIONS IN THE MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE

Mathematical languages have conventions and it helps individuals distinguish
between different types of mathematical expressions.
The mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is
generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
Mathematicians abide by conventions to be able to understand what they write
without constantly having to redefine basic terms.

1. Mathematics has its brand of technical terms. – a word in general usage has
a different and specific meaning within mathematics.

Ex. Group, ring, field, term, factor, etc.

1. Mathematical statements also have their taxonomy.

Ex. Axiom, conjecture, theorems, lemma, and corollaries.

1. Mathematics also has Mathematical jargon- mathematical phrases used with

specific meanings.

Ex. “If and only if”, “necessary and sufficient” and “without loss of generality.”

1. The vocabulary of mathematics also has visual elements.

Ex. Used informally in blackboards and formally in books and researches which
serve to display schematic information so easily.

1. The mathematical notation has its grammar and does not dependent on a
specific natural language.

Ex. Latin alphabet used for simple variables and parameters.

1. Mathematical expressions containing a symbolic verb are generally treated as
clauses in sentences or as a complete sentence and are punctuated as such
by mathematicians.

Ex. Equal ( = ) , Less than ( < ) , Greater than ( > ) , Addition (+), Subtraction (-) ,
Multiplication (x), infinity ( ∞∞), for all ( ∀∀) , there exists (∋∋ ), element (∈∈ ) ,
implies (⟶⟶ ),if and only if (⟷⟷ ), therefore ( ∴∴) etc.

 
1.5 Four Basic Concepts In
Mathematics(1.5.1 Language of
Set)
Introduction:
Language serves as a tool for teaching mathematics concepts.
It can show how to make syntax and structure of mathematical language clear
and explicit to understand its fundamental concepts.
Language serves as a major pedagogical tool to understand how what, and why
things are said.
We need to be familiarized with the four basic concepts in Mathematics before
moving to more complicated mathematical structures.
There are four basic concepts in mathematics and these are as follows the
language of sets, the language of relations, the language of functions, and
language of binary operations.
Set Theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets or the mathematical
science of the infinite.

 The study of sets has become a fundamental theory in 1870.

 Introduced by George Cantor (German Mathematician.)

SET

 is a collection of well-defined objects.

 usually denoted by capital letters of the alphabet and its members are
enclosed with brackets.

Elements – are the members or objects of the set which is denoted by a symbol
(∈ ) .
Example of a set:
        A-{ x/x is a set of letters from the word Pneumonia} 
         This is read as A is the set of all x such that x is a set of letters from
the word Pneumonia.
        The elements of this set are a, e, i, m, n, o, p, u.
TWO WAYS OF REPRESENTING A SET
1. ) Roster Method (Tabulation Method) – when the elements of the set are
enumerated and separated by a comma.

             Ex.    A={ 23, 25, 27}

Write the following  Set in Roster Method

1. A={x/x is a positive integer less than 10} 

         A= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

1. B={x/x is a month in the calendar}

        B= { Jan, Feb, Mar, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sept, Oct, Nov, Dec}

1. C={x/x is an integer , 1< x < 8 }

        C={2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
2.) Rule Method ( Set builder notation) - used to describe the elements or
members of the set using their common characteristics.
       Ex.   B= {x/x is a set of professors  from the Math and Physics Department}
Write the following Set in Rule Method

1. D={ a, e, i, o, u}

        D= {x/x  are vowel letters from the alphabet}

1. E={ 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20}

         E={x/x is even number from 4 to 20}

1. F= {12}

        F=[x/x is equal to 12}

Cardinal Number- this refers to the number of elements in a given set. The
cardinality of a set is given by n(A).
Examples: Identify the Cardinality of the given sets.

1. A= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} 

         n(A)=9

1. B={x/x is a month in the calendar}

        n(B)=12
3.C={x/x is an integer , 1< x < 8 }
     n(C)= 6

1. D={ a, e, i, o, u}

       n(D)= 5

1. E={ 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20}

      n(E) = 8

1. F= {12}

      n(F) = 1
TYPES OF SET

1. Finite Set – is a set whose elements are limited or countable and the last
element can be identified.
2. Infinite Set – is a set whose elements are unlimited or uncountable and the
last element cannot be specified.
3. Unit Set – is a set with only one element, it is also called a singleton.
4. Empty Set – a unique set with no elements and also called as the Null Set. It
is denoted by {   }.
5. Universal Set – the totality of the set, all sets under investigation in any
application of set theory are assumed to be contained in some largely fixed
set and is denoted by U.
6.  Subset - if A and B are set, A is called a subset of B, written A  ⊆ B, if and
only if, every element of A is also an element of B.  A is a proper subset of B,
written A ⊂ B, if and only if, every element of A is in B but there is at least one
element of B that is not in A.
7. Equal Set - two sets are equal if and only if, every element of A is in B and
every element of B is in A.
8. Equivalent Set - two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of
elements and it is denoted by (~).
9.  Disjoint set - two sets that do not have the same elements. This is also
known as a non-intersecting set.

Examples: Classify the given sets as a finite set, infinite set, unit set, empty
set, and universal set.
Given:

1. A = { a , b , c } = finite set
2. B = { a , b , c, d, e } = finite set
3. C ={ a , b , c, e, d.... } =infinite set
4. D = {  }  = empty set/ null set
5. E = { bat } = unit sets
6. U = { a , b , c, d, e, bat,} = universal set

 Examples: Which of these are subsets, equal sets, equivalent sets, and
disjoint set.       
Given: 
        A = { a , b , c }
          B = { a , b , c, d, e }
          C = { a , b , c, e, d }
           D = { f , g, h , i }
           E = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }
           F = { 1 , 5 }
           U = { a , b , c, d, e, f, g, h,  i, j, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Based on the definitions of each set we can have the following:

 B is a subset of C, mathematically B⊆CB⊆CBB ⊆ CBB ⊆ C
  A is a proper subset of B, mathematically A⊂BA⊂BAA ⊂ BAA ⊂ B
 B and C are equal set, they have the same elements.
  D is equivalent to E, mathematically D∼ED∼EDD ∼ EDD ∼ E, these sets
have the same number of elements.
 B is equivalent to C, mathematically B∼CB∼CBB ∼ CBB ∼ C, these sets
have the same number of elements.
 D and E are disjoint sets.
1.5.1.1 Set Operations
OPERATIONS ON SETS:

1. UNION OF SET-  the union of A and B, denoted by  A∪ B, is the set of all

elements in x in U such that x is in A or x is in B.
2. INTERSECTION OF SET - the intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is
the set of all elements in x  in U such that x is in A and x is in B.

        Given:  A= { a, b, c }
                        B = { c, d, e }
                        C = { f, g }
                        D = { f, g, h, i}
  Let us answer the set of examples:

1. A ∪ B = { a , b, c, d, e}                                                       d. A ∩ B = { c ]
2. C ∪ D = { f , g, h, i }                                                              e. C ∩ D = { f, g }
3. B ∪ C  = { c, d, e, f, g }                                                         f. B ∩ C    = {    }
4. 3. COMPLEMENT OF SET- The complement of a set or absolute
complement A, denoted by A' , is the set of all elements in x in U such that x
is not in A.

 Given:  A={ a, b, c }
                 B= { c, d, e }
                U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h }
 Find the following:

1. A'   = { d, e, f, g, h}                                                         c.(A∩B)

′={a,b,d,e,f,g,h}(A∩B)′={a,b,d,e,f,g,h} (( A ∩ B ) ′ = { a , b , d , e , f , g , h }(( 
A ∩ B ) ′ = { a , b , d , e , f , g , h } '
2. B'   = { a , b, f, g, h }                                                          d.(A' ∩ B' ) ={ f, g, h}
3. 4. DIFFERENCE OF SET - The difference of A and B ( or relative
complement of B with respect to A) , denoted by  A - B, is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is in A and x is not in B. 

         Given:  A={ a, b, c }
                         B = { c, d, e }
                        C = { f, g }
                        D = { f, g, h, i}
                          U = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h , i}
          Find the following:

1. A - B = { a, b}
2. C - D = {   }
3. B - C  = { c, d, e }
4. CARTESIAN PRODUCT  - The  Cartesian product of set A and B , written as
A x B is the set of all possible ordered pairs with first element from A and
second element from B:

             A x B = {(a, b )/ a ∈  A and b ∈  B }

  Example: Let A = { 2, 3, 5 } and B = { 7 , 8 } Find each set ;

1. A x B ={ ( 2, 7), ( 2, 8), ( 3, 7 ), ( 3, 8 ), ( 5, 7 ), ( 5, 8 ) }
2. B x A = { ( 7, 2 ), ( 7, 3 ), ( 7, 5 ), ( 8, 2 ) , ( 8, 3 ), ( 8, 5 )}
3. A x A ={ ( 2, 2), ( 2, 3 ), ( 2, 5), ( 3, 2), ( 3, 3), ( 3, 5), ( 5, 2 ), ( 5, 3 ), ( 5, 5) }

1.5.1.2 Venn Diagram

Venn Diagram- is an illustration that uses circles to show the relationships
among things or finite groups of things.
 Circles that overlap have a commonality while circles that do not overlap do
not share those traits.
 The circles are being placed inside a box,  where the box represents the
universal set and the shaded inside of a circle represents the subset of a
universal set.

Sometimes we will use the Venn Diagram for a particular set whose elements are
known, the elements should be listed accordingly.
Given: U = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } and A = { 2 , 4 }
 Let us illustrate the representation of these sets in the Venn diagram.

Disjoint Set can also be represented in a Venn Diagram:

COMPLEMENT OF A SET:
       A' is the shaded part below:

Examples:

1. Using Venn Diagram find A' given  U = { 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5 }

1. Using English sentence description find A' Given U = all CE students and A =
CE students who are scholars.

   Answer: A' = CE students who are not a scholar. 

INTERSECTION OF SET
A ∩B is the shaded part below;  assume the sets are A and B:

UNION OF SET
A∪B  is the shaded part below; assume the sets are A and B:

DIFFERENCE OF SET
A - B is the shaded part below

APPLICATION OF VENN DIAGRAM

If 380 students are taking courses: 215 taking Biology, 173 taking Physics, 182
taking chemistry.  72 taking Biology and Physics, 90 taking Biology and
Chemistry, 60 taking Physics and Chemistry
Find the number of students in each of the following parts.

Solution:
Let A = Biology ( 215)
       B = Physics ( 173)
       C = Chemistry ( 182 )
      A⋂B = 72
      A⋂C = 90
  The intersection of the three courses will be label as x.
Then...
A⋂B = 72 - x
A⋂C = 90 - x
B⋂C = 60 - x
Let us solve for the equation of A:
A = 215 - [ ( 72-x) +x +  (90-x)]
A = 215 - 162 + x
A= 53 + x
Let us proceed with B:
B =173 - [ ( 72 - x) + x + ( 60 - x )]
B = 173 - (132 - x)
B = 41 + x
Now let us have the C:
C =182 - [ ( 90 - x) + x + ( 60 - x )]
C = 182 - (90 - x + 60)
C = 32 + x
Now let us find for x...
 53 + x + 72 - x + 41 - x + 90 - x + 60 - x + 32 - x + x
348 + x = 380
x = 32
The value of x will be substituted to find the answer to the Venn diagram...
A= 53 + 32 = 85
B = 41 + 32 = 73
C = 32 + 32 = 64
A⋂B = 72 - 32 = 40
A⋂C = 90 - 32 = 58
B⋂C = 60 - 32 = 6
1.5.2 Language of Relations
Definition:

 A relation is a set of ordered pairs.

 If x and y are elements of these sets and if a relation exists between x and y,
then we say that x corresponds to y or that y depends on x and is
represented as the ordered pair of point ( x, y ).
 A relation from set A to set B is defined to be any subset of A x B.
 If R is a relation from A to B and ( a, b ) ∈∈R, then we say that "a is related
to b" and it is denoted as an R b.

 Let us take a look with this example:

A= { a, b, c, d } be the set of car brands
B = { s, t, u, v } be the set of countries of the car manufacturer.
hence, A x B will give all the possible pairings of the elements of A and B.
then, the relation ( R) from A to B will be given by:
R = { ( a, s ), ( a , t ), ( a , u ), ( a , v ), ( b , s ), ( b , t ), ( b, u ), ( b, v ), ( c , s ) , ( c,
t ) , ( c , u ), ( b , v ) , ( d , s ), ( d , t ) , ( d , u ) , ( d , v ) }
  Let R be a relation from set A to the set B.

 the domain of R is the set dom R.

         dom R = { a ∈∈ A ∣∣ ( a, b ) ∈∈ R for some b ∈∈ B }

 image ( or range ) of R.

         im R = { R={b∈B∣(a,b)∈Rforsomea∈A}R={b∈B∣(a,b)∈Rforsomea∈A}

Example:
    If  A = { 4, 7 }, then the relation from A to A will be A x A
          A x A = { ( 4, 4), ( 4 , 7), ( 7 , 4 ), ( 7 , 7 ) }
1.5.3 Language of function
Definition:

 A function is a special kind of relationship that helps visualize relationships in

terms of graphs and make it easier to interpret different behavior of variables.
 A function is a relation in which, for each value of the first component of the
ordered pairs, there is exactly one value of the second component.
 The set X is called the domain of the function.
 For each element of x in X, the corresponding element y in Y is called the
value of the function at x, or the image of x.

Range - is the set of all images of the elements of the domain.

  A function can be map one to one correspondence from one set to another.
 A function can be map many to one correspondence from one set to another.
 
Domain ( x )                    Range ( f(x))

         a            ⟶⟶                        s

         b              ⟶⟶                     t

         c          ⟶⟶                         u

         d        ⟶⟶                         v

 
 Examples:
    Determine whether each of the following relations is a function or not a
function:

1. A = { ( 1 , 3 ), ( 2 , 4 ), ( 3 , 5 ), ( 4 , 6 )}   --- Function  
2. B = { ( - 2, 7), ( -1 , 3 ), ( 0 , 1 ), ( 1 , 5 ), ( 2 , 5 )} ---  Function,
3. C = { ( 3 , 0), ( 3 , 2 ), ( 7, 4 ), ( 9 , 1 ) } --- Not a Function
1.5.4 Language of Binary
Operations
Introduction:
We are aware that Algebraic structures focus on investigating sets that are
associated with single operations that satisfy certainly reasonable axioms.
An operation on a set generated structures as the integers together with the
single operation of addition, or invertible 2 x 2 matrices together with the single
operation of matrix multiplication.
Algebraic structures are known as a group.
Let G be a set. A binary operation on G is a function that assigns each ordered
pair of an element of G.

Symbolically, a∗b=G,foralla,b,c∈G.a∗b=G,foralla,b,c∈G.

What is a Group?
A group is a set of elements, with one operation, that satisfies the following
properties:

1. the set is closed concerning the operation

2. the operation satisfies the associative property,
3. there is an identity element,
4. each element has an inverse.

   In other words, a group is an ordered pair ( G, ∗∗) where G is a set and ∗∗is a
binary operation on G satisfying the four properties.

1. Closure Property. If any two elements are combined using the operation, the
result must be an element of the set.

        a∗b=c∈G.foralla,b,c∈Ga∗b=c∈G.foralla,b,c∈G

1. Associative Property. If any three elements are combined using the

operation, the result must be an element of the set.

        (a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c)foralla,b,c∈G(a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c)foralla,b,c∈G

1. Identity Property. There exists an element e in G, such that for

all  a∈G,a∗e=e∗aa∈G,a∗e=e∗a
2. Inverse Property. For
each a∈Gthereisanelementa−1ofG,suchthata∗a−1=a−1∗a=ea∈Gthereisan
elementa−1ofG,suchthata∗a−1=a−1∗a=e

Example:
     Determine whether the set of all non-negative integers under addition is a
group.
Solution:
  We will apply the four properties to test the set of all non-negative integers
under addition.
 To start with...
 Let A = { set of all non negative integers under addition }
Step 1: Test for closure property, choose any two positive integers.
            8 and 4 are both non-negative integers, applying addition
            8 + 4 = 12, 12 is a non-negative integer which is an element of set A.
            hence, set A is closed.
Step 2: Test for the associative property, choose three positive integers.
           3, 2, and 4 are all non-negative integers, applying addition.
      3+(2+4)=3+6=9
             ( 3 + 2 ) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
            The sum of the three numbers is also an element in set A.
             Hence, it also satisfies the property.
Step 3: Test for identity property, choose any non-negative integer. Then add it to
zero which is the identity element for addition.
            8 + 0 = 8,   9 + 0 = 9,    15 + 0 = 15
            Hence, it also satisfies the identity property.
Step 4. Test for an inverse property, choose any positive integer.
             4 + ( -4 ) = 0,      10 + ( -10 ) = 0
           Note that, since the addends will be the negation of the given non-
negative a−1=−aa−1=−a integer, the test for inverse property failed

 Since the last property is failed set A is not a group.

2.1 Polya's Four Steps in Problem
Solving
Introduction:
George Polya (1887-1985) was a  Mathematics educator who strongly believed
that the skill of problem-solving can be taught. He developed a framework known
as Polya's Four Steps in Problem Solving. This process addresses the difficulty
of students in problem-solving. He firmly believed that the most efficient way of
learning mathematical concepts is through problem-solving. Students and
teachers become better problem solvers.
The diagram below shows the four-step process that forms the basis of any
serious attempt at problem-solving. 

Sample Problems:
1.) Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4.
Find the number.
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem
            We need to make sure that we have read the question carefully several
times.
            Let x - be the unknown number
Step 2: Make a Plan
           We need to translate the problem mathematically.
           Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4.
           2 ( x + 3 ) = 3 x + 4
Step 3: Do the Plan
          We need to solve for the value of x, algebraically.
           2 ( x + 3 ) = 3 x + 4
        2x+6=3x+4
             3 x - 2 x =  6 - 4
                           x = 2
Step 4: Look Back
               If we take  two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the same as thrice the
number 2 plus 4 which is 10, so this is is true. Thus the number we are looking
for is 2.
2.) An agency charged Php 15,000 for a 3 day and 2-night tour in Macau and
Php 20,000 for the same tour with a side trip to Hong Kong (HK). Ten persons
joined the trip, which enables them to collect Php 170,000. How many tourists
made a side trip to Hong Kong? 
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem
             There are two types of tourists in the situation. Some purely stayed in
Macau while others made a side trip to HK. From the total collection, how much
was the amount collected from those who purely stayed in Macau and how much
was collected from those who made side trips to HK. It is needed to know how
many were bound for Macau who made a side trip to Hk. 
Step 2: Make a Plan
            Let x - be the number of tourist bound for Macau alone
                    y - be the number of tourists bound for Macau but made a side trip to
HK
               We need to translate the into algebraic equations.
                Php 15,000 x - amount collected from the tourist bound for Macau
alone
                Php 20,000 x - amount collected from the tourist bound for Macau who
made a side trip to Hk.
Step 3: Do the Plan
               x  + y = 10    (equation 1)
               15,000 x + 20, 000 y = 170,000 ( equation 2 )
              We need to solve for the values of x and y.
         a.)    Using equation 1:
                       x + y = 10
                             y = 10 - x  ( equation 3 )
         b.) Substitute equation 3 in equation 2:
                        15,000 x +  20,000 y = 170, 000
                        15, 000 x + 20, 000 ( 10 - x ) = 170, 000
                         15, 000 x + 200, 000 - 20, 000 x = 170, 000
                                                -5, 000 x = 170, 000 - 200, 000
                                                - 5, 000 x = -30, 000

                                                                 x=−30,000−5000x=−30,000−5000

                                                                 x = 6
                 c.)  Substitute x = 6  in equation 3 to find y.
                             y = 10 - x
                             y = 10 - 6
                             y = 4
Step 4: Look Back
                Since there are a total of  10 tourists, 6 of them stayed only in Macau
while 4 made a side trip in HK.
                15,000 ( 6 ) + 20, 000 ( 4 ) = 170, 000
               This satisfies the condition that the total amount collected for the whole
trip is Php 170,000. 

2.2 Number Pattern

Introduction
Numbers are found everywhere in our daily lives. Mathematics is based on
numbers.
Mathematics is useful to predict and therefore number pattern is about prediction.
There are mathematical problems that involve the number pattern.
There are several ways in finding an unknown number.
Number Pattern

  This leads directly to the concept of functions in mathematics about different

quantities which are defined as the list of the same numbers following a
particular sequence.
 It can also be applied to problem-solving whether a pattern is present and can
be used to generalize a solution to a problem.

 The following are examples of number pattern;

  1.) Fibonacci sequence
  2.) Prime number sequence
3.) Imaginary number sequence
4.) geometric number pattern
5.) growing number pattern.
 In a given sequence we need to identify whether it is infinite or finite...
Hence, the difference between the two needs to be considered.
 Definition:

       An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive

integers.

      The function values a1,  a2, a3, a4,...an-1, an... are the terms of the sequence.

        A finite sequence is a function whose domain consists of the first n

positive integers only.  Take a look with these examples:

Let us identify whether the following is a finite or infinite sequence.

      1.) 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 - Finite sequence
       2.) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 - Finite sequence
       3.) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 -Finite sequence
        4.) 3, 6, 9, 12,15...  - Infinite Sequence
         5.) 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13...- Infinite Sequence
         6.) 1, 4, 9,16,25, 36... - Infinite Sequence
Aside from the sequence stated above we also have the so-called General
Sequence which is in the form of a1, a2, a3, a4,...an-1, an...
This sequence has a1 as its first term, a2 as the second term, a3 as the third term,
and an as the nth term which is also called the general term of the sequence.
 Let us take the following examples. 
Examples: Find the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by
the formula:
1.) an = 3n+1
      solution:  let n1=1, n2=2, n3=3
      then: a1 =  3(1) + 1 = 4
                  a2 = 3(2) + 1 = 7
                  a3 = 3(3) + 1 = 10     therefore the first three terms of the sequence
are 4, 7, 10.
2.) Tn = 121211 2(n2 + n )
solution:  let n1=1, n2=2, n3=3
      then: T1 =  121211 2(12 + 1 )=1
                  T2 =121211 2 (22 + 2) =  3
                  T3 = 121211 2(32 + 3) = 6     therefore the first three terms of the
sequence are 1, 3, 6.
3.) Sn = n2
solution:  let n1=1, n2=2, n3=3
      then: S1 =  12 = 1
                  S2 =  22 = 4
                  S3 = 32 = 9     therefore the first three terms of the sequence are 1, 4,
9.

1. ) Pn = 121211 2(3n2 - n )

solution:  let n1=1, n2=2, n3=3

      then: p1 =  121211 2(3(12) - 1 )=1
                   P2 =121211 2 (3(22) - 2) = 5
                  P3 = 121211 2(3(32) - 3) = 12   therefore the first three terms of the
sequence are 1, 5, 12.
5.) Hn = (2n2 - n )
solution:  let n1=1, n2=2, n3=3
      then: H1 =  (2(12) - 1 )=1
                  H2 = (2(22) - 2) = 6
                  H3 = (2(32) - 3) = 15   therefore the first three terms of the sequence
are 1, 6, 15.

2.3 Difference Table

Introduction:
The process of finding the next term in a given sequence can also be found using
another technique.
Finding the difference between the number pattern will help us find the next term.
The difference table is needed to be constructed.
DIFFERENCE TABLE
A difference table shows the difference between successive terms of the
sequence. The differences in rows may be the first, second, and third
differences.  The following examples will show how to predict the next term of a
sequence and we look for a pattern in a row difference.
Examples: Construct the difference table to predict the next term of each
sequence.
1.) 3,7, 11, 15, 19, _____
solution:
 7 - 3 = 4
11 - 7 = 4
15 - 11 = 4
19 - 15 = 4
 Since the difference of the sequence are the same this means that the first 
difference in the  sequence is 4.
To find the next term we need to add 19 and 4 that are equal to 23. 
hence, the next term in the sequence is 23...
2.) 4, 9, 17, 28, ______
solution:
 9-4=5
 17 - 9 = 8
 28 - 17 = 11
The  first difference are not the same so let us find the second difference:
8-5=3
11 - 8 = 3
The second difference are now the same, we are going to use 3 as our addend.
The difference of 3 will be added to 11, and the sum will be added to 28 to find
the next term.
Hence, the next term will be 42.

1. ) 6, 9 , 14, 26, 50, 91, ____

solution:
 9 - 6 = 3
14 - 9 = 5
26 - 14 = 12
50 - 26 = 24
91 - 50 = 41
The  first difference are not the same so lets proceed in getting the second
difference
5-3=2
12 - 5 = 7
24 - 12 = 12
41 - 24 = 17
The second difference are not equal.
Proceed with the third difference
7-2=5
12 - 7 = 5
17 - 12 = 5
The third difference is 5 add this to 17 so that is 22, add 22 to the last difference
in the first difference table which is 41 so the sum is 63. 
63 will be added to the last term in the sequence which is 91 to find the unknown
term.
Hence, the answer is 154.

2.4 Number Series

Number Series is a sequence formed out of numbers. The four fundamental
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be used
to find the next term in the given number series. The difference table can also be
used to find the next term in the series.
Examples:
1.) 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, ____
  Solution:
5-2=3
10 - 5 = 5
17 - 10 = 7
26 - 17 = 9
37 - 26 = 11
50 - 37 = 13
Let us find the second difference to find a number pattern...
5-3=2
7-5=2
9-7=2
11 - 9 = 2
13 - 11 = 2
Add 2 to 13 hence it is equal to 15...
15 will be added to 50 and so the next term is 65.
2.) 2, 8, 16, 128, ______
solution:
2(8) = 16
8(16) = 128
16(128) = 2048.
Therefore the next term is 2048.
3.)120, 99, 80, 63, 48, _____
solution;
12 x 10 = 120
11 x 9   = 99
10 x 8 = 80
9 x 7 = 63
8 x 6 = 48
7 x 5 = 35
so the next term is 35.
4.) 240, ____, 120, 40, 10, 2
solution:

240 ÷÷÷÷÷÷1 = 240

240 ÷÷÷÷÷÷2 = 120

120 ÷÷÷÷÷÷3 = 40 

40 ÷÷÷÷÷÷ 4  = 10

10 ÷÷÷÷÷÷5 = 2

therefore the unknown term is 240.

1. ) 9, 17, 31, 57, _____, 205

  9(2) - 1 = 17
17 ( 2) - 3 = 31
31 ( 2) - 5 = 57
57 ( 2) - 7 = 107
107(2) - 9 = 205.
It important that in a number series one should know how to detect the rules
that will result in the formation of a number.

2.5 Writing A Formula From A

Sequence
Writing A Formula From A Sequence:
Examples;
Determine the 100th term of the following.
1.)  7 , 10, 13, 16, _____, _____, ..._____
      Solution:
          Using the difference table does not apply to this problem since the 100th
term should be found.
          We need to write a formula that will help us solve this problem.
       Step 1: Find the difference in the pattern:
                        10 - 7 = 3
                        13 - 10 = 3
                        16 - 13 = 3
        Since 3 is the first difference we can have an equation: 3n
        Step 2:  Use the equation formulated in step 1.
                  In 3n let n be any real number from 1 to infinity.
                if n =1 then 3n = 3
                if n = 2 then 3n = 6
               if n = 3 then 3n = 9
               if n = 4 then 3n = 12
        Step 3: Use the given sequence then subtract the sequence formulated
from 3n.
                      7        10      13       16
               -     3           6        9        12
                      4            4       4         4   the difference is +4
        Step 4: Then the formula is 3n + 4.
        Step 5: Use the formula to solve for the missing term.
                       3 ( 100) + 4 = 304 is the 100th term

1. )  3 , 10 , 17, _____, ______...______.

 Solution:
     step 1:      10 - 3 = 7
           17 - 10 = 7
      step 2:   use 7n
        If n = 1 , then 7n= 7
            n = 2, then  7n = 14
            n = 3, then 7n = 21
             n = 4, then 7n = 28
     Then  3    10    17       24       
              -  7     14    21       28
              -4       - 4    - 4      -4
 therefore the formula is  7n - 4
         The 100th term is 7(100) - 4 = 696.

1. ) - 1, 11, 31, 59, 95, ....______.

 Solution:
      Step 1;   11 - (-1) = 12
                          31 - 11  = 20
                          59 - 31 = 28
                          95 - 59 = 36
          the first difference are not the same.
          find the second difference.
                       20 - 12 = 8
                       28 - 20 = 8
                       36 - 28 = 8
        therefore the second difference is 8, hence we will have a term of 8n 2 this
can be reduced to 4n2.
  step 2: use 4n2 
                 if n =1, then 4n2 = 4
                     n = 2, then 4n2 = 16
                     n = 3, then 4n2 = 36
                     n = 4, then 4n2 = 64
     then    - 1     11     31     59    95
                -     4     16     36    64    100
                      -5    -5     -5      -5     -5
the formula is 4n2 - 5 and the 100th term is 39,995.

2.6 Summary of Topics

Mathematics proved that it is useful in predicting and number pattern is about
prediction.
Number pattern leads directly to the concept of functions in mathematics about
different quantities which are defined as a list of the same numbers following a
particular sequence.
Number Pattern can also be applied to problem-solving whether a pattern is
present and can be used to generalize a solution to a problem.
The difference table is a way of finding the next number in a series.
The four basic operations can also be used to find the missing term in a series of
numbers. 
From a given series of numbers, one can formulate a formula to help find
succeeding terms in a given sequence.
George Polya was a great mathematician that introduces a unique way of solving
problems.
The four steps in solving problem-solving by George Polya are as follows;

1. Understand the Problem.

2. Make the Plan.
3. Do the Plan.
4. Look Back.

PRELIM EXAM QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. What do you call the visible regularities found in nature? - patterns
2. What do you call a figure that can be broken into squares? - Golden
rectangle 
3. Which of these represents a sense of harmonious and beautiful
proportion of balance? - symmetry
4. Which of the following is known as the Divine Proportion? - Golden ratio 
5. Who discovered the sequence of numbers that created an interesting
pattern such as 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ...? -. Leonardo of Pisa
6.   Which of these represents the Gothic Catherdal in Paris? - Notre Dame
7. If P = {a,b,c,d,e}, Q = {a,c,e,d,t} and R = { t,d,c,b,e}, then the intersection
of P, Q and R is - {c,d,e}
8.  What is the cardinality of the set  A = { 5, 6, 3, 21, 13, 12}? - 6
9. Given  A = {a, b, c, d, e, f}  what type of set does it represent? - Finite Set
10. If the universal set U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and F = { 4,10}, t hen what is the
value of F ' ? - {2,6,8}
11. What do you call this sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89? -
Fibonacci
12.  Find the next three terms in the series 13, 15, 17, 19,____,_____,____ . -
21, 23, 25
13. What is the next three terms in the series 4, 8, 16 , 32? - 64 ,128, 256
14. Which of the following will complete the series 445, 221, 109, ______, 25,
11, 4? - 53
15.   What is the first difference in the sequence 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 21? - 3
16. The Diagrams below represent a class of children. G is the set of girls
who like biking and F is the set of boys who like fencing. Which diagram is
the shading that represents boys who like fencing? - Diagram A

17. In a group, 25 persons like tea or coffee, of these 15 like tea and 6 like
both coffee and tea. How many like coffee? - 16
18. In a survey of 40 students in a class, 10 were fond of having pineapple
juice, 15 were fond of orange juice and 7 liked to have both pineapples as
well as orange juice. Find how many students were taking neither
pineapple juice nor orange juice. - 22
19. In a survey, Sam found that 38 people liked product A, 36 liked product
B, and 39 liked product C. If 24 people liked both products A and B, 20
people liked products C and A, 18 people liked products B and C, and 9
liked all the three products. Find how many liked product C only? -
20. In a group of 60 students, 25 play table tennis, 16 do swimming, and 22
play cricket, 8 play table tennis and do swimming, 6 play cricket and do
swimming, 5 play table tennis, and cricket, and 12 students do not play any
of these game. How many play table tennis, do swimming, and play
cricket? - 4
21. Which represents the domain of the following relation [{=-6, 5}, {-4, 5}, {-
1,0}, {4, 3}] ? -  (-6, -4, -1, 4)
22.  Which of these is focused on investigating sets associated with a single
operation that satisfies certain reasoning? -
23. In the given set of relation [{-4,6}, {4, 0}, {-3, -1}, {5, 2}, what are the set
of range? - ( 6, 0, -1, 2
24. Which of these properties is not needed to test if a set is a group or not?
- Commutative Property
25. Karen is thinking of a number. If you double it and subtract 14, you
obtain 11. What is Karen’s number? - 5
26. Which of these is the Honor Pledge for Exams? -  “I affirm that I shall not give
or receive any unauthorized help on this exam, and that all work shall be my own.”
27. In the given set of relation [{-4,6}, {4, 0}, {-3, -1}, {5, 2}, what are the set of
range? - ( 6, 0, -1, 2)
28. The first step in solving a problem is: - understand the problem
29. Which of these properties is not needed to test if a set is a group or not?
- Commutative Property
3.1 Introduction to Data
management
Introduction
            To have successful research, a researcher needs to consider the
following information.
            Data gathered can either be quantitative or qualitative data.
Qualitative data are categorical data, which take the form of categories or
attributes such as sex, course, year level, race, religion, etc. On the other
hand, quantitative data or numerical data are obtained from measurements
like heights, weights, ages, scores, temperatures, IQ, and other measurable
quantities. 
          Qualitative data can be converted to quantitative data through a process
called measurements. By measurements, numbers are utilized to code objects
so that they can be treated statistically. There are four types of measurements. 
 Levels of Measurements/Measurement Scales:
1.) Nominal Measurements - are used only for identification or classification
purposes. It is the weakest form of measurement because no attempt can be
made to account for differences within the particular category or to specify any
ordering or direction across the various categories. Nominal data are discrete
variables.
       examples: gender,  automobile ownership,  type of Life insurance owned
2.) Ordinal measurements - do not only classify items but also give the order or
ranks of classes, items, or objects. Ordinal data are discrete variables.
       examples: student class designation, product satisfaction, faculty ranks,
product satisfactions
3.) Interval Measurements - numbers are assigned to the items or objects. These
are used to identify and rank the objects. It also measures the degree of
differences between any two classes. Interval data are either discrete or
continuous variables.
       examples; weights, heights, temperatures( C and F ), IQ
4.) Ratio Measurements - this differs from interval measurement only in one
aspect; it has a true zero point. Ratio data are either discrete or continuous
variables.
        examples: Temperature in Kelvin Scale, age in years or days, salary in
Philippine peso
Steps in Statistical Inquiry:

1. Collection of Data - the researcher must gather data for the particular variable
under investigation.
2. Organization of Data - the process of grouping data according to their
common characteristics.
3. Presentation of Data - the process of presenting the data in a.)  tabular form,
b.)graphical form, or c. )textual form
4. Analyze the Data - the researcher must use the appropriate statistical tools
for the data gathered.
5. Interpretation of Data - refers to the implementation of processes through
which data is reviewed to arrive at an informed conclusion. 

  Frequency Distribution is the grouping of data into categories showing the

number of investigations in each of the overlapping classes. It is considered the
easiest way and widely used in organizing data.
  Frequency Distribution table(FDT) - It is a grouping of all the (numerical)
observations into intervals or classes together with a count of the number of
observations that fall in each interval or class. It is classified as follows;
              a.) Categorical Frequency Distribution-is used to organized nominal
level or ordinal level type of data.
               b.) Grouped Frequency Distribution - is used to organized quantitative
data.
There are terms that we need to be familiarized with to be able to construct a
frequency distribution table.
    Definition of Terms:

1. Class Intervals or Class Limits (CI) - refers to the grouping defined by a

lower limit and an upper limit.

        example:    5 - 9, in this class interval 5 is the lower limit and 9 is the upper
limit.

1. Class Boundaries(CB) - this refers to the real or true class limits. The values
of the class boundaries can be found by subtracting 0.5 from the lower limit
and adding 0.5 from the upper limit.

         example:   5 - 9 becomes 4.5 - 9.5

1. Class Marks ( x ) - this refers to the midpoint or middle value of the class
interval. It is obtained by finding the average of the lower and upper-class
limits.
           example:  x=5+92=7x=5+92=7 

1. Class Size (i) - this refers to the difference between the upper-class
boundary and the lower class boundary of a class interval. It can also be
obtained by computing the difference between two successive lower class
limits or two successive upper-class limits.

           example:    5 - 9
                                   10 - 14
                   The difference of 10 and 5 is 5 while the difference of 14 and 9 is 5
also therefore the class size is 5.
                   The class boundaries are 4.5 - 9.5 and 9.5 - 14.5 respectively, the
difference between these boundaries is 5.

1. Class Frequency (f)- this refers to the number of observations belonging to a

class interval.

     The frequency distribution table can also contain additional information such
as:

1. Relative Frequency ( Rf ) - this refers to the quotient of the class frequency

and the total number of observations.

                      Rf=fnRf=fn

1. Percentage ( % )- this is obtained by multiplying the Rf by 100.

2. Cumulative Frequency ( Cf) - this can be less than cumulative frequency
(<cf) or greater than cumulative frequency(> cf ).

            This is obtained by getting the sum of the frequencies starting from the
lowest classes to the highest classes( < cf ) or from starting from the frequency of
the highest classes to the lowest classes ( > cf ).
3.2 Categorical Frequency
Distribution
 CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
              This is used to organized nominal level or ordinal level type of data.       
Example;
      Twenty applicants were given a performance evaluation appraisal. The data
set is 

Evaluation Appraisal

High High High Low Average

Average Low Average Average Average

Low Average Average High High

Low Low Average High High

 Construct a frequency distribution table for the data.

 Since the data are categorical the table will consist of the following information:

Evaluation Appraisal

    Classes         Tally  Frequency     Percent

        High       IIIII- II       7         35 %

       Average       IIIII - III       8         40%

       Low       IIIII       5          25%

                                                                      n = 20                  100%
      From the given example, it is noted that more applicants received an average
performance rating.
      The above example is easy to be organized in a frequency table since it is
categorical, now if the data are numerical  there are steps to follow so that a
Frequency Distribution Table can be constructed.
3.3 Grouped Frequency
Distribution
Grouped Frequency Distribution is used when the range of the data set is
large; the data must be grouped into classes whether it is categorical or interval
data. For interval data, the class is more than one unit in width.
        To make a grouped frequency distribution, there are steps to follow in
constructing an FDT.
 Steps in Constructing the Grouped Frequency Distribution Table
Step 1. Determine the range ( R ) of the data. The range is the difference
between the highest and lowest scores in the data.
                     R = HS - LS
Step 2. Determine the class size ( i  ) by dividing the range by the desired
number of classes ( K ).

                    i=R/k

               There are two ways of finding k;

      Rule 1: To determine the number of classes use the smallest positive integer
k such that  2k≥n, where n is the total number of observations and k is any real
number.
      Rule 2: The value of k can be solved using the formula
                    k = 1 + 3.322 ( log of the total number of observations)
Step 3. Start identifying the class limits/ class intervals/ classes by using the
smallest data in the distribution.
Step 4: Complete the table.

 
3.4 Measures Of Central Tendency
for Ungrouped Data
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:    
It is a statistic that serves as a representative of the data under investigation.

 This tends to lie within the center of the set of data.

 There are three measures of central tendency such as the arithmetic
mean( simply mean ), median, and mode.

The Mean

 It is the most important, the most useful, and the most widely used measure
of central tendency.
 It refers to the sum of all the given values or items in a distribution divided by
the number of values or items summed.
 Mean has limitations and uses.

The Mean is Used

 for interval and ratio measurement;

 If higher statistical computations are wanted;
 If there are no extreme values in the distribution since it is easily affected by
extremely low scores or extremely high scores. Thus, the distribution is
approximately normal;
 When the greater reliability of the measure of central tendency is wanted
since its computations include all the given values.

The Limitations of the Mean

 It is the most widely used average because it is the most familiar. It is often,
however, misused. It cannot be used in the clustering of values or items that
are not substantial. An example is when representing the scores or values, 10
and 100 since they are far apart.
 When the given values do not tend to cluster around a central value, the
mean is a poor measure of central location.
 It is easily affected by extremely large or small values. One small value can
easily pull down the mean.
 The mean cannot be utilized to compare distributions since the means of two
or more distributions may be the same but their characteristics may be
entirely different. The means of distribution A whose values are 80, 85, and
90, and distribution B whose values are 86, 85, and 84 are both 85.
However, we cannot imply that both distributions possess the same
characteristics since their patterns of dispersion or variations are markedly
different despite having the same mean.
                  Arithmetic Mean ( denoted
by 
)  or simply mean is the sum of all values in a data set divided by the number of
values that are summed. It is written mathematically:
  The following formulas are used for Ungrouped Data:
        Sample
Mean:  
=∑xn=∑xn
                           where:  x bar =  mean
                                             x = is the individual value
                                             n = total number of values

                                      ∑x=∑x=the sum of all x's

         Population Mean: μ=μ=∑xN∑xN

                              where: μ=μ=population mean

                                             x = is the individual value

                                             N = total number of values in a population

                                      ∑x=∑x=the sum of all x's

Examples:

1. Find the population means of the ages of 9 middle management employees of a certain
company. The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58 and 55.

Solution:

μ=∑xn=53+45+59+48+54+46+51+58+55=52.11
9

The Median

 It is denoted by Md
 This is the middle value in a set of quantities.
 It separates an ordered set of data into two equal parts.
 Half of the quantities are found above the median and the other half is below
it.
 To find the median of an ungrouped data, follow these steps:

1. Arrange the quantities either in ascending or descending order.

2.  Number the quantities consecutively from 1 to n.
3.  If n is odd, the median is the (n+1/2)th quantity. If n is even, the median is
the mean of (n/2+1)th and (n/2)th quantities.

The Median is Used

 for ordinal or ranked measurement;

 if there are extreme cases, thus the distribution is markedly skewed;
 if we desire to know whether the cases fall within the upper halves or the
lower halves of the distribution;
 for an open-end distribution; that is, the lowest or the highest class interval or
both are not defined as 50 and below or 100 and above;

Limitations of the Median:

 It is easily affected by the number of items in a distribution.

 It cannot be determined if the given values are not arranged according to
magnitude.
 If several values are contained in a distribution, it becomes a laborious task to
arrange them according to magnitude.

 Its value is not as accurate as of the mean because it is just an ordinal

statistic.

The formula for finding the Median:

 To get the median for ungrouped data, we simply arrange the data from the
highest value to the lowest value or vice – versa. The median is the middle
value in the distribution.
 If there is an odd number of observations, the middle value is the median. Ex.
6 ,7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16
 If the number of observations is even, the average of the two middle scores is
the median. Ex. 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3

Let us have these examples:

1. Find the population median of the ages of 9 middle management employees of a certain
company. The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58 and 55.

Solution:

    Arrange the data from lowest to highest:   45, 46, 48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59

   Choose the middle data: 53

   Therefore the median is 53.

2. The following data represent the total unit sales for smartphones from a sample of 10
Communication Centers for August: 15, 17, 10, 12, 13, 10, 14, 10, 8, and 9. Find the median.

  Arrange the data: 8 , 9, 10, 10, 10, 12, 12, 14, 15, 17
 Since there are 10 data there is no middle data hence we need to add the 5th and 6th data and
those are 10+12 then divide it by 2, hence the median is 11.

The Mode 
 It is denoted by Mo.
 It is the quantity with the most number of frequency.
 A set of data is unimodal distribution if it contains only one mode. For
instance, the set 11, 15, 13, 15, 14, 13, 15 is unimodal. The mode is 15 with 3
frequencies.
 A set is a bimodal distribution if it contains two modes. For example, the sets
88, 89, 82, 82, 82, 89, 88, 89 and 63, 55, 57, 60, 60, 66, 56, 58, 57 are
bimodal. The modes are 82 and 89 respectively.
 A set of data with three modes is trimodal. But the distribution 40, 44, 37,
37,44, 40 has no mode.

The Mode is Used

 for nominal or categorical data;

 if the most popular or most typical case or value in the distribution is wanted.
 If a rough or quick estimate of a central value is wanted.

The Limitations of the Mode

 It is rarely or seldom used since it does not always exist.

 It is very unstable because its value changes depending on the approaches
used in finding it.
 Its value is just a rough estimate of the center of concentration of a
distribution.

Examples:

1. Find the population mode of the ages of 9 middle management employees of a certain
company. The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58 and 55.

 solution: the data has no mode

2. The following data represent the total unit sales for smartphones from a sample of 10
Communication Centers for August: 15, 17, 10, 12, 13, 10, 14, 10, 8, and 9. Find the mode.

solution: The mode is 10.

3. For special mode: 80, 80, 79, 79, 78, 77, 77, 76, 76

The modes are 79.5 and 76. 5, these are bimodal modes.

4. Example: 80,80, 79, 78, 77, 77, 76, 76

The mode is 76.5.

3.5 Measures of Dispersion for
Ungrouped Data

MEASURES Of DISPERSION:
                  It is also called a measure of variability, it describes the spread of the
individual distribution from the average. Among the measures are the range,
variance, and standard deviation.
Range - the simplest and easiest way to determine among the measure of
dispersion. It is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in
the data set.
Advantages:

1. It is easy to compute.
2. It is easy to understand.

Disadvantages:

1. It can be distorted by a single extreme value.

2. Only two values are used in the calculation.

   Examples:

1. Find the range of the ages of 9 middle management employees of a certain

company. The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58 and 55.

Solution:
     Given:  HV = 59  
                      LV =  45
      Answer:   R = 59 - 45
                            R = 14

1. The following data represent the total unit sales for smartphones from a
sample of 10 Communication Centers for August: 15, 17, 10, 12, 13, 10, 14,
10, 8, and 9. Find the range.

Solution:
       Given:  HV = 17
                        LV = 8
        Answer:  R = 17 - 8
                             R = 9
 Variance and Standard Deviation
            Standard Deviation is considered one of the most widely used measures
of dispersion. The more spread the data the higher the deviation. It is a statistical
term that provides a good indication of volatility. It measures how widely values
are dispersed from the average. It is computed as the square root of the
variance.
            Variance is the measure of the dispersion of a set of data points around
the mean value. It is the average of the squared deviation of the values about the
mean.
            Volatility is the measure of risk, it can help determine the investor might
take in purchasing a specific security.
 The following are the formula to be used in solving the variance and standard
deviation of ungrouped data given a sample or a population.

1. The formula for Sample Variance ( denoted by s2s2)  and Sample Standard
Deviation ( denoted by s )

where: s2=sample variance

s=sample standard deviation
x=value of any observation
n=total number of sample

1. Population Variance( denoted by σ2σ2) and Population Standard Deviation

where:  σ2−population variance
                 σ−population standard deviation
                 x−values of the individual distribution
               μ−population mean

                  N−population size

Mean Deviation

 It is the deviation of the distance of individual scores from the mean.

The formula for finding the Mean Deviation of Ungrouped data is

where: MD=mean deviation 
             x=value of any particular observation
n=total number of sample 
3.6 Measure of Relative Position
for Ungrouped Data
MEASURES OF RELATIVE POSITION :

 When presenting or analyzing data sets it is sometimes helpful to group

subjects into several equal groups.
 A measure of relative position tells where data values fall within the
ordered set.
 When data is arranged in either ascending order or descending order, it can
be divided into various parts by different values such as quartiles, deciles,
and percentiles. These values are collectively called Quantiles and are the
extension of the median formula which divides the data into two equal parts.
 The measures of the relative position that we will calculate are the Quartiles, 
Deciles, Percentiles, and the Standard Score.

QUANTILES:

1. Quartiles ( Q ) - divide the distribution into 4 equal parts. The formula for
solving quartiles is  Qk=k(N+1)/4.
2. Deciles (D) - divide the distribution into 10 equal parts. The formula for
solving deciles is Dk=k(N+1)/10.
3. Percentiles (P ) - divide the distribution into 100 equal parts. The formula for
solving percentiles is Pk=k(N+1)/100.

where:    Qk=quartiles
                   Dk=deciles
                  Pk=percentiles
                       k=location of the quantiles

                    N=number of observations
3.7 Measures of Central Tendency
for Grouped
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
         Let us recall that we have three measures of central tendency such as the
mean, median, and mode. The following are the formula that we will use to solve
these tendencies.
        Formula:
3.8 Measures of Dispersion for
Grouped
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
Standard Deviation - the positive square root of the variance which measures
the spread or dispersion of each value from the mean distribution. The
formula to be used in solving the standard deviation for grouped data is
shown below.

1. Variance ( Mean Squared Deviation ) - is the average of the squared

deviation values from the distribution of the mean.

The notation s2 and σ2 are for sample variance and population variance
respectively.

2. Quartile Deviation( QD ) - also known as the Semi - Interquartile Range is

the amount of dispersion present in the middle 50% of the values of the
distribution, the median plus one quartile deviation on either side
encompassing 50% of the observation. The formula for finding the quartile
deviation is shown below.

                            QD=Q3−Q1/2 

1. Mean Absolute Deviation (MD)

             It is also called as Mean Deviation.

3.9 Measures of Relative Position
for Grouped
Introduction:
   There are measures of positions that are used to locate the relative position of
a specific data value about the rest of the data. The most popular measures of
position are:
1.) Standard scores it is also known as the z-scores
2.) Quantiles- this is divided into three such as 
       2.1 Quartiles(Q) - this is divided into three equal parts
        2.2 Deciles(D) - this is divided into ten equal parts
        2.3. Percentiles(P) - this is divided into 100 equal parts
 Let us start with the z- scores:
 Standard scores:

 These are most commonly called z-scores; the two terms may be used

interchangeably. 
 It is also called z-values, normal scores, and standardized variables.

To be able to compute a z-score this requires knowing the mean and standard
deviation of the complete population to which a data point belongs.
 Mathematically speaking these are the formula for finding the z-scores:

1. If the population mean and population standard deviation are given :

             z=x−μ/σ
   where: z - is the standard scores
                    x- is the given score
                  μ- is the population mean
                σ- population standard deviation

2. If the sample mean, and sample standard deviation are given:

           z=x−x bar/s
                where: x - is the given score
                            X bar - sample mean
                              s - sample standard deviation
    Let us try the example;
       A student scored 65 in a Calculus test with a mean score of 50 and a
standard deviation of 10. She then scored 30 in a History test with a mean score
of 25 and a standard deviation of 5. Compare her relative positions in the two
courses.  
       Solution: 
                 For Calculus;    z=65−50/10=1.5
                 For History:    z=30−25/5=1
 Let us proceed with the next measures of position.
The formula to be used will be the formula in finding the median.
Let us then recall the formula for finding the median of grouped data.
          Using the formula we will be able to formulate the formula in finding the
Quantiles.
     Let's say for Quartile, we all know that this is divided into 4 equal parts, hence
the formula will have 4 as the denominator.
  For Deciles instead of using four(4) as the denominator of n, we will use 10 as
its denominator
    For Percentiles, the denominator will be 100.
Percentiles:

 As we all know percentiles are divided into 100 equal parts hence  each set of
observations has 99 percentiles and are denoted by P1,P2,...P99
 The formula to be used will be based on the median formula.
  We will try to formulate the formula for each observation;

    Deciles:

 This distribution as we have learned is divided into 10 equal parts.

  Each set of distributions has 9 deciles and are denoted by D1,D2,D3...D9

                The formula for solving this is the same as well with the median.
 Quartiles:

 This distribution is divided into 4 equal parts, each set of observations has 3
quartiles and denoted as Q1,Q2,...Q3
3.10 Summary of Topics
Data come in different forms and from different sources. You read them in a daily
newspaper, hear them over the radio, see them on television and find them on
the internet. These data are made available to assist us in our decision making. If
these data are not properly managed and analyzed, everything will be
meaningless and void or lead us to false and unreliable information.
The frequency distribution table is a way of presenting the data gathered in a
tabular form. This helped us solve the needed statistical tools to have a
meaningful result in whatever endeavor we have. 
In the construction of a frequency distribution, the various items of a series are
classified into groups. The frequency distribution table shows the number of
items falling into each group.
 Definition of Terms:

1. Class Intervals or Class Limits (CI) - refers to the grouping defined by a

lower limit and an upper limit.

        example:    5 - 9, in this class interval 5 is the lower limit and 9 is the upper
limit.

1. Class Boundaries(CB) - this refers to the real or true class limits. The values
of the class boundaries can be found by subtracting 0.5 from the lower limit
and adding 0.5 from the upper limit.

         example:   5 - 9 becomes 4.5 - 9.5

1. Class Marks ( x ) - this refers to the midpoint or middle value of the class
interval. It is obtained by finding the average of the lower and upper-class
limits.

           example:  x=5+9/2=7

1. Class Size (i) - this refers to the difference between the upper-class
boundary and the lower class boundary of a class interval. It can also be
obtained by computing the difference between two successive lower class
limits or two successive upper-class limits.

           example:    5 - 9
                                   10 - 14
                   The difference of 10 and 5 is 5 while the difference of 14 and 9 is 5
also therefore the class size is 5.
                   The class boundaries are 4.5 - 9.5 and 9.5 - 14.5 respectively, the
difference between these boundaries is 5.

1. Class Frequency (f)- this refers to the number of observations belonging to a

class interval.

     The frequency distribution table can also contain additional information such
as:

1. Relative Frequency ( Rf ) - this refers to the quotient of the class frequency

and the total number of observations.

                      Rf=f/n

1. Percentage ( % )- this is obtained by multiplying the Rf by 100.

2. Cumulative Frequency ( Cf) - this can be less than cumulative frequency
(<cf) or greater than cumulative frequency(> cf ).

Statistics provide us the tool through which such data are collected, analyzed,
and presented to arrive at some rich and interesting information. These tools are
the measures of central tendency, the measures of dispersion, and the measures
of relative positions. These tools are useful in processing and managing
numerical data to describe a phenomenon and predict values.
4.1 Normal Distribution
This is an illustration of the Normal Distribution. What can you say about it?

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:
          A normal distribution is a continuous, symmetric, bell-shaped distribution of
a variable.
The known characteristics of the normal curve make it possible to estimate the
probability of occurrence of any value of a normally distributed variable.
     The properties of the Normal Distribution are as follows:

1. The distribution is bell-shaped.

2. The mean, median, and mode are equal and are located at the center of the
distribution.
3. It has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
4. The normal distribution is unimodal.
5. The normal distribution is continuous.
6. The normal distribution is asymptotic. ( it never touches the x-axis )
7. The normal distribution is symmetric about the mean.
8. The total area under the curve is 1.00 or 100%.
9. The area under the part of the normal curve that lies within 1 standard
deviation of the mean is about 68.27%, within 2 standard deviations is about
95.45%, within 3 standard deviations is about 99.73%.

STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:

   A normal distribution can be converted to a standard normal
distribution by obtaining the z value( z- scores ).
The normal distribution property allows computing a probability problem
concerning x into one concerning z. 
To determine the probability that x lies in a given interval, converting the interval
into z scale and then compute the probability by using the standard normal
distribution table.
 The first column in Table  gives  the z values correct to one decimal place, and
the first row gives the second decimal place for z score.  For example , if we
wanted to find the area between z = 0 and z = 1.00 , we need to find z = 1.0 in
the first column  and then look for z = .00 along the first row. The intersection of
the corresponding row and column gives the value  0 .3413.  This value is the
area between z = 0 and z = 1.00, and it is equivalent to finding  P(0 ≤ z ≤ 1.00).
4.2 Pearson Product Moment of
Correlation
CORRELATION ANALYSIS:
Correlation is a statistical method used to determine whether a relationship
between variables exists. A variable here is characteristic of the population being
observed or measured
Types of Relationships:

1. Simple
2. Multiple

 Simple Relationship - in this relationship two variables are present, these are 
Independent Variables and Dependent Variables

    Independent Variables - are explanatory variables or predictor variables

    Dependent variables - are response variables

A simple relationship can be positive or negative.

 A positive relationship exists when either variable increases at the same

time or both decrease at the same time.
 A negative relationship exists as one variable increases the other variable
decreases or vice versa.

Types of Relationships:

1. Simple
2. Multiple

PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT OF CORRELATION:

          Pearson Product- Moment of Correlation or simply correlation
( Pearson r ) - It is the most widely used measure in statistics to measure the
degree of relationship between the linear related variables. The Pearson r
correlation would require both variables to be normally distributed. Correlation
refers to the departure of two random variables from independence.
         The correlation coefficient is defined as the covariance divided by the
standard deviation of the variables. This is the formula to be used:
4.3 Linear Regression Equation
SIMPLE LINEAR REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression Analysis is a simple statistical tool used to model the dependence
of a variable on one or more explanatory variables. It is the method used to
describe the nature of the relationship between variables, that is, either positive
or negative, linear, or nonlinear. This functional relationship may then be formally
stated as an equation, with associated statistical values that describe how well
this equation fits the data.
Simple linear regression is the least estimator of a linear regression model with
a single predictor. The least-square model determines a regression equation by
minimizing the sum of squares of the vertical distances between the actual y
values and the predicted values of y. meaning, simple linear regression fits a
straight line through the set of n points in such a way that makes the sum of
squared residuals of the model as small as possible. This method gives what is
generally known as the " best -fitting" line. The difference between an observed
value and the predicted value is called the residual. The mean of the residual is
always zero. The points that fall outside the overall pattern of the other points are
known as outliers.
In a scatterplot, there are scores whose removal greatly changes the regression
line which is called influential scores. In some cases, these scores are restricted
to points with extreme x - values. some influential scores. Some influential scores
may have a small residual but still, have a greater effect on the regression line
than scores with possibly larger residuals but average x - values.
The following are the formula that we will use for Regression Analysis;
5.1 Simple Interest
INTEREST( I ):

 It is the cost of the use of money.

 It is defined as the charge for using the borrowed money.
 It is an expense for the person who borrows money and an income for the
person who lends money.
 It is the fee or rent that lenders charge to borrowers for the temporary use of
the borrowed money.
 There are two types of interest the simple interest and the compound interest.

 Definition of Terms:
Principal amount(P) - the amount borrowed or saved.
Rate of Interest ( R ) - the percentage of the principal that will be charged for a
specified period ( daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.)
Loan Date - the first day of a loan.
Due Date ( or maturity date ) - the last day of the loan.
Maturity Value ( F )  - the total amount to be paid or received after a given
period of time.
Approximate Time - uses 30 days in every month.
Actual Time - uses the exact number of days in every specific month.
SIMPLE INTEREST:

 This is calculated only on the original principal amount and is paid at the end
of the loan period.
 The unit of time is usually expressed as annual interest rates. This means
that we will assume the interest rate to be annual unless specified.

 The following variables will be in the mathematical treatment of simple interest:

P - Principal amount of the loan or investment.
r - Annual rate of simple interest.
t - Time period ( term ) of the loan or investment.
I - Amount of interest paid or received.
F - Maturity value of the loan or investment

Determining the Time Period:

 To find the due date, we must determine the number of days in each month.
Then, we simply compute month by month, the number of days from one date
to another.
 If the loan date and maturity date are known, the number of days of the loan
can be calculated by using the days in each month.

Steps in Solving the Number of Days of a Loan:

1. Identify the number of days remaining in the first month by subtracting the loan
date from the number of days in a month.
2. Write the number of days in each month.
3. Write the number of days in the last month.
4. Add the days from the first month to the last month.
Note: The time t should be determined using the number of days involved. There
are two ways of determining the time period. It may be approximate or actual
time.
Examples:
1. What amount of interest will be charged on Php 7,300 borrowed for 3 years at
a simple interest rate of 12% per annum?
Given:
    P = Php 7,300    t = 3 years      r = 12% = 0.12
Required: Simple Interest ( I )
Solution:
    I = Prt
    I = (7,300)(0.12)(3)
    I = Php 2,628
Therefore the principal amount will earn an interest of Php 2,628.
2. Maris paid Php 9,250 on a loan made 6 months before at 12% simple interest.
Find the interest generated.
Given:
    F = Php 9,250      r = 12%        t = 6 months = 1/2 year = 0.5 year
Required: Interest
Solution:

3.  If a nine-month term deposit at a bank earns a simple interest rate of 9% per
annum, how much will have to be deposited to earn Php 225 of interest?
Given:  
     I = PHp225          r = 9% = 0.09            t = 9 months= 3/4 year = 0.75 years
Required:  Principal ( P )
Solution:
  P=I/rt=225/(0.09)(0.75)=Php3,333.33
Therefore, Php 3,333,33 must be placed in the nine-month term deposit to earn
Php 225 of interest.
4. What is the present value of Php 5,275 due in 6 months if 11% interest is
paid?
Given:
   F = Php 5,275            r = 11 % = 0.11            t = 6 months=1/2 year = 0.50
years
Solution:  F=P(1+rt)
                  P=F/1+rt
                      P=5,275/1+0.055=Php5,000
Then, the present value is Php 5,000.
5.1.1 Exact and Ordinary
Interest
EXACT AND ORDINARY INTEREST:
 Exact Interest - is computed in 365 days in a year as the time factor
denominator.
Ordinary Interest - is computed in 360 days in a year as the time factor
denominator.
Note:

 Banks and most other institutions still use ordinary interest because it
yields somewhat higher interest as compared to exact interest.
 If the time of interest is not specified in any problem, use the Banker's
Rule or the Ordinary Interest in Actual Time.
 Rate must be converted to a decimal or fraction before substituting any
formula.
 The time period is computed in terms of the year.

Remember:
1. Rate must be converted to a decimal or fraction before substituting any
formula.
2. The time period is computed in terms of years. This means that the time period
expresses in months or days must be converted to a fraction of a year before
being substituted into the formula for t unless stated otherwise.
3. Assume ordinary interest in actual time or banker's rule interest ( 360 days per
year ) unless stated otherwise
Examples:

1. Find the actual and approximate time from March 3, 2017, to

September 10, 2017.

Solution:
Hence, there are 191 days in actual time and 187 days in approximate time.

2. Find the actual and approximate time from November 18, 2015, to May
9, 2016.

Solution: Since 2016 is a Leap Year, the month of February contains 29 days in
the actual time. Thus we will have this solution.

There are 173 days in actual time while 171 days in approximate time.
3. Find the interest on Php28,700 at 7.3% from March 14, 2017, to August 16,
2017, using the following:
a.) ordinary interest using actual time
b.) ordinary interest using approximate time
c.) exact interest using actual time, and
d.) exact interest using approximate time?
Solution:
 Given:   P = Php 28,700           r = 7.3%= 0.073
Step 1: Determine the approximate and actual time of the term.

5.2 Compound Interest

Compound Interest:

  It is the procedure in which interest is periodically calculated and

added to the principal.
  The interest earned during a period is "converted" to principal at the
end of the period because the principal and the interest are combined
and treated as the new principal for the succeeding period.
 The effect of converting the interest to the principal is that the interest
earned in a period will also earn interest in all succeeding periods.
 The compound interest method is employed in virtually all instances
where the duration exceeds one year and it is all used in some short
term loan and investment.

Definition of Terms:
Conversion Period - it is the time interval between succeeding interest
calculations. It is also known as a compounding period or interval period.
Compound Frequency - it is the number of compounding that takes place in a
year. It is also known as the compound frequency.
Nominal Interest Rate - it is the stated annual interest rate on which the
compound interest calculation is based.
Effective Interest Rate - it is the equivalent annually compounded rate.
Periodic Interest Rate - it is the rate of interest earned in one conversion period.
Note:
The following variables will be in our mathematical treatment of compound
interest.
F = Maturity value of the loan or investment
P = Principal amount of the loan or investment
I =  The amount of interest paid or received
j = Nominal interest rate
m = Number of conversion per year.
t = Time period(term) of the loan or investment
i = Periodic interest rate
n = Number of conversions of the loan
r = Effective rate
Below are the common compounding frequencies and the corresponding
conversion periods.
Formula for Finding the Future Value of an Annuity
=R[(1+r/n)nt−1]/r/n
where A is the future value of the annuity
R is the regular periodic payment
r is the annual interest rate
n is the number of payments made per year
t is the term of the annuity in years

5.2.1 Nominal and Effective Rate

NOMINAL AND EFFECTIVE RATE:
   It was already mentioned that the nominal interest rate is the stated annual
interest on which the compound interest calculation is based. The word nominal
which means " in the name only" is appropriate because the nominal annual rate
of interest is not numerically equal to the actual rate of interest realized over a full
year.
  The effective interest rate is the equivalent annually compounded rate.
Note: 
     The standard practice for comparing nominal interest rates is to convert each
rate to its effective interest rate since the effective interest rate is the equivalent
annually compounded rate.

5.3 Stocks
Stock
When a company files legal papers to become a corporation, it is able to issue
stock.
If an investor purchases shares of stock, he or she becomes a part owner of the
company.
The investor is called a shareholder. When a company makes money, it distributes
part of the profit to its shareholders. This money is called a dividend.
 
Buying and Selling Stocks and Bonds
Stocks can be bought and sold on a stock exchange. The price of a stock varies
from day to day depending on the amount that investors are willing to pay for it.
Investors buy or sell stock through a stockbroker. The brokerage charges a fee,
called a commission, for the service of having their representatives buy or sell the
stock at an exchange.  Bonds can also be bought and sold like stock.
 
Mutual Funds
Investors often own a combination of stocks and bonds. The set of all stocks and
bonds owned is called an investor’s portfolio.  Sometimes a group of investors
hire a manager to handle their investments. The manager invests in stocks and
bonds, follows the activities of companies, and buys and sells in an attempt to
achieve maximum profit for the group. This type of investment is called a mutual
fund.
 
Stock Tables
These tables can be found in newspapers and online financial sites.
P/E Ratio
The P/E ratio of a stock is a comparison of the current selling price to the
company's earnings per share.  
 
Annual Earnings Per Share

AnnualEarningpershare=PrevclosePERatioAnnualEarningpershare=PrevclosePERati
o
 
Bonds
When an investor buys bonds, the investor is actually loaning money to the
company or government entity that issues the bonds. In exchange for lending that
money, the investor will receive a fixed return on his or her investment for a given
period of time.

Bonds also have a maturity date, which is the date that the interest is paid. In
some cases, no interest is paid until the maturity date, at which time the full
amount of interest is paid.
Coupon bonds, on the other hand, pay an annual or semiannual interest payment,
known as a coupon.
 
Examples 
 
A.  Use the following stock listing to answer the following question.

1. What was the highest price that the stock sold today?
Answer: The highest price for the day was P 129. 7  per share.
 
2.  What was the lowest price that the stock sold for today?
Answer: The lowest price for the day was P 127. 5  per share.
 
3.  What was the amount of the dividend per share that the company paid last
year?
Answer:  The  amount of the dividend per share that the company paid last year was P 
1.97
 
4.  If you own 682 shares, how much in dividends did you make last year?
Answer:  If you own 682 shares, you would have 682 (1.97) = P 1, 343. 54
 
5.  How many shares were traded yesterday?
Answer:  There were 400, 400 shares traded yesterday.
 
6.  
Find the annual earnings per share.
Answer:  P 133.6  / 45. 93  = P 2. 91

5.4 Summary of Topics

INTEREST( I ):

 It is the cost of the use of money.

 It is defined as the charge for using the borrowed money.
 It is an expense for the person who borrows money and an income for
the person who lends money.
 It is the fee or rent that lenders charge to borrowers for the temporary
use of the borrowed money.
 There are two types of interest the simple interest and the compound
interest.

 Definition of Terms:
Principal amount(P) - the amount borrowed or saved.
Rate of Interest ( R ) - the percentage of the principal that will be charged for a
specified period ( daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, etc.)
Loan Date - the first day of a loan.
Due Date ( or maturity date ) - the last day of the loan.
Maturity Value ( F )  - the total amount to be paid or received after a given period
of time.
Approximate Time - uses 30 days in every month.
Actual Time - uses the exact number of days in every specific month.
SIMPLE INTEREST:

 This is calculated only on the original principal amount and is paid at

the end of the loan period.
 The unit of time is usually expressed as annual interest rates. This
means that we will assume the interest rate to be annual unless
specified.
 The following variables will be in the mathematical treatment of simple interest:
P - Principal amount of the loan or investment.
r - Annual rate of simple interest.
t - Time period ( term ) of the loan or investment.
I - Amount of interest paid or received.
F - Maturity value of the loan or investment
Compound Interest:

  It is the procedure in which interest is periodically calculated and

added to the principal.
 The interest earned during a period is "converted" to principal at the
end of the period because the principal and the interest are combined
and treated as the new principal for the succeeding period.
 The effect of converting the interest to the principal is that the interest
earned in a period will also earn interest in all succeeding periods.
 The compound interest method is employed in virtually all instances
where the duration exceeds one year and it is all used in some short
term loan and investment.

Definition of Terms:
Conversion Period - it is the time interval between succeeding interest
calculations. It is also known as a compounding period or interval period.
Compound Frequency - it is the number of compounding that takes place in a
year. It is also known as the compound frequency.
Nominal Interest Rate - it is the stated annual interest rate on which the
compound interest calculation is based.
Effective Interest Rate - it is the equivalent annually compounded rate.
Periodic Interest Rate - it is the rate of interest earned in one conversion period.
Note:
The following variables will be in our mathematical treatment of compound
interest.
F = Maturity value of the loan or investment
P = Principal amount of the loan or investment
I =  The amount of interest paid or received
j = Nominal interest rate
m = Number of conversion per year.
t = Time period(term) of the loan or investment
i = Periodic interest rate
n = Number of conversions of the loan
r = Effective rate

6.1 Inequalities
6.2 Linear Inequalities: Solution
by Graphing
LINEAR INEQUALITIES:
   In graphing linear inequalities, we will use the intercept and the test point in
identifying the solution set.
STEPS IN GRAPHING INEQUALITIES:

1. Replace the inequality sign with an equal sign, then plot the graph of
the equation.
2. Select a test point lying in one of the half-planes determine by the
graph and substitute the values of x and y into the given inequality.
Apply the origin whenever possible.
3. If the inequality is satisfied, the graph of the inequality includes the
half-planes that contain the test point. Otherwise, the solution includes
the other half-plane not containing the test point.

Note: Use a dashed line for inequalities with less than (<) and greater than (>),
otherwise use a solid line to indicate that the line itself is part of the solution ( for
"≤≤" and "≥≥).

Examples: Sketch the graph of the following inequalities:

1. )  x > 5

        x = 5 
     use the test point ( 0 , 0 )
   x>5
      0 > 5 False   therefore the testpoint is not included in the solution.

2.) x+2y≥8x+2y≥8

Solution:

a. x + 2y = 8
b. use the test point ( x , y ) = ( 0 , 0 )

       when x = 0                                                             when y = 0
              x + 2y = 8  becomes                               x + 2y = 8 becomes
             0 + 2y = 8                                                      x + 2(0) = 8
                  2y2=822y2=8222 y 2 = 8 2                                          x = 8   hence the
point is ( 8, 0)
                       y = 4    hence the point is ( 0 , 4 )          

1. Substitute ( 0, 0) in the equation x+2y≥8x+2y≥8

                    then  equation becomes

                      0 + 2 ( 0 ) ≥≥8

                                     0 > 8 is false
                                      0 = 8 is also false, therefore the graph of the equation will
not include ( 0 , 0 )

3. Find the solution set of the given

inequalities x+2y≥4x+2y≥4 and 2x+y≤62x+y≤6

 here is the solution for these:

 For x+2y≥4x+2y≥4

a. use ( 0, 0 )

        0 + 2 ( 0) ≥≥4

                  0 > 4 is false and 0+4 is False, therefore ( 0 , 0 ) is not included as a

solution to these.

1. Substitute x = 0 in the equation  x+2y≥4x+2y≥4 and replace the

relationship symbol to equal.

         x + 2y  = 4
          0 + 2y = 4
                 2y2=422y2=42

                    y = 2 hence the point is ( 0 , 2 )

1. Substitute y = 0 in the equation  x+2y≥4x+2y≥4 and  replace the

relationship symbol to equal.

         x + 2y  = 4
         x + 2 ( 0 ) = 4
                       x = 4 hence the point is ( 4, 0 )

For 2x+y≤62x+y≤6

a. use ( 0, 0 )

        2(0) + 0 ≤≤ 6

                  0 < 6 is true and 0 = 4 is False, therefore ( 0 , 0 ) is not included as a

solution to these.

1. Substitute x = 0 in the equation  2x+y≤62x+y≤6 and replace the

relationship symbol to equal.

        2 x + y  = 6
          2 (0)  + y = 6
         y = 6 hence the point is ( 0 , 6)

1. Substitute y = 0 in the equation 2x+y≤62x+y≤6 and replace the

relationship symbol to equal.

       2 x + y  = 6
         2x + 0  = 6
                       x = 3 hence the point is ( 3, 0 )
 
         y = 6 hence the point is ( 0 , 6)

1. Substitute y = 0 in  the equation 2x+y≤62x+y≤6 and  replace the

relationship symbol to equal.

       2 x + y  = 6
         2x + 0  = 6
                       x = 3 hence the point is ( 3, 0 )
6.3 Geometry Of Linear
Programming
BASIC CONCEPTS ABOUT LINEAR PROGRAMMING:

 Linear programming is a  method of dealing with decision problems that

can be expressed as constrained linear models.
 The primary objectives of all Linear Programming are certainly of the
parameters and linearly of the objective function and all constraints.
 A mathematical technique for finding the best uses of an organization's
resources.
 It is initially referred to as "programming in a linear structure".
 It was renamed "linear programming in 1948 as suggested by Tjalling
Koopsmans.
 Programming means producing a plan or procedure that determines the
solution to a problem.
 Graphical Solution Method is a two-dimensional geometric analysis of
linear programming problems with two decision variables.
 Linear programming is a result of the Air Force research project
concerned with computing the most efficient and economical way to
distribute men, weapons, and supplies from different fronts during
World War II.
 Linear Graphical Solution is limited in a two dimensional set of axes.
 Graphing software applications can be used in three variables
corresponding to planes in a coordinate space ( three dimensional).

SOLVING LINEAR PROGRAMMING (LP)  PROBLEM GRAPHICALLY:

 A linear programming problem in two unknowns x and y in which we

are to determine the maximum and minimum values of linear
expressions.
 It needs an objective function which can be a minimum and a maximum in
the form:

        P=a1x+b1yP=a1x+b1y ( for maximization)                   

C=a1x+b1yC=a1x+b1y( for minimization )

 An objective function is subject to a number of Linear Constraints in the

form:  
                a2x+b2y≤ca2x+b2y≤c                or              a2x+b2y≥ca2x+b2y≥c          
or            a2x+b2y=ca2x+b2y=c

Objective Function - is an expression that shows the relationship between the
variables in the problem and the firm's goal.
Two Types of Constraints:

1. Structural Constraint - it is a limit on the availability of resources and it

is also known as an explicit constraint.
2. Non - negativity Constraint - it is the constraint that restricts all the
variables to zero and positive solution and it is also known as an implicit
constraint.

 Linear Programming Model:

Maximize:        P=1,200x+1,600yP=1,200x+1,600y           ⟹⟹          Objective

Function
Subject to:        3x+2y≤183x+2y≤18↘↘
                                  2x+4y≤202x+4y≤20   →→ Structural constraints
                                                      x≤5x≤5↗↗ 
                                    x≥0x≥0   ,  y≥0y≥0 ⟹⟹Non - negativity Constraints

OPTIMAL SOLUTION OF LP MODEL:

 Optimal Solution -is a combination of decision variable amounts that

yield the best possible value of the objective function and satisfy all the
constraints.

 Optimal Value - it is the highest ( for maximization problem ) or lowest

value ( for minimization problem ) of the objective function.
 Feasible Region  - it is the set of combinations of values for the
decision variables that satisfy the non-negativity conditions and all the
constraints simultaneously that is the allowable decisions.
 Extreme Points - are the corner of the feasible region, these are the
location of the maximum and minimum point of the feasible region.     

Fundamental Theorem of LP Problem:                    

   There are two things we need to consider in solving the LP problem such as:

 If a Linear Programming( LP ) problem has an optimal solution, there is

always at least one extreme point ( corner point ) solution of the
feasible region.
  A Linear programming ( LP ) problem with bounded, non-empty feasible
regions always contains an optimal solution.                 

Example: A local boutique produced two designs of gowns A and B have the
following materials available: 18 square meters of cotton, 20 square meters of silk,
and 5 square meters of wool. Design A requires the following;  2 square meters of
cotton, 2 square meters of silk, and 1 square meter of wool. Design B requires the
following: 2 square meters of cotton, 4 square meters of silk. If design A sells for
Php 1,200 and design B for Php 1,600, how many of each garment should the
boutique produce to obtain the maximum amount of money?
Solution:
Step 1: Represent the unknown in the problem.
Let x be the number of Design A
        y be the number of Design B
Step 2: Tabulate the data about the facts ( if necessary ).
Step 3: Formulate the objective function and constraints by restating the
information in mathematical form ( LP model)
     Objective function:    P =1,200x + 1,600y      (Maximize since asking for
maximum amount)

     The constraints are:            3x+2y≤183x+2y≤18         ⟹⟹Cotton

                                                                2x+4y≤202x+4y≤20     ⟹⟹Silk
                                                                                  x≤5x≤5       ⟹⟹Wool
                                                          x≥0x≥0    ,    y≥0y≥0        ⟹⟹Non-negativity
constraints
Note: P will denote that the LP model is maximization problem and C for
minimization problem.
Step 4: Plot the constraints of the LP problem on a graph, with design A  ( x )
shown on the horizontal axis and Design B  ( y ) on the vertical axis, using the
intercept rule.
Using the constraint for the cotton:

3x+2y≤183x+2y≤18, substitute the sign with equal                      

3x+2y=183x+2y=18, using intercept let x = 0.                    let y = 0
3(0) + 2y = 18                                                                                3x + 2 ( 0 ) = 18
              2y = 18                                                                                                 3x = 18
                  y=182=9y=182=9                                                                                
x=183=6x=183=6
then,  P1(0,9)P1(0,9)                                                                                
then, P2(6,0)P2(6,0)

 
Using the constraint for Silk:

2x+4y≤202x+4y≤20  , substitute the sign with equal

2x+4y=202x+4y=20 , using intercept let x = 0                                     let y = 0
2(0) + 4y = 20                                                                                                2x + 4 ( 0 )
= 20
             4y = 20                                                                                                             2x
= 20

              y=204=5y=204=5                                                                                      
x=202=10x=202=10 
 

then,  P3(0,5)P3(0,5)                                                                                        
then, P4(10,0)P4(10,0)

Using the constraint for Silk:

            x≤5x≤5  , substitute the sign with equal.

            x = 5 

then, P5(5,0)

Step 5:  From the graph on step 4 identify the feasible region. The feasible region
is the shaded part which is the dark green in color. The extreme points are the
points solved in step 4, which are points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. These points will be
used to solve for the unknown coordinates.
Step 6: Solve the intersection of the lines, which satisfies the feasible solution
simultaneously using the elimination method.

First Equation:      3x+2y=183x+2y=18

Second Equation:2x+4y=202x+4y=20,    using elimination method  we need to
eliminate one variable
 
2(  3x+2y=183x+2y=18 )  ⟹6x+4y=36⟹6x+4y=36
3( 2x+4y=202x+4y=20 )  ⟹⟹(-) 6x+12y=606x+12y=60

                                                                         -8y  =-24
                                                                              y = 3
Substitute y = 3 in the first equation, to find the intersection of the two
equations.

3x+2y=183x+2y=18
3x  + 2 ( 3 ) = 18
3x  +        6   = 18
                 3x = 18 - 6
                    x = 4, therefore the intersection of the first and second equation is ( 4,
3 ).
Now, let us determine the intersection of the first equation and the third
equation.

First Equation:   3x+2y=183x+2y=18

Third Equation:                 x = 5
 Substitute the third equation to the first equation.
3 ( 5 ) + 2y = 18
       15 + 2y = 18
                  2y = 18 - 15
                  2y = 3
                     y = 1.5 ,  therefore, the intersection of the first and third equations
is ( 5, 1.5 ).
Step 7: Substitute the coordinates at the extreme points on the feasible region to
the objective function.
              P =1,200x + 1,600y

 Step 8: Formulate the decision. Since the

coordinate ( 4, 3 )   will give the highest value
of Php 9,600. The decision will be to create 4 Design A and 3 Design B of gowns in order to
maximize the sales.