THE PROFESSIONAL BULLETIN OF ARMY HISTORY

ARMYHISTORY
SPRING 2022 PB20-22-2 No. 123 WASHINGTON, D.C.

AIR BRIDGE TO
THE ALLIES THE EVOLUTION
ESTABLISHING U.S. ARMY AIR FORCES OF COMBAT MEDIC
TRANSATLANTIC MOVEMENT IN TRAINING FOR THE
WORLD WAR II FUTURE BATTLEFIELD
BY JOHN M. CURATOLA BY GRANT T. HARWARD
 THE PROFESSIONAL BULLETIN OF ARMY HISTORY

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

In this Spring 2022 issue of Army History, we are excited to
JAMES C. MCCONVILLE present our readers with two interesting articles, a top-notch
General, United States Army
Chief of Staff
crop of book reviews, an examination of a rare artifact, and
a look at the U.S. Army Transportation Museum.
Official: The first article, by John Curatola, a history professor at
the Army’s School of Advanced Military Studies, examines
the development and implementation of an Allied air bridge
MARK F. AVERILL over the Atlantic Ocean. Part of Operation Bolero, the
Administrative Assistant
buildup of troops and materiel in the United Kingdom for
to the Secretary of the Army
2213001 the eventual invasion of mainland Europe, the air bridge
played an integral part in ferrying planes, personnel, and
equipment over the treacherous and U-boat infested waters
PAUL E. FUNK II
General, United States Army of the Atlantic. Included in this effort was the construction
Training and Doctrine Command of airfields and bases along the route to provide stopover
and navigational waypoints. Curatola deftly describes
Chief of Military History Managing Editor the harrowing journey as planes, crews, and passengers
Charles R. Bowery Jr. Bryan J. Hockensmith
successfully battled the elements and the limits of technology
Editor Layout and Design to establish an air bridge that would help the Allies achieve
Margaret J. B. McGarry Michael R. Gill ultimate victory.
Cartographer The second article, by Center of Military History historian
Matthew T. Boan Grant Harward, looks at the evolution of combat medic
training since the late twentieth century. Studying how
the Army reshaped the training of medics based on how
The U.S. Army Center of Military History publishes Army
History (ISSN 1546-5330) quarterly for the professional it thought the next war would be fought, Harward shows
development of Army historians and as Army educational how preparations for the potential mass casualty battles
and training literature. The bulletin is available at no cost to of an imagined third world war left the Army somewhat
interested Army officers, noncommissioned officers, soldiers, unprepared for the insurgency-type wars it was asked to
and civilian employees, as well as to individuals and offices that
directly support Army historical work or Army educational and fight in the early twenty-first century. Through adaptation
training programs. and a restructuring of the Army’s medical training programs,
Correspondence, including requests to be added to the distri- the Army hopes to produce flexible combat medics ready to
bution of free copies or to submit articles, should be addressed to
Managing Editor, Army History, U.S. Army Center of Military
tackle whatever kind of war the Army might face in the future.
History, 102 Fourth Ave., Fort Lesley J. McNair, DC 20319-5060, As we round out the second year of the COVID–19
or sent by email to usarmy.mcnair.cmh.mbx.army-history@ pandemic, I thank my coworkers for their patience and
army.mil. adaptability. Everyone on the small team here that publishes
Those individuals and institutions that do not qualify for free
copies may opt for paid subscriptions from the U.S. Government Army History has dealt with different struggles during this
Publishing Office. The cost of a subscription is $20 per year. Order period, but my teammates have never missed a beat. As the
by title and enter List ID as ARHIS. To order online, go to http:// recent invasion of Ukraine has shown, the importance of
bookstore.gpo.gov. To order by phone, call toll free 866-512-1800, military history and its applicability to today’s Army cannot
or in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area, 202-512-1800; by
fax, 202-512-2104; or by email, [email protected]. Send mail be understated. Army publications such as Military Review,
orders to U.S. Government Publishing Office, P.O. Box 979050, Parameters, Veritas, and Army History provide valuable
St. Louis, MO 63197-9000. information not just for enlisted soldiers and junior officers,
The opinions expressed in Army History are those of the authors, but also for Army senior leaders both in and out of uniform.
not the Department of Defense or its constituent elements. The
bulletin’s contents do not necessarily reflect official Army posi- We here at Army History strive to provide content that not
tions and do not supersede information in other official Army only entertains but also educates. Knowledge of the Army’s
publications or Army regulations. The bulletin is approved for history can be a powerful tool for decision makers at all levels.
official dissemination of material to keep the Army knowledgeable I remind our readers that we are not currently accepting
of developments in Army history and to enhance professional
development. The Department of the Army approved the use of article submissions, but we hope to reopen our call for them
funds for printing this publication on 7 September 1983. with either the Summer or Fall 2022 issue. At the moment,
The reproduction of images not obtained from federal sources we have a wealth of articles under review here and we
is prohibited. want to ensure that our potential authors receive prompt
Front cover:  Active duty trainees and reservists carry a simulated casualty responses from the Army History team.
under cover of smoke during a field training exercise at the end of the Basic Medical
Specialist Course in 1984. (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage) BRYAN J. HOCKENSMITH
MANAGING EDITOR
Back cover: A view of the Transportation Museum's rail pavilion (U.S. Army
Transportation Museum)
 SPRING  2022 ARMYHISTORY

CONTENTS
Features
THE CHIEF’S CORNER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
MOBILIZING FOR HISTORY
NEWS NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
MUSEUM FEATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
U.S. ARMY TRANSPORTATION MUSEUM
U.S. ARMY ARTIFACT SPOTLIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
PATTERN 1851 DRAGOON FROCK COAT AND CAP
BOOK REVIEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
CONGRESS’S OWN: A CANADIAN REGIMENT, THE CONTINENTAL ARMY, AND AMERICAN UNION
SOUTHERN GAMBIT: CORNWALLIS AND THE BRITISH MARCH TO YORKTOWN
FRIENDLY ENEMIES: SOLDIER FRATERNIZATION THROUGHOUT THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
A COMBAT ENGINEER WITH PATTON’S ARMY: THE FIGHT ACROSS EUROPE WITH THE 80TH “BLUE RIDGE” DIVISION IN
WORLD WAR II
THE BIG PICTURE: THE COLD WAR ON THE SMALL SCREEN
GEORGE C. MARSHALL AND THE EARLY COLD WAR: POLICY, POLITICS, AND SOCIETY

CHIEF HISTORIAN’S FOOTNOTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

THE ARMY’S HISTORICAL THINK TANK

Articles

06•
AIR BRIDGE TO THE ALLIES:
Establishing U.S. Army Air Forces Transatlantic Movement in World War II
BY JOHN M. CURATOLA

32•
THE EVOLUTION OF COMBAT MEDIC TR AINING
FOR THE FUTURE BATTLEFIELD
BY GRANT T. HARWARD
 THE CHIEF’S CORNER
CHARLES R. BOWERY JR.

MOBILIZING FOR HISTORY

“W ar, despite the immediacy of its demands for action,

stimulates an awareness of history.”1 So began an article
in the January 1944 issue of the American Historical Review about
This is a neat summary of the unheralded work of the command
historian, who can be not only a chronicler and keeper of
institutional memory, but also a valuable staff officer who thinks
preparations underway across the United States government to critically and offers deep expertise.
write histories of World War II. The author’s sentiments are still The Army makes history in its daily operations around the
relevant today, seventy-five years later, as the Center of Military world, and not just in combat operations. Five Military History
History begins to research and write official histories of U.S. Detachments and a number of command historians mobilized
Army operations around the world after 11 September 2001. To and deployed to document the Army’s role in responding to the
their immense credit, government officials and historians began COVID–19 pandemic, and Military History Detachments are
organizing the post–World War II historical effort as early as deployed today in multiple areas of operations to create records
1941, and the Army in particular mobilized a remarkable effort of training, joint and combined operations, and security force
to chronicle its global operations in the now-famous Green Books. assistance. Much of this record is classified, and in order to turn
The twenty-first-century counterpart to this series, nicknamed these documents into unclassified official histories, the Department
the Tan Books, is underway now. Researching and writing of Defense must invest in declassification programs. Otherwise, we
these official histories mark the end of a process that, ideally, run the risk of producing official histories decades after they have
has begun with command and unit historians, who create the ceased to be relevant to current programs, challenges, and national
primary source records for these authoritative accounts. Historian discourses. Part of CMH’s mission as the Army’s historical office is
Arthur Schlesinger wrote to Archibald MacLeish, the Librarian of to advocate for all of these capabilities. They are all key components
Congress, in September 1941 about the command historian’s role: of a mobilization to educate, inspire, and preserve.

I should like to see a “historian” or “archivist” attached to every

wartime agency, who would not only see to it that the routine
records are preserved, but that additional ones are created. This
official would make his own memoranda at staff meetings;
encourage officials to discuss their problems with him; try to
get them to keep a personal journal of their daily doings; and, Notes
1. “Plans for the Historiography of the United States in World War II,” American
in general, seek to capture data which might throw light on the Historical Review 49, no. 2 (Jan 1944): 243.
behind-the-scenes workings of the organization. 2 2. Ibid., 244.

4 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

New Publication From AUSA
The Association of the United States were awarded the Medal of Honor for their heroic actions in World War I. To date, a
Army (AUSA) recently released the latest service in World War II. dozen issues have been published, honoring
addition to its Medal of Honor series These full-color digital books are created such heroes as Audie Murphy, Mary Walker,
of graphic novels with Medal of Honor: by a talented team of professionals from Daniel Inouye, Henry Johnson, and Roy
Vernon Baker. First Lt. Vernon Baker led the comic book industry, and the details Benavidez.
his weapons platoon in an assault on Castle are vetted by professional historians. Each People can view the work or download a
Aghinolfi, a German strongpoint in the eight-page issue profiles a true American free copy at www.ausa.org/baker.
mountains of Italy, in April 1945. Baker hero, bringing to life the daring deeds
eliminated three machine gun positions, an and gallantry in action that distinguished Correction to Previous CAH News Note
observation post, and a dugout during the these individuals “above and beyond the In the Winter 2022 issue of Army History,
daylong battle. For his actions, he received call of duty.” we announced the upcoming Conference
a Distinguished Service Cross, which was The series started in October 2018 with of Army Historians (CAH). Because of
upgraded more than fifty years later when the release of Medal of Honor: Alvin York the ongoing COVID–19 pandemic, this
seven African American service members to commemorate the centennial of York’s conference will not be held in person, but
instead will be presented as a virtual event.
The conference will be held 18–21 July 2022,
and the theme will be “Evolving History
Informs an Uncertain Future.” The virtual
conference will be conducted in three
half-day increments with panels, workshops,
or paper presentations occurring in
simultaneous sessions of approximately
one hour in length. The hourly sessions will
run 1000–1100, 1115–1215, and 1300–1400
each day of the conference, with a couple
of twenty-minute plenary events added
in for keynote speakers. The conference
begins on 18 July with an administrative
troubleshooting day to ensure all conference
participants can access the virtual sessions
on the online platform (which will be
either Microsoft Teams or ZoomGov). The
Military History Coordinating Committee
will meet virtually at 1400 that same day.
The actual virtual conference sessions will
run 19–21 July.

5
 By John M. Curatola

Establishing U.S. Army

Air Forces Transatlantic
Movement in World War II
On 15 July 1942, a formation of six Lockheed P–38s and two B–17s from the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) made its way across the
northern Atlantic Ocean, heading for Great Britain.1 The eight aircraft were among the first units sent to Europe to fight against European
fascism as part of Operation Bolero, the World War II effort to build American combat power in the United Kingdom. Using the call
sign “Tomcat Flight,” the small P–38 twin-engine fighters were escorted by the larger four-engine B–17 bombers. Each bomber had a
navigator and radio operator aboard to shepherd their “little friends” on the long journey. Because this area of the globe was known
for its fickle and dangerous weather, aviators generally considered the summer months to be the best time of year to transverse the
expanse. Nevertheless, during the third leg of this particular journey, which ran from Greenland to Iceland, the North Atlantic weather
lived up to its unpredictable reputation. The formation ran into bad weather, experienced icing, and was unable to continue its eastward
journey. The pilots hoped to return to their point of departure at airfield Bluie West 8 in western Greenland, but the P–38s’ fuel status
showed otherwise.2 Because ditching in the frigid waters of the North Atlantic would be a death sentence, the crews decided to land
on a nearby ice cap on Greenland’s east coast.
The P–38s ran out of gas first, and the fuel-starved fighter planes tried to land on what appeared to be a solid sheet of ice. The first
plane attempted a normal landing with its gear in the down position. However, when the wheels touched the surface, the plane promptly
flipped over.3 What had appeared to be a frozen sheet of ice was actually a morass of slushy ice warmed by the summer sun.4 Fortunately,
the pilot survived the mishap. Seeing the upturned fighter, the other P–38s decided to make gear-up landings, which would allow them
to slide on the semihard surface. First Lt. Harry Smith, another of the P–38 pilots, throttled back his engines, put his fuel selector valve
to “cut off,” turned off his battery, and stalled his aircraft just as it touched down.5
When his plane hit the surface, Smith rode the fighter as if it were a twin-boomed toboggan, coming safely to a stop. He detached
his harness and annotated his logbook while the other fighters of the formation landed in the same fashion.6 The longer range B–17s
circled the grounded fighters and radioed their position to rescue personnel. When the bombers ran out of fuel, they also ditched in
the same manner. Rescued days later, Lieutenant Smith and the other aircrews lived to tell the account —the largest forced landing in
USAAF history—but this incident is only part of a much larger story.7

6 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 A C–87, fresh off the assembly line, sits on the runway.
(Library of Congress)

S mith and the other members of Tomcat

Flight were but a few of the thousands of
aircrews that traversed the Atlantic Ocean in
a great deal of attention to this deadly sea
battle, but the flight ferry process that linked
American production capacity and airpower
most visible. Similarly, projecting airpower
is a complex endeavor. A fleet of aircraft
requires numerous bases, with multiple
support of Allied operations during World with allies in all theaters has not received as runways, dozens of hangars and buildings,
War II. The Anglo-American alliance was a much scholarly attention. Yet the delivery maintenance equipment, and scaffolding.
strategic center of gravity during the global of the bounty of American manufacturing This fleet also needs skilled and competent
conflict, with the air bridge a reflection of the was a decisive factor in the Allied victory. mechanics, meteorologists, weather stations,
close partnership. Flights over the northern To move such large numbers of aircraft, the air traffic controllers, radio transmitters,
Atlantic were a key component of Opera- Allies were required to build a successful spare parts, bulk fuel farms, grease and
tion Bolero. However, the transatlantic air bridge across the Atlantic Ocean. At other lubricants, bowsers, navigation aids
movement was not limited to just the arctic that time, the Atlantic had been crossed by and beacons, security measures, and a host
route. The southern and central Atlantic airplanes fewer than one hundred times.8 of secondary requirements all connected to a
routes also played significant roles in the Most people doubted that an air bridge could healthy national aviation industry.9 Because
delivery of aircraft, personnel, and cargo be established. Given the history of interwar of America’s late entry into the war, many of
to every theater of the war and all parts of transatlantic air travel, the wartime feat was these requirements had to be designed, built,
the globe. Building this bridge was, in itself, only possible through an international effort and installed quickly so the United States
an endeavor. and the cooperation of civilian, government, could project American airpower not just
The ensuing Battle of the Atlantic and and military organizations. from North America, but also for the entire
the Allied naval convoys’ struggle with Airpower is more than just planes and globe, for the duration of the war. Much
the German U-boat fleets would become pilots. It is a system with many elements of the movement to the United Kingdom
the stuff of legend. Historians have given working in unison; the plane is merely the occurred within the Arctic Circle, where the

A P–38 and a B–17 from “Tomcat Flight,” having crash-landed on Greenland in July 1942
(Courtesy of Lostsquadron.org)

7
environment and remoteness complicated Because ground equipment and tractors
the simplest functions. Many of these same were in short supply, the Canadian ground
functions were also required in austere crews often towed the planes by hand or by
locations in Africa and South Asia that had a team of horses.13 The irony of using ancient
little in the way of established infrastructure. transportation to move twentieth-century
Ferrying aircraft via air instead of surface conveyances certainly was not lost on even
movement was the most expeditious means the most casual observer. When across
of getting airframes to overseas theaters. the border, the planes were refueled and
Although surface lift obviously carried more then flown to airfields throughout Canada.
cube and weight compared to airlift, moving This method, though functional, could not
planes via ship was exponentially slower. meet the increasing needs. By autumn 1941,
Airframes traveling by boat often took weeks Neutrality Act restrictions were reduced
instead of days because of weather, slow and the clandestine cross-border operations
sailing speeds, and tactics designed to evade suspended as Americans openly delivered
enemy threats. Additionally, in the early new aircraft to Canada.
years of America’s wartime participation, In November 1940, William Maxwell
military sealift was at a premium. Finding Aitken, Lord Beaverbrook, the Canadian-
enough strategic sealift was as problematic born British Minister of Aircraft Produc-
as airlift. Much like the American aviation tion, initiated an effort to f light ferry
industry, the nation’s shipyards also had to American bombers from the United States Lord Beaverbrook
increase production to meet the growing to Newfoundland and on to Scotland—a (Dutch National Archives)
wartime need. Flight ferry helped mitigate distance of 2,100 miles.14 The Air Ministry
this problem by precluding the use of objected and argued that flying planes from various walks of life, including retired
ships. Air ferry was often safer in periods over the Atlantic was impractical. The British Overseas Airways Corporation
of success for German U-boat “wolfpacks” ministry believed the best way to transport captains, bush pilots, barnstormers, crop
that coordinated attacks on convoys. During American-built aircraft overseas was in dusters, and, in some cases, aviators with
the German U-boat crews’ “second happy crates by ship.15 Despite this objection, and dubious backgrounds.16
time” in 1942, these pack attacks sent with the full support of Prime Minister As war clouds loomed, Lockheed Aircraft
significant amounts of Allied tonnage to Winston Churchill, Beaverbrook established Company signed a contract with the United
the bottom. In that year, aircraft sent via the Atlantic Ferry Organization (ATFERO). Kingdom for the delivery of 250 Hudson
surface suffered a 33 percent loss rate while Just after the famous Battle of Britain, and maritime patrol aircraft. This new design
flight ferry experienced a mere 3.7 percent.10 with the United Kingdom also fighting the replaced their old Avro Ansons of RAF
Furthermore, planes shipped via sealift Japanese in Asia, trained military avia- Coastal Command. As recommended by the
required preparation for the journey such tors were in short supply. As a result, the Air Ministry, more than 200 airframes were
as disassembly, cocooning, water proofing, ATFERO effort employed the best qualified crated up and moved by ship to the United
and embarkation. The opposite process civilian pilots, navigators, radio operators, Kingdom by summer 1940.17 However, as the
occurred upon delivery, thus delaying and aircrew it could find. Volunteers came idea of flight ferry across the Atlantic began
aircraft employment.
At the beginning of 1940, the United
States was keen on maintaining its perceived
neutrality in the growing global conflict.
Americans delivering aircraft from U.S.
factories to belligerent nations was an
international political concern. The various
interwar isolationist Neutrality Acts passed
by the U.S. Congress restricted or prohibited
arms sales and deliveries to nations in
conflict. Nevertheless, in the late winter,
to support the United Kingdom during
this first full year of the war, Americans
flew newly built planes to multiple airfields
adjacent to the Canadian border. In Pembia,
North Dakota, part of a farm’s acreage was
converted to an ad hoc airfield.11 Aircraft
landed on the farmer’s makeshift landing
strip, taxied within inches of the 49th parallel,
and then were towed across the border
by Canadian or Royal Air Force (RAF) A team of horses pulls a B–18 across the U.S.-Canadian border in 1940.
representatives at Emerson, Manitoba.12 (Winnepeg Free Press)

8 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 Prestwick
Ayr

Montreal Gander

Oporto
Bolling Azores
Field Lisbon

Basrah
Bermuda Cairo

Miami
A t l a n t i c O c e a n

San Juan

Borinoven
Field
Bathurst Maiduguri Al Fashir
Kano
Freetown
Piarco Fisherman’s Lake N’Djamena
Airfield Labos
Takoradi Acora

Belém
Leopoldville

Natal
ATLANTIC FERRYING AND TRANSPORT ROUTES
Prior to 7 December 1941

Ferrying Command Routes

Proposed Ferrying Command Routes
Pan American Contract Routes

to gain traction through Beaverbrook’s electronic directional aids were in place, and few towns, railroads, bridges, roads, or other
efforts, Lockheed had yet to deliver the with poor radio reception, dead reckoning constructed features to help the crews navi-
remaining fifty Hudsons. Serendipitously, in was the primary means of navigation.22 In gate and triangulate their positions visually.24
September 1940, Lockheed engineers modi- keeping with its unfortunate name, dead Departing Gander, the Hudsons flew
fied the remaining Hudsons for extended reckoning was more difficult in the upper in a loose formation for safety purposes.
range, which would allow the planes to cross latitudes because the magnetic variance However, when they hit a warm front and
the Atlantic. On 10 November 1940, seven near the North Pole easily could throw off encountered severe turbulence, the forma-
Hudsons were staged to leave California a compass by as much as thirty degrees. The tion broke up, with each crew continuing
for the 2,000-mile transatlantic journey to planes’ metal construction compounded individually. 25 Other problems surfaced
Gander, Newfoundland. These Lockheed this problem, adding another variance in during this first journey. Some individual
airframes constituted the first ATFERO compass deviation based on the type of planes experienced oil leaks, compass
mission. Ceremoniously, as the planes aircraft. failures, and electrical issues.26 One of the
took off, a military band played “Nearer, Weather conditions also increased the crewmen experienced a case of hypoxia—
My God, to Thee” to mark the inaugural potential for navigational error. Deter- the loss of consciousness due to oxygen
event.18 Taking off in ten-minute intervals, mining the plane’s wind drift, crab angle, deprivation—which was a regular danger
the aircrews included nine Americans, and true air speed without much meteo- on the northern route because aircraft often
six Brits, six Canadians, and one Austra- rological support added to the hazards of flew at higher altitudes to avoid icing condi-
lian, reflecting the nationalities of Allied the journey.23 Lack of weather observation tions. Above 10,000 feet, crews were at risk
membership.19 stations, reports, and other meteorological of hypoxia unless they had supplemental
The trip, from Newfoundland to Alder- services meant crews were flying into an oxygen equipment, which the Hudsons did
grove, Ireland, was fraught with danger: unknown environment that was as unpre- not have. During these early days of high
unpredictable weather, potential for icing, dictable as it was dangerous. Furthermore, altitude flying, before the widespread use
the possibility of mechanical failure, and navigation by pilotage, that is, using ground of oxygen masks, many crews used only a
the challenge of problematic navigation at features as way points, was limited because mouth-held tube for supplemental oxygen.
these latitudes.20 According to one veteran much of the flight was over large expanses Flying for some ten hours, and despite
pilot with thousands of prewar hours flying of open ocean. Even when the route was over all the inflight challenges, the seven aircraft
in Canada, “North of Goose Bay you can a land mass, reference points were distinctly successfully made it to Aldergrove. The last
throw the map away.”21 Before rudimentary absent. The wilderness and ice offered very Hudson landed by 1200 on 11 November, but

9
 wrote to Sir Charles F. A. Portal, Chief of
Staff of the RAF:

The present system whereby we bribe a

few American pilots to fly Machines over
will not touch the fringe of the problem
when we begin to get deliveries in really
big numbers. Ultimately we shall want
something of the order of at least 1,000
pilots on this job and that as far as I know is
a commitment which we have never faced
up to in our calculations.31

Planes continued to cross the Atlantic, but

the lack of aircrews added to the backlogs.
The slow return of aircrews from the United
Lockheed Hudsons in British markings. These planes were used for long-range Kingdom exacerbated the problem. After
maritime patrol duties early in the war. delivering a plane, the crew usually took a
(Imperial War Museum) boat back to the United States or Canada,
which could take up to a fortnight. As a
any feelings of accomplishment quickly were the first seven of the almost 15,000 total result of the shortage and unavailability of
dashed when the aircrews were ordered to aircraft that were f lown to the British qualified crews, in May 1941, east-to-west
return home—by ship!— by 1500 that same Isles via the North Atlantic route during f lights began to return aircrews to the
day.27 Dubious security precautions were the war.30 Over the next few months, this western hemisphere in a timelier manner.32
taken to hide the identities of the ATFERO initial flight was followed by the move- Slessor was not the only officer to note the
aircrews while they had lunch at a local ment of other aircraft, including the first deficiencies of ATFERO. The controversial
hotel. The hotel receptionist was told that the B–24 Liberator bomber in March 1941. former head of RAF Fighter Command,
men had just arrived from England, which Despite these early successes, by April Air Marshal Sir Hugh C. T. Dowding, was
must have seemed ridiculous. Some of the 1941, it became apparent that the ATFERO on his last assignment before retirement
men were wearing cowboy hats and boots, program was inadequate for the task. and working with the minister of aircraft
while others were in parkas.28 After lunch, Lacking sufficiently trained crews and production during early ferry operations.33
the crews embarked the vessel that would with a backlog of American-made aircraft While visiting Montreal in April 1941,
take them home. Reportedly, their spirits needing delivery to the United Kingdom, Dowding wrote Beaverbrook regarding the
rose when a member of the ship’s company ATFERO was in a crisis. After observing ATFERO effort. He mentioned his concern
treated them to scotch and sodas.29 ATFERO operations in the United States that “the organization is built upon an
This sortie was the first of four Hudson and Canada, Air Vice-Marshal John C. insecure foundation . . . [and] there are
movements that winter, and these were Slessor, head of Air Ministry Planning, competitive requirements for aerodromes,

Air Vice-Marshal Slessor Air Chief Marshal Portal Air Marshal Dowding
(Royal Air Force) (Dutch National Archives) (Imperial War Museum)

10 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 etc between ATFERO and the Canadian Air after Roosevelt’s mandate, 29 May, Olds officially came to pass on 30 December 1941,
Force.”34 President Franklin D. Roosevelt, was assigned as head of the new Air Corps just weeks after the United States’ official
too, expressed his anxiety regarding the Ferrying Command (ACFC). 39 Olds, no entry into World War II.
ATFERO effort and offered American assis- stranger to long distance f lying, was a ACFC’s first headquarters was set up in
tance in the ferry process. The president was veteran of two goodwill flights to South the basement of the Munitions Building in
eager to help the United Kingdom in its fight America, having flown B–17s to Buenos Washington, D.C. The room assigned to the
against the Axis Powers, despite Britain’s Aires in 1938 and Rio de Janeiro in 1939. For new command was a hot, humid, and dark
lack of financial resources. While his offer these feats, Olds received the Distinguished space, with windows unfortunately placed
was certainly welcome, Roosevelt stipulated Flying Cross, the Harmon and Mackay just above the local cafeteria’s trashcans.
that the handover of aircraft had to be made Trophies, and the Bronze Medal from the Whatever breeze came through the open
to military personnel.35 Given Roosevelt’s International League of Aviators.40 Tasked by windows carried with it the whiff of fetid
offer, his requirement for military receipt, Brig. Gen. Carl A. “Tooey” Spaatz as head of garbage.44 With only two regular officers,
and the problems with the current ATFERO the Air Corps Plans Division, Olds drafted five reserve officers, one civilian, and one
effort, Churchill took notice. On 20 July the new command’s mission statement for retiree, the small department generated
1941, the ATFERO effort officially was Arnold’s approval.41 After giving the matter orders and accomplished much of its early
handed over and absorbed into RAF Ferry some thought, Olds determined ACFC’s staff work by word of mouth, phone calls,
Command, with Air Chief Marshal Sir mission was twofold. First, ACFC was tasked or with hand-carried memos.45 From this
Fredrick W. Bowhill in charge.36 By October, “to move aircraft by air from factories to humble beginning, the initial ACFC staff
the Ferry Command began operations at a such terminals as may be designated by established the foundation for a global
large air base near Dorval, Quebec. [the] Chief of the Air Corps.”42 This was transportation network, and, over the next
Months earlier, on 11 March, the United more of a domestic mission, moving planes thirteen months, the command grew to a
States had passed the Lend-Lease Act, from factories to various points of overseas force of 11,000.46 Because the mission and
enabling the USAAF chief, Lt. Gen. Henry H.​ embarkation. The second mission included command had grown in both size and
“Hap” Arnold, to allow American pilots establishment of a military transport service responsibility, in June 1942, the USAAF
increased participation in the ferrying over the Atlantic between the United States restructured airlift operations under a
process. 37 The clandestine cross-border and the United Kingdom.43 The latter part new organization entitled Air Transport
movements were no longer required. On Command (ATC).
28 May 1941, President Roosevelt further While headquarters remained in Wash-
directed Arnold and the War Department ington, ACFC needed field personnel to
“to cut through all of the formalities that are manage aircraft and aircrew movement,
not legally prohibitive and help the British communicate take-off and arrival reports,
get this job done with dispatch.”38 Official coordinate with various airfield ground
American participation in the effort meant services like maintenance and refueling, and
a more robust and capable ferrying process.​ handle billing requirements.47 To accomplish
The first official American efforts in the these tasks, control officers were placed at
transatlantic air movement were under important locations along established air
the direction of Col. Robert Olds. The day routes.48 Given wide latitude and authority,

Robert Olds, shown here as a

lieutenant colonel, established Air
Corps Ferrying Command and was a
veteran of long-range flight. Twice
he flew American bombers to South
America in the 1930s. For his services,
he received the Distinguished Flying
Henry H. Arnold, shown here as a Cross and both the Mackay and
lieutenant general Harmon Trophies. General Spaatz
(U.S. Air Force) (Author’s Collection) (Library of Congress)

11
these officers worked with the aircraft and the modification process as part of the ferry during the winter months before other
aircrew to dispatch flights, provide weather route further complicated the manage- bases, navigation aids, and aviation
information and intelligence reports, adjust ment of airframes, aircrews, and support support services were established was
flight plans, and arrange the return of flight facilities. dangerous, if not suicidal.
crews once airframes were delivered. Control Within one month of the establishment Flying as a passenger was also risky.
officers were also located at aircraft factories of ACFC, the first U.S. transatlantic Ferrying aircrews to the United States on a
managing the departure of new airframes operations began. These initial f lights return flight from the United Kingdom, a
and at overseas debarkation sites including carried diplomats between the two conti- modified B–24 was heading westward on
Presque Isle, Maine, for the North Atlantic nents using modified B–24s with seating the northern route when it encountered bad
route and Morrison Field in West Palm Beach, for twenty installed in the aircraft’s bomb weather. With freezing temperatures and
Florida, for South Atlantic routes.49 Given the bay spaces. 52 These early shuttle flights, visible moisture, ice accumulated on the
complexity of the operation, ACFC eventually called the “Arnold Line,” had operations plane’s surfaces, increasing aircraft weight
divided itself into Domestic and Foreign running from Bolling Field near Wash- and impeding lift from the wings. Fighting
Wings, which respectively managed planes ington, D.C., to Montreal, then to Gander, this dangerous condition for hours, the
and crews operating either within the United Newfoundland, and across the Atlantic pilots climbed as high as 20,000 feet in hopes
States or internationally.50 to Prestwick (Ayr), Scotland. 53 Accom- of shedding the ice’s additional weight.55 The
While ACFC planned air routes and modations in the belly of the bomber were B–24’s crew donned their oxygen masks in
established flight priorities, many airframes hardly plush and usually uncomfortable. the cold, rarified air. However, the human
required modification based upon the route On-boa rd heaters of ten fa i led, a nd cargo, sitting in the belly of the aircraft,
determined and the anticipated theater of cold drafts seeped through gaps in the was without supplemental oxygen. At that
operations. Aircraft operating in desert airframe. Only one passenger at a time altitude, the passengers succumbed to
climes required dust-filtering systems; was permitted to smoke—a hardship at hypoxia and started passing out. The one
Pacific-bound planes needed fuel tanks the time—and then only on the f light remaining conscious passenger realized the
capable of using aromatic petrol; and deck. While initially carrying personnel, dangerous condition and notified the flight
airframes flying in the European Theater mail, and official correspondence, ACFC crew. Recognizing their mistake, the crew
of Operations or arctic regions could not and its successor organization ATC descended to a lower altitude with sufficient
operate without freeze-proof hydraulic eventually assumed responsibility for all oxygen.56 According to one account, after
systems, special carburetors, heating military air movement over the Atlantic.54 leveling off at 7,000 feet, the passengers
systems, and dozens of other modifications As the winter months approached, and cursed the flight crew, but the complaints
before the transatlantic journey. 51 This before the northern ferry route was fully eventually turned into “muttered prayers
logistical juggling act required establishing established, the Arnold Line suspended and thanks” that no one had been killed.57
special air depots at various locations for operations by 18 October 1941 after These early diplomatic movements
post-production modifications. Including twenty trips. Flying in these latitudes included flying future U.S. ambassador W.
Averell Harriman to the Soviet Union in
September 1941 to negotiate American lend-
lease support.58 In addition to moving people,
arranging the movement of equipment and
materials to the Soviet Union was a key
component in the American war effort and
also part of the ACFC/ATC mission. Because
the Wehrmacht occupied much of Europe
in the summer 1941, avoiding German
interception required flying Harriman and
his staff over 3,100 miles from the United
Kingdom by a circuitous route. After take-
off from Prestwick, two B–24s carrying the
diplomats flew north around Scandinavia,
then headed south to Arkhangelsk on the
White Sea coastline, and eventually on to
Moscow.59 The aircraft successfully landed
in the Soviet capital and delivered Harriman.
The flight served as an example of ACFC’s
reach, flexibility, and daring.
The return flights were even more impres-
Air crews, sitting in a C–87, occupy the spaces that normally carried bombs. The C–87s— sive. Ordered by Colonel Olds, the crews
passenger versions of the B–24 Liberator bombers—were notoriously cold and drafty, surveyed additional air routes back to the
with poorly working heaters. However, this was the most efficient way to bring crews United States during their trip home. Each
back to the United States after having delivered aircraft to the United Kingdom. crew flew a different course. Pilots Maj. Alva L.
(Imperial War Museum) Harvey and Lt. Louis T. Reichers each began

12 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 O P E R AT I O N B O L E R O
GREENLAND FERRY ROUTES
DAVIS Main Route
STRAIT Alternate Route
B LUIE W EST 8
DENMARK
STRAIT
847 M ile
s Reykjavik
ICELAND
s
774 M ile

iles
84 66
6M 0M
G R E AT
2M
ile
B LUIE W EST 1 ile
s s
100
B R I TA I N
s
ile
M
6 Stornoway
77
Prestwick
Goose Bay
ile
s DUBLIN LONDON
CANADA 9
M iles
56 2119 M
IRELAND

Presque Isle 645 M ile

s Gander

ATLANTIC OCEAN

their respective return journeys flying south from various West Coast factory locations
to Habbaniyah, Iraq. After this stop in the to the eastern seaboard.62 After Pearl Harbor
Middle East, Reichers turned west and took and the American entry into the war, this
an African–South American–Caribbean ferrying effort expanded appreciably to
route back to the United States.60 Meanwhile, both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters.63
Harvey turned east and flew over the Hindu Supporting the deployment of heav y
Kush to India and then leap-frogged to bombers overseas as new aircraft came
Burma, Australia, Wake Island, and Hawai’i. off the Boeing and Consolidated Aircraft
Returning to the continental United States, Company production lines, the USAAF Jacqueline Cochran
he landed at March Field, California, before initiated Project 32. This was a deliberate (National Archives)
returning to Bolling Field via Fort Worth, effort to furnish thirty-two new five-person
Texas.61 In this journey, Harvey and his crew ferry crews to move the estimated sixteen
circumnavigated the globe. new bombers coming out of American
At this time, most USAAF pilots trained airplane factories every month.64 Project
in single- or twin-engine aircraft, with 32 was followed by Project 50, the intent of
qualified four-engine flight crews in short which was to train crews for the new C–54
supply. As a result, 200 multiengine ferry and C–87 aircraft.65
crews began training at Barksdale Field, With the shortage of pilots early in the war,
Louisiana, to address the deficiency. These female pilots helped in the ferrying process.
new ferry crews moved some 1,350 aircraft The brainchild of Nancy H. Love, the first

A C–87 aircraft, designed to carry passengers, was used to transport diplomats during
the Arnold Line movements of 1941. A plane like this carried Ambassador W. Averell Nancy H. Love, founder of the Women’s
Harriman to the Soviet Union to negotiate the lend-lease agreements. Auxiliary Ferry Squadron
(Library of Congress) (Courtesy of Texas Women's University)

13
 WASPs, after ferrying B–26 medium bombers. Many crews feared these bombers
because of their high landing speeds and wing loading, but the WASPs routinely flew Caleb V. Hayes, shown here as a major
the notorious aircraft. general
(U.S. Air Force) (U.S. Air Force)
Women’s Auxiliary Ferry Squadron (WAFS) these requirements, which differed from the flew every airframe in the USAAF inventory.
was formed on 25 September 1942 at New requirements imposed upon men. Famous Of particular note, these pilots often ferried
Castle Army Airfield near Wilmington, aviator Jacqueline Cochran, who was well B–26 Marauders and B–29 Superfortresses,
Delaware.66 To be eligible for the program, connected politically and socially, was two airframes that had developed bad
the women were required to have a high placed in charge of the Women’s Auxiliary reputations among American aircrews.70
school diploma, a 200 horsepower rating, Service Pilots (WASP) School at Sweetwater, Prone to crashes, engine failure, and fires,
at least 500 hours of flying time, and a Texas, in August 1943.68 At the peak of the these bombers were dubbed “widow makers,”
commercial pilot’s license.67 Applicants program in April 1944, 303 WASPs served with male flight crews often reluctant to fly
also had to be between the ages of 21 and with ATC. 69 Although prohibited from them. To counter this perception, Arnold
35. Only a few hundred women could meet flying overseas or in combat, the WASPs deliberately tasked female crews to deliver

U NITE D
STAT E S O F
AM ERI C A

M o r r iso n Fie l d

H o mestea d

P U E R TO R ICO
Atlantic Ocean
B o r in quen FRENCH WEST A F R I C A
D ak ar

GO L D
Wa l l er Fiel d TR IN IDA D SIERR A COA ST
L EO NE
Atk in s o n
L IB ERIA
Hasti ngs
Accra
R ober ts
BR ITIS H
G U IA N A B elém

Natal

BR A ZIL Ascensi on
Island
S O U T H AT L A N T I C R O U T E S

14 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 A page from Major LeMay’s navigation log from his trip to Africa in October 1941.
LeMay was known for his navigation skills, and the comment in the remarks section
expresses light-hearted humor at his expense. Despite the signature, the author of
the comment remains unknown.
(Library of Congress)
a functional test flight by company and aircraft and supplies to Africa and Asia, this
USAAF pilots and crews before it could be airway connected the continental United
used in military service. However, passing States to Puerto Rico, the cities of Belém
the functional test flight did not necessarily and Natal in Brazil, and various airfields
Curtis E. LeMay, shown here as a major mean the plane was free of mechanical bugs in western Africa. Pioneering the route was
general or other technical maladies that might not Lt. Col. Caleb V. Hayes, who, like Olds, had
(U.S. Air Force) have been discovered in the short initial extensive experience in long-range flying
acceptance flights.71 Identifying a newly operations. Assisting him was a young Maj.
the planes to various bases where they would constructed aircraft’s defects or technical Curtis E. LeMay, already a well-respected
disembark from their cockpits in full view problems often took more than one hundred navigator, who later become famous for fire-
of men. Despite routinely outperforming hours of flight time. Because ferry crews flew bombing Japan and his unwavering support
their male counterparts, the WASPs were various aircraft, they often had to deal with for strategic bombardment. By November
disbanded in 1944, when the number of inflight emergencies with unfamiliar aircraft. 1941, the first ferried deliveries were made to
male pilots in the USAAF was deemed Although the northern Atlantic airway Cairo by ACFC via the southern route, and
sufficient. Unfortunately, it took decades was designated the primary route, the a month later, the path was extended all the
for their service to receive due recognition. USAAF established other paths between way to Al Basrah, Iraq.73
Ferry pilots flying factory-new machines the oceans. Even before the attack on Pearl While the northern route from Presque
faced challenges that differed from those Harbor on 7 December 1941, the ACFC Isle to the United Kingdom covered 2,700
faced by combat crews. Coming off the established a secondary, southern route miles, the southern route was considerably
production line, each new airframe required linking the two hemispheres.72 Providing longer. The distance from Miami to Brazil’s
Natal bulge alone was 4,000 miles. However,
flying over the Caribbean, aircrews could
rely on a number of islands and airstrips
for emergency landings or unscheduled
diversions. Crossing the narrowest part of
the Atlantic, crews landed at Freetown in
Sierra Leone, Liberia, or Bathurst in the
modern-day country of The Gambia.74 By
1942, the route also included Ascension
Island, which facilitated the movement of
twin-engine aircraft while adding more
flexibility for both aircrews and ACFC plan-
ners.75 The British, who owned Ascension
Island, allowed the United States to build a
(Library of Congress) 6,000-foot runway and supporting air base

15
 The uniform hat for Air Transport Command civilians was cut of the same material and
style as its military counterpart, but it had different insignia. Instead of the national
eagle, the Wright brothers’ monument is at the center of the wings, with the ATC Cyrus R. Smith, shown here as a major
acronym across the top. general
(U.S. Air Force) (National Archives)

on the small, isolated island. While the to leverage civilian airlines in support of served as the deputy commander for ATC.89
island was not necessarily hard to find, as the the war effort.83 After meeting with federal Furthermore, many of the civilians working
airfield had a navigation beacon, pilots flying business entities early on, both private busi- for ATC faced the same hazards as their
the route joked, “If I don’t hit Ascension, my ness entities and civilian airlines allowed uniformed counterparts, and approximately
wife will get a pension.”76 This south Atlantic the military to gain access to large civilian 200 of them became casualties.90
route became more important as weather flying boats and cargo aircraft, including In January 1942, Northeast Airlines
conditions precluded most aircraft from five Boeing Clipper planes, two Martin moved supplies to Presque Isle and Goose
flying the northern route.77 flying boats, and five Boeing Stratoliners.84 Bay and eventually to other bases, including
The first B–17s for the U.S. 8th Air Force Eventually, the military drafted half the some in the United Kingdom.91 Trans-
in the United Kingdom were dispatched domestic airliner fleet and about a quarter continental, Western Air, and American
on this route flying via Marrakesh.78 Once of the international airliners for wartime Airlines also provided lift support to various
across the Atlantic, planes were ferried to use. The civilian-military airlift cooperation points along the northern route. Along the
points north or continued across the African was an important element in the success of southern route, Pan American Airways
continent to Cairo. Many aircraft continued overseas and domestic movement. not only provided airlift services, but also
east to the China-Burma-India Theater. Not only did the civilian airframes served as an agent of the U.S. government
After the liberation of North Africa and support the war effort, but a third of the by overseeing the Airport Development
Sicily in 1943, a third route was established, airlines’ personnel also served. In 1942, Program and establishing aviation-related
which took a mid-Atlantic trek to Bermuda, civilian carriers provided 87 percent of air facilities in foreign countries.92 This was
the Azores, then into the Mediterranean.79 transportation.85 This percentage dropped especially important in a key location like
As early as 1942, this southern transatlantic by almost a third each year of the war and, Brazil that was apprehensive of the Allies
route was used to supply the Soviet Union by 1945, it stood at just 19 percent.86 Civilian using its airfields for military purposes.93
with 102 B–25 medium bombers.80 crews wore uniforms, although they were Pan American was so efficient in developing
Not all movement was done by military somewhat different from their military the southern route that it was open in sixty-
crews and aircraft. Given the demand for counterparts. Cut in the same manner as one days.94 Given the efforts of the civilian
long-range airframes and crews, civilian Army officers’ uniforms, civilian uniforms airline industry, one USAAF general officer
airlines took part in the transatlantic effort.81 had no rank insignia. Instead, their caps admitted, “If it had not been for their [the
At the beginning of U.S. involvement in were emblazoned with distinctive wings airlines’] wholehearted spirit of cooperation,
the war, ACFC had only eleven B–24s in and the letters “ATC.” Unlike their military it would have been nearly impossible as
its livery, along with a few dozen twin- counterparts, civilian crews were paid airline anything can be impossible for us to carry
engine aircraft.82 The bulk of long-distance wages.87 While many aircrews retained their out the job in the way it has been done.”95
transport aircraft in the United States civilian status, forty-seven top executives of Pan American’s efforts were especially
in 1941 belonged to civilian airlines. On the major airlines left civilian employment helpful with the first major movement of
13 December, just days after the attack on for a commission in the military services.88 bomber aircraft deploying to the China-
Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt issued Notably, the president of American Airlines, Burma-India Theater. Called Project X, this
an executive order authorizing Secretary of Cyrus R. Smith, was commissioned a colonel, movement leveraged the southern route
War Henry L. Stimson emergency authority eventually became a major general, and and utilized the bases built and funded by

16 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 those locations could be reached by rail, ship,
or road network. However, Greenland was
a different matter. After receiving approval
from the exiled Danish government in April
1941, American forces began to prepare
landing sites on the island.103 Despite the lack
of transportation infrastructure, in spring
1941, the United States began building a
5,000-foot airfield code named Bluie West 1
(BW-1) near the town of Narsarsuaq on the
west coast of Greenland.104 The first planes
landed at BW-1 in early 1942. While building
BW-1, the U.S. Coast Guard surveyed another
potential airfield 500 miles to the north.105
Construction on this second site began
in October. Providing a second, equally
long airstrip in Greenland, Bluie West 8
(BW-8) became operational in spring 1942.106
Initially intended as an alternate to BW-1 for
meteorological and overflow considerations,
An aerial view of Bluie West 1 over time BW-8 experienced better flying
(U.S. Air Force)
weather, which caused their roles to reverse
Pan American in both South America and a more permanent solution.100 Eventually, somewhat. BW-1 and BW-8 were, respec-
Africa. Undertaken in mid-December 1941, the USAAF established a weather support tively, 770 and 845 miles from Reykjavik,
Project X planned to supply the majority network from Maine to Iceland, with Iceland, and a similar distance from Goose
of fifteen LB–30s and sixty-five B–17s to the first station opening at Gander Lake, Bay, Canada.107 Traveling the route was now
various points in South Asia.96 Intended to Canada, in March 1941.101 Weather support feasible by modern, multiengine airframes.
help Lt. Gen. Douglas MacArthur defend became an international effort as it also To aid in navigation and provide updated
the Philippines from the Japanese invasion, included Canadian and Danish stations.102 weather information while flying to BW-8,
this flight was accomplished in two echelons. For the eastern part of the route, the United the USAAF built Bluie West 9 just off the
Traveling almost around the globe, the Kingdom provided similar meteorological western coast of Greenland on Simiutak
planes took a lengthy route, flying across the support for inbound aircraft. Island. Additionally, the U.S. built other bases
Atlantic to Khartoum, Cairo, Habbaniyah, Execution of Operation Bolero required on the island. Bluie East 2 at Ikateg was
Karachi, and then India.97 When it became airfield establishment and improvement. established in late 1942 on the eastern coast
apparent the U.S. defense of the Philippines Building bases in Canada, Iceland, and the of Greenland, with a 5,000-foot runway.108
would fail, the aircraft flew on to Darwin, United Kingdom was relatively simple as Complementing these bases, an emergency
Australia, to await further tasking. When
the North African Campaign against the
German Afrika Corps and Field Marshal
Erwin Rommel started, the southern route
was utilized for the movement of 120 B–34s,
153 A–28s, 45 B–26s, and 80 A–30s, flown by
RAF, USAAF, and Pan American aircrews.98
Developing the northern route not only
required new airfields and infrastructure,
but also myriad other services, including
meteorological support. As arctic air
moving south mixed with tropical masses
moving north, stationary fronts with
ice, turbulence, and thunderstorms often
emerged unexpectedly.99 To aid aviators
in avoiding such hazards, weather stations
with radio communications and forecasters
were required. Before the war, surface vessels
often radioed weather conditions, but after
hostilities began, surface vessels obeyed
radio silence and quit reporting. Occasion- Converted Trans World Airlines Stratoliner, “Apache,” after becoming the first aircraft
ally, U.S. Coast Guard cutters stationed to land at Bluie West 8, 20 April 1942
along the route helped, but ACFC required (World War II Database)

17
 P–38F Lightnings refuel in Iceland on their way to Britain.
(National Archives)

landing field, designated Bluie West 4 (also and improved conditions enabled the Army service the plane while the aircrew checked
known as Teague Field in honor of a pilot who to use the route year round. That same year, weather or updates for the next leg. When the
crash-landed there), was built in the summer more than 3,000 bombers, mostly B–17s, first pair of planes launched, the next set of
of 1942.109 took the northern route to the United aircraft arrived. Had all eight aircraft arrived
Furthermore, the Newfoundland airfield Kingdom. As facilities and conditions in simultaneously, each would have waited
of Goose Bay was improved by the addi- the north improved, the Marrakesh–United for servicing from ground personnel, thus
tion of rolled gravel to the landing strip. Kingdom route initially used by the 8th Air wasting time by sitting still.120 Of course, this
In addition, the United States provided Force bombers became less relevant.114 schedule was subject to change due to weather,
infrastructure support at the base to When ATC, commanded by Lt. Gen. mechanical problems, or in-flight emergen-
house American personnel and provide Harold L. George, absorbed ACFC, it cies. However, use of this basic process
maintenance spaces, fuel farms, and other assumed responsibility for all operations, maximized ground crews’ availability and
aviation-related services.110 By June 1942, facilities, and services along the overseas the use of associated facilities at the air bases.
a 6,000-foot steel-planked runway was in routes.115 Simultaneously, 8th Air Force It also reduced congestion in the airways, the
place with two more under construction.111 planners believed they had authority over all traffic pattern, and on the runways, taxiways,
More bases were added to the route with of their aircraft flying to Europe. As a result, and parking aprons.
Dow Field at Bangor, Maine, along with the there was a need to deconflict responsibili- The unsung heroes in the northern route
construction of Meeks and Patterson Fields ties between the two commands.116 8th Air were, of course, the ground crews and
near Reykjavik, Iceland, in early 1942.112 Just Force personnel were unfamiliar with the mechanics who worked for days at a time
as Bolero began to ramp up with the move- region and the unique requirements of flight in subzero temperatures. With temperatures
ment of the 8th Air Force, ACFC worked ferry operations, but were still responsible in the negative 30s and 40s, maintenance
with Northeast Airlines to install radio for their command’s deployment overseas. crews worked in shifts to allow their frozen
range navigation beacons with improved Given this situation, commanders decided hands and faces time to warm up. Given
communication facilities from the United that all lead aircraft for 8th Air Force forma- the tight spaces and tolerances in airframes
States to Scotland.113 tions during the transatlantic flight ferry and engines, working with gloves on was
Much of this work was done in order to process would be flown by ATC personnel. a problem, especially with smaller parts.
build up American forces in Europe for This unique arrangement resulted in a Exposed skin succumbed to frostbite quickly
both Operation Roundup, an early plan substantial drop in the accident rate.117 In and would freeze to metal parts. Mechanics
for the assault of the European continent 1942, 4.12 percent of aircraft on the northern often wore scarves over their noses and
via the English Channel, and Operation route were wrecked or lost, but by 1943, that mouths to prevent their lungs from freezing.
Pointblank, the strategic bombing effort number dropped to only 1.14 percent.118 Work efficiency dropped; what normally
over Germany. The USAAF’s 8th Air Force Key to the expedient movement of both took ten minutes might now take an hour.121
spearheaded the strategic bombing effort in airplanes and cargo was the use of a “conveyor Initial units, not individual aircraft, sent
the European Theater of Operations from belt method” of operations, which involved to the United Kingdom via the northern
its bases in the United Kingdom. Anxious flying a set number of aircraft at determined route were the 97th Bomb Group, the 1st and
to prove the efficacy of the newly framed intervals. This approach helped reduce 31st Pursuit Groups, the 5th Photo Recon-
concept of daylight strategic bombardment, congestion at airfields and facilitate the naissance Squadron, and the 5th Air Depot
the USAAF sent the first formations to workload of ground support personnel.119 For Group.122 Coinciding with the air movement,
England via the northern route in summer example, instead of eight aircraft showing the majority of these units’ men and ground
1942. By 1943, as American production up at once at a given location, two of the equipment went by surface transport from
ramped up and made more airframes eight might land at a two-hour interval. This New York City.123 Because only skeleton
available, greater infrastructure support interval allowed ground crews to refuel and crews ferried the planes to Europe, these

18 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 USAAF had estimated an overall 10 percent costs paid by these fliers. Interestingly, a full
loss rate for such an operation, the actual third of combat aircraft deploying to the
loss rate was only 5.2 percent.130 This is an United Kingdom were flown by ATC crews.
impressive record for the time, especially By the end of the war, ATC had grown
because these aircraft were piloted by from a small group of people in a dank,
combat crews and not ferry pilots. odor-filled room to a global transporta-
As American planes headed east and tion system that scheduled, managed,
reached British airspace, combat aircrews and tracked 3,705 aircraft, supported by
were often unfamiliar with British air traffic more than 200,000 military personnel
control procedures. In order to facilitate and 100,000 civilians.133 The command’s
communication and the safety of these global reach exceeded 160,000 miles, or
newly arriving aircraft, the Americans six times the circumference of the earth.
suggested that they should control the Each month, its personnel flew a total of
airway all the way into Britain.131 While 50 million miles.134 In 1944 alone, the last
this was certainly an unusual request of full year of the war, ATC crews flew over
a sovereign state, the armament would 600 million miles—equivalent to 25,000
facilitate the USAAF’s arrival. In addition, trips around the earth’s equator.135 As the
the United States requested two airfields to conflict ended, ATC aircraft were crossing
receive the incoming units, and asked that the Atlantic at a rate of one every thirteen
they be staffed only by American ground minutes and the Pacific at a rate of one
crews and other personnel. Understanding every thirty-seven.136 While all of these
the need, the British not only accepted the impressive statistics include ATC miles
proposal, but also granted the Americans for both theaters, the genesis of this global
General George four airfields. transportation network started in a single
(U.S. Air Force) By 1943, the air war over Europe became ACFC room, with a few officers trying to
a grim affair, with heavy bomber losses aver- figure out how to move aircraft from the
aviators were trained for combat missions aging 10 percent per mission. At this rate, United States to the United Kingdom.
rather than long-range ferry operations. statistically, the bomber crews would not Tomcat Flight, the initial movement
Before making the long journey, the crews survive to complete their required twenty- of combat aircraf t that traveled the
had received special training at Grenier Field, five missions. More and more replacement northern route in the summer of 1942,
New Hampshire, and Dow Field, Maine, personnel and machines were needed. included Lieutenant Smith and his P–38.
earlier that spring.124 Later, a unit of C–47s Various aircrews operated the planes flying Forgotten in the larger drama of the war,
from the 60th Transport Group was added. the northern route to the United Kingdom. the B–17s and P–38s that had ditched in
Conversely, the 31st Fighter Group’s single- Twenty-seven percent of the tactical units’ the ice were left in place and written off.
engine P–39s were determined unsuitable planes were flown by their assigned crews, In the ensuing years, the planes slowly
for the transatlantic trek and were shipped 38 percent flown by replacement crews, and disappeared from sight, swallowed by
by surface.125 Only weeks later, some of these the remaining 35 percent were flown by ATC snow and ice, becoming buried relics of a
crews would be in combat. On 17 August, personnel.132 The 38 percent represents the past war. However, some sixty years later,
the 97th made the first U.S. heavy bomber ferocity of the air war in 1943 and the tragic the story of the ill-fated formation came
raid of the war, attacking the Sotteville
railyards in Rouen, France, with British
Spitfires providing cover.126
The B–17s and P–38s took off from
Presque Isle on 23 June 1942 and all success-
fully landed at Goose Bay. Days later, they
headed for the Bluie West stations. Nine
B–17s reached their destinations, six turned
back, and three were forced to land on the
Greenland coast. However, by 1 July, the first
USAAF tactical aircraft landed at Prestwick,
Scotland.127 By the end of August, 386
aircraft had crossed the North Atlantic, and
by the end of the year, 920 had attempted
the journey, with 882 eventually reaching
their intended termini.128 The USAAF was
especially concerned about the small P–38
fighters making the journey. Fortunately, First Lt. Harry Smith’s P–38 was recovered from Greenland and made airworthy. Newly
173 of the 186 twin-engine airframes made dubbed “Glacier Girl,” the fighter has made celebrated appearances at airshows.
it to the United Kingdom.129 Although the (Courtesy of Planedave.net)

19
 at the Dawn of the Atomic Age, 1945–1950
to light again when a group of aviation (McFarland, 2015), examines the state of the
14. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate,
enthusiasts attempted to recover the now American nuclear monopoly after World The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, Plans
rare airframe. War II. His forthcoming book, Autumn of and Early Operations, January 1939 to August
In 1992, the Greenland Expedition Society Our Discontent: Fall 1949 and the Genesis of 1942 (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press,
located Smith’s fighter plane in Greenland NSC-68 (Naval Institute Press, 2022), follows 1948), 313; Davis, “ATFERO,” 72.
the events shaping American national se-
using ground-penetrating radar. The plane curity policy after the surprise of the Soviet
15. Davis, “ATFERO,” 72.
had shifted in the ice approximately two Union’s first atomic bomb test. 16. Ibid., 75.
miles from its original location and was 17. Christie, Ocean Bridge, 25.
buried twenty-five stories deep under 260 18. La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 9; Davis, “AT-
feet of ice.137 After digging through the FERO,” 75.
various layers accumulated over the past 19. Christie, Ocean Bridge, 57; Christopher Cole
sixty years, the recovery crew reached the Notes and Roderick Grant, But Not in Anger: The RAF in
abandoned aircraft entombed in ice and 1. Fredrick Johnsen, “Glacier Girl Survives the Transport Role (London: Ian Allen, 1979), 113.
rock. Over the next few weeks, piece by piece, its Own Ice Age,” General Aviation News, 20. Benjamin Paul Hegi, From Wright Field,
they brought the P–38 back to the surface 20 May 2018, https://generalaviationnews. Ohio, to Hokkaido, Japan: General Curtis E.
and sent it back to the United States. Starting com/2018/05/20/glacier-girl-sur vives-its- LeMay’s Letters to His Wife Helen, 1941–1945
in 1993, the badly bent aircraft slowly was own-ice-age/; “History of Glacier Girl,” P–38 (Denton: University of North Texas Press,
rebuilt with 80 percent of its original parts.138 National Association & Museum, n.d., https:// 2015), 42.
Almost a decade later, in October 2002, the p38assn.org/glaciergirl/history.htm (accessed 21. Reginald Cleveland, Air Transport at War
plane emerged from its reconstruction 25 May 2021). For simplicity, the terms U.S. (New York: Harper, 1946), 24.
hangar, once again airworthy. With new Army Air Force and U.S. Army Air Corps are 22. Hegi, From Wright Field, Ohio, to Hok-
nose art and now christened “Glacier Girl,” used interchangeably. kaido, Japan, 42.
Lieutenant Smith’s P–38 took to the air. 2. “History of Glacier Girl,” n.d. 23. LeMay and Kantor, Mission with LeMay,
Regularly appearing at air shows, Glacier 3. Ibid. 202.
Girl is now a living testament to the crews 4. Karen Jensen, “Iced Lightning,” Smithson- 24. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 25.
who braved the perils of the transatlantic ian Air and Space Magazine, Jan 1993; Franklyn E. 25. Cole and Grant, But Not in Anger, 112.
journey, helped defeat fascism, and laid Dailey Jr., “B–17s Guide P–38s to Greenland, 26. Ibid., 112–13; Davis, “ATFERO,” 76.
the foundations for an emerging global air Iceland, and Scotland in WWII,” Dailey In- 27. Cole and Grant, But Not in Anger, 113.
transportation network. ternational Publishers, n.d., https://daileyint. 28. Christie, Ocean Bridge, 57.
com/flying/flywar4.htm (accessed 5 May 2021). 29. Ibid; Cole and Grant, But Not in Anger, 113.
5. U.S. Army Air Corps, Pilots Flight Oper- 30. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea
Editor’s Note ating Instructions for Army Model P-38 Series Cate, The Army Air Forces in World War II,
An earlier, shorter version of this article was (n.d.; repr., Appleton, WI: Aviation Publications, vol. 7, Services Around the World (repr., Wash-
published on the Warbird News website on n.d.), 40. ington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983),
15 October 2021. Army History gratefully 6. Jensen, “Iced Lighting.” 113; Christie, Ocean Bridge, 60–62; Military
acknowledges Warbird Digest for permission 7. Ibid.; Carl A. Christie, Ocean Bridge: The Airlift Command Office of History (MACOH),
to reprint this expanded version. History of RAF Ferry Command (Toronto: Uni- Anything, Anytime, Anywhere: An Illustrated
versity of Toronto Press, 1997), 139–40. History of Military Airlift Command (Scott Air
Dr. John M. Curatola is a professor of 8. Christie, Ocean Bridge, 3. Force Base, IL: Headquarters Military Airlift
history at the U.S. Army School of Advanced 9. H. H. Arnold, Global Mission (repr., Blue Command, 1991), 21.
Military Studies at Fort Leavenworth, Kan- Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books, 1969), 291. 31. Sir John Slessor, The Central Blue: Rec-
sas. He served in uniform for twenty-two 10. Oliver La Farge, The Eagle in the Egg ollections and Ref lections (London: Cassell,
years and retired as a U.S. Marine Corps lieu- (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1949), 15. 1956), 335–56, as referenced in Christie, Ocean
tenant colonel in 2009. That same year, he
received his doctorate from the University 11. Kevin Rollason, “Emerson at War: Border Bridge, 82.
of Kansas. After teaching in the Department Communities Farmers Pulled Their Weight in 32. Davis, “ATFERO,” 79; Christie, Ocean
of Military History at the Army’s Command the Second World War, Dragging U.S.-Made Bridge, 89.
and General Staff College for eight years, he Fighter Planes Destined for the Allied Effort 33. Davis, “ATFERO,” 78; Christie, Ocean
moved to the School of Advanced Military in Canada,” Winnipeg Free Press, 9 Nov 2010, Bridge, 126.
Studies in 2016. His published works focus
on World War II, airpower, and the Cold War. https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/ 34. Ltr, Sir Hugh Dowding to Lord Beaver-
He has given a number of presentations field-of-schemes-emerson-at-war-564639352. brook, PRO AVIA 9/4 Dowding to Beaverbrook,
at venues such as the National Archives, html; Jeffrey Davis, “ATFERO: The Atlantic 9 Apr 1941, as referenced in Davis, “ATFERO,”
public libraries, and on podcasts; serves Ferry Organization,” Journal of Contemporary 79.
as a military adviser for the National Geo- History 20, no. 1 (Jan 1985): 75, https://jstor.org/ 35. Cole and Grant, But Not in Anger, 115;
graphic Channel; and has been featured in
nationally televised lectures on C-SPAN. His stable/260491. Davis, “ATFERO,” 82; Christie, Ocean Bridge,
work has been published in World War II 12. Christie, Ocean Bridge, 33. 90–91.
Magazine, the Marine Corps Gazette, and the 13. Rollason, “Emerson at War”; Curtis 36. Cole and Grant, But Not in Anger, 115;
scholarly journal Vulcan. His first book, Big- LeMay and Mackinlay Kantor, Mission with Davis, “ATFERO,” 78.
ger Bombs for a Brighter Tomorrow: The Stra- LeMay (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 200; Davis, 37. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
tegic Air Command and American War Plans
“ATFERO,” 75. World War II, vol. 1, 314; Martin Bowman,

20 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 USAAF Handbook, 1939-1945 (Mechanicsburg, Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, 6 Aug 2019, https://lend-lease.net/articles-en/
PA: Stackpole Books, 1997), 13; Wesley Frank 317–18; Dailey, “B–17s Guide P–38s to Green- the-b-25-mitchell-in-the-ussr/.
Craven and James Lea Cate, The Army Air land,” n.d. 81. Civil Aeronautics Association, Statisti-
Forces in World War II, vol. 6, Men and Planes 54. Hegi, From Wright Field, Ohio, to Hok- cal Handbook of Civil Aviation (Washington,
(repr., Washington, DC: Office of Air Force His- kaido, Japan, 39; Zamzow, “Ambassador of DC: Government Printing Office, 1958), 65,
tory, 1983), 303; MACOH, Anything, Anytime, American Airpower,” 68; Craven and Cate, 84, as referenced in Richard Paris Clark, “Air
Anywhere, 11. Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 7, 8. Transport for National Defense” (master’s thesis,
38. Ltr, Franklin D. Roosevelt to Henry L. 55. Edgar J. Wynn, Bombers Across (New University of Tennessee, 1959), 22; Cleveland,
Stimson, 28 May 1941, as referenced in Craven York: E. P. Dutton, 1944), 65. Air Transport at War, 19.
and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, 56. Ibid., 66. 82. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
vol. 1, 316; Arthur Larsen, “The Air Transport 57. Ibid. World War II, vol. 1, 352; ibid., vol. 7, 20; La
Command,” Minnesota History 26, no. 1 (Mar 58. V. O. Pechatnov, “Averell Harriman’s Mis- Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 2.
1945): 2; John W. Huston, American Airpower sion to Moscow,” Harriman Review 14, no. 3-4 83. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
Comes of Age: General H. Arnold’s World War (2003): x, https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-sa32-2490 World War II, vol. 1, 351; ibid., vol. 7, 21; Davis,
II Diaries (Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air (accessed 28 Jun 2021); La Farge, Eagle in the “ATFERO,” 8; MACOH, Anything, Anytime,
University Press, 2002), 178–79; La Farge, Eagle Egg, 24. Anywhere, 32.
in the Egg, 11. 59. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 84. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
39. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World World War II, vol. 1, 318; La Farge, Eagle in World War II, vol. 1, 351; ibid., vol. 7, 21; La Farge,
War II, vol. 1, 316; LeMay and Kantor, Mission the Egg, 24–25; MACOH, Anything, Anytime, Eagle in the Egg, 2.
with LeMay, 200; Scottie L. Zamzow, “Ambas- Anywhere, 12. 85. MACOH, Anything, Anytime, Anywhere,
sador of American Airpower: Major General 60. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 17.
Robert Olds” (thesis, School of Advanced Air World War II, vol. 1, 318; La Farge, Eagle in 86. Ibid., 36.
and Space Studies, 2008), 65; Craven and Cate, the Egg, 26. 87. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 96.
Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 7, 4, 8; 61. Ibid., 26–27. 88. Thomas Wolfe, Air Transportation Traffic
Robert Charles Owens, Creating Global Air Lift 62. MACOH, Anything, Anywhere, Anytime, Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950),
in the United States Air Force, 1945–1977: The 11–12; Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 151–52, as referenced in Clark, “Air Transport
Relationship of Power, Doctrine and Policy (Ann World War II, vol. 1, 316. for National Defense,” 22; Owens, Creating
Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation Services, 1994), 16; 63. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Global Air Lift in the United States Air Force, 23.
La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 11. World War II, vol. 7, 8. 89. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
40. Robert Olds is also the father of famed Air 64. Ibid., 32–33. World War II, vol. 7, 12; Cleveland, Air Transport
Force fighter pilot and ace Brig. Gen. Robin Olds. 65. Ibid., 35. at War, 7; Owens, Creating Global Air Lift in the
41. Referenced from an unpublished work in 66. La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 129; MACOH, United States Air Force, 23; MACOH, Anything,
Zamzow, “Ambassador of American Airpower,” Anything, Anytime, Anywhere, 30. Anytime, Anywhere, 29.
65–66. 67. La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 130; MACOH, 90. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 175.
42. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Anything, Anytime, Anywhere, 30. 91. Ibid., 11.
World War II, vol. 1, 316. 68. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 92. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
43. Ibid. World War II, vol. 6, 679; MACOH, Anything, World War II, vol. 1, 321–23; ibid., vol. 7, 11,
44. La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 15; Zamzow, Anytime, Anywhere, 30. 324; La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 17; MACOH,
“Ambassador of American Airpower,” 66. 69. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Anything, Anytime, Anywhere, 17.
45. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 6, 680. 93. Zamzow, “Ambassador of American Air-
World War II, vol. 7, 9; Cleveland, Air Transport 70. Ibid., 679. power,” 69, 77–79; MACOH, Anything, Anytime,
at War, 62. 71. Wynn, Bombers Across, 13. Anywhere, 12.
46. MACOH, Anything, Anytime, Anywhere, 72. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 94. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 173.
21. World War II, vol. 1, 319; ibid., vol. 7, 6. 95. Ibid., 28.
47. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 73. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 111. 96. La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 35; Craven
World War II, vol. 1, 330. 74. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War
48. Ibid., vol. 7, 10. World War II, vol. 1, 319. II, vol. 1, 332; MACOH, Anything, Anytime,
49. Ibid. 75. Ibid., 329; Larsen, “Air Transport Com- Anywhere, 15.
50. MACOH, Anything, Anytime, Anywhere, 12. mand,” 9. 97. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
51. La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 19; LeMay and 76. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, 332–33.
Kantor, Mission with LeMay, 200. World War II, vol. 7, 52. 98. Ibid., vol. 1, 340; Cleveland, Air Transport
52. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 77. Ibid., 97. at War, 187.
World War II, vol. 7, 8; Zamzow, “Ambassador 78. Ibid. 99. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
of American Airpower,” 68; MACOH, Anything, 79. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, 345; Zamzow, “Ambassa-
Anytime, Anywhere, 33. Passenger versions of World War II, vol. 1, 312. dor of American Airpower,” 71; Dailey, “B–17s
the B–24 eventually received the designation 80. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Guide P–38s to Greenland,” n.d.; Cleveland, Air
C–87, C–109, or LB–30. World War II, vol. 1, 338; Zamzow, “Ambas- Transport at War, 176–77.
53. MACOH, Anything, Anywhere, Anytime, sador of American Airpower,” 69; Aleksandr 100. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 176;
12; La Farge, Eagle in the Egg, 22; Craven and Akvilyanov, “The B-25 Mitchell in the USSR,” Dailey, “B–17s Guide P–38s to Greenland,” n.d.

21
 101. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Newfoundland & Labrador, n.d., https://www. 124. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
World War II, vol. 7, 321. heritage.nf.ca/articles/economy/commercial- World War II, vol. 1, 641.
102. Ibid., vol. 1, 345; ibid., vol. 7, 321; Christie, military-aviation.php (accessed 12 Jul 2021). 125. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
Ocean Bridge, 130. 111. Ibid. World War II, vol. 1, 641–42; Freeman, Mighty
103. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 112. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Eighth, 6–7.
World War II, vol. 1, 343. World War II, vol. 1, 344; Craven and Cate, Army 126. Carter and Mueller, Combat Chronol-
104. C. Peter Chen, “Bluie West One,” World Air Forces in World War II, vol. 7, 99. ogy, 33; “AAF Enters Combat from England,”
War II Database, Sep 2019, https://ww2db.com/ 113. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War National Museum of the United States Air
facility/Bluie_West_One. in Europe, 11. Force, n.d., http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil
105. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 114. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in (accessed 9 Jul 2021).
World War II, vol. 7, 93; ibid., vol. 1, 343; Davis, World War II, vol. 7, 99. 127. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in World
“ATFERO,” 130. 115. Ibid., 95; MACOH, Anything, Anytime, War II, vol. 1, 64, 644; Freeman, Mighty Eighth, 7;
106. C. Peter Chen, “Bluie West Eight,” World Anywhere, 19. Carter and Mueller, Combat Chronology, 24.
War II Database, Sep 2019, https://ww2db.com/ 116. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War 128. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in
facility/Bluie_West_Eight; Craven and Cate, in Europe, 81. World War II, vol. 1, 645.
Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 1, 343. 117. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in 129. Ibid.
107. Ibid; Christie, Ocean Bridge, 130; Dailey, World War II, vol. 7, 95. 130. Ibid.
“B–17s Guide P–38s to Greenland,” n.d.; Richard G. 118. Ibid., 100. 131. Ibid.
Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe 119. Owens, Creating Global Air Lift in the 132. Ibid., 99.
(Washington, DC: Center for Air Force History, United States Air Force, 20. 133. Ibid., vol. 7, 19; Wolfe, Air Transportation
1992), 82. 120. Ibid. Traffic Management, 143, in Clark, “Air Trans-
108. C. Peter Chen, “Bluie West Two,” World 121. Cleveland, Air Transport at War, 124. port for National Defense,” 24; Owens, Creating
War II Database, Jan 2020, https://ww2db.com/ 122. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in Global Air Lift in the United States Air Force, 18;
facility/Bluie_East_Two. World War II, vol. 1, 639. Roger Freeman, The MACOH, Anything, Anytime, Anywhere, 27.
109. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces Mighty Eighth: A History of the Units, Men, and 134. Larsen, “Air Transport Command,” 13.
in World War II, vol. 1, 345; C. Peter Chen, Machines of the US 8th Air Force (New York: 135. Ibid.
“Bluie West Four,” World War II Database, Orion Books, 1970), 6–7; Kit C. Carter and Rob- 136. MACOH, Anything, Anytime, Anywhere,
Dec 2019, https://ww2db.com/facility/Bluie ert Mueller, Combat Chronology, 1941–1945, U.S. 55.
_West_Four. Army Air Forces in World War II (Washington, 137. “The Expedition Begins,” P–38 National
110. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces DC: Center for Air Force History, 1991), 20. Association & Museum, n.d., https://p38assn.org/
in World War II, vol. 1, 346; Jenny Higgins, 123. Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces in glaciergirl/recovery.htm (accessed 10 Jul 2021).
“Commercial and Military Aviation,” Heritage World War II, vol. 1, 639. 138. Ibid.

The Center of Military History makes all issues of Army History

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the issues may be found at www.history.army.mil/armyhistory/
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22 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

AVAILABLE NOW

FROM CMH
23
 U.S. ARMY TR ANSPORTATION MUSEUM

By Alisha Hamel
T he U.S. Army Transportation Museum, located at Fort Eustis,
Virginia, provides premier Army history education to soldiers,
family members, and the public by creating and maintaining
exhibits and add exhibits on Operations Enduring Freedom
and Iraqi Freedom.
New exhibits include the “Pacific War during WWII,” “Vietnam
interesting and innovative exhibits, educational platforms, and Boat Art,” “Army Boats,” a Civil War mural, a holographic-type
collections to build esprit de corps and historical understanding. exhibit in the Korea exhibit area, an audio experience in the rail
The museum sits on more than five acres of land and includes pavilion, and an Army Futures exhibit showcasing a prototype
the 39,366-square-foot museum building, a 13,900-square-foot JLTV (joint light tactical vehicle). All videos in the museum
aviation pavilion, a 15,000-square-foot truck pavilion, an outside were revised and updated in 2021. New artifacts on display
marine (boat) park, and a rail yard covered by a 45,000-square- include a large aerial map of Fort Eustis, Virginia; a Gama Goat
foot pavilion. The museum also has a historical display at Fort six-wheeled off-road vehicle; and the only PBR (Patrol Boat,
Leonard Wood, Missouri, to educate its 88M (Motor Transport Riverine) in the Army Museum Enterprise. The newest exhibit
Operator) advanced individual training students and has added a was completed at the end of April 2022 and showcases the role of
new Transportation Museum annex pavilion at Fort Lee, Virginia, the Officer Candidate School (OCS) in developing new officers
to educate transportation officers and students located there. for the Army, especially during Vietnam. Many Vietnam-era
The Transportation Museum tells the story of Army Transportation Corps (TC) officers came through the TC OCS
transportation from the Revolutionary War through a new School at Fort Eustis from 1966 to 1968.
Futures exhibit. Visitors are immersed in life-sized dioramas The Transportation Museum also hosts many classes,
as they travel through time in the museum. The Transportation retirements, promotions, picnics, and ceremonies, including
Museum contains many one-of-a-kind artifacts, including the the awarding of the Bronze Star to Sp4c. Ronald Mallory, the
only remaining Vietnam-era gun truck, known as the Eve of driver of the gun truck involved in the February 1971 firefight
Destruction, and the only hovercraft to return from Vietnam. It in which Sp4c. Larry G. Dahl gave his life to save his fellow
also contains many experimental vehicles, including a ground- soldiers. Specialist Dahl is one of three Transportation Corps
effect machine and pieces of the Avrocar, the only “flying saucer” soldiers honored in the museum’s Medal of Honor exhibit. The
known to have actually flown. museum is open Monday through Saturday, 0900–1630, except
The museum started in the 1950s as a circus attraction and for federal holidays.
recruiting tool. By the early 1960s, it was situated in several
Alisha Hamel is the director of the U.S. Army Transportation Museum.
old warehouses. The current main gallery and administrative
building opened in 1976; additions in 2004 and 2012 extended
the indoor exhibition and storage area by more than 5,500 square
feet. This additional space allowed the staff to update existing

24 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

The walkway at the entrance to the U.S. Army Transportation The Delavon C. Clos auditorium is used for promotions,
Museum includes bricks commemorating the soldiers, retirements, changes of command and responsibility, classes,
organizations, and people that support the museum. offsite meetings, and monthly Brown Bag Lunch lectures.

While serving in Desert Storm, a unit packed up this full tent

and sent it directly to the museum. The exhibit even includes The museum’s marine yard includes a breakwater jack, a
the water bottles and food that the soldiers had with them in propeller, an anchor, an Army tugboat, an Army J boat, and a
theater. barge amphibious resupply cargo (BARC) vehicle.

25
 BARCs were used to transfer supplies from ship to shore when no port was available. This BARC was used for training at nearby Fort
Story and is now the largest Army boat on display at the museum.

Many museum visitors served or rode on Berlin duty train

cars, such as the one pictured here on the right, to traverse This experimental cargo 6x6 3-ton truck, produced in 1924, is
the Soviet-controlled corridors into Berlin after World War II. the forerunner of the 2½-ton cargo truck used during World
Also pictured: an ambulance rail car and an Army caboose. War II.

26 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

The truck pavilion tells the story of how vehicles improved over time, starting with the museum’s earliest Jeep.

The “Eve of Destruction” is the only gun truck that came back from Vietnam. The Army destroyed all of the other remaining gun
trucks in Vietnam because it did not expect to fight another war that required convoy security. Decades later, vehicle manufacturers
visited the museum to measure this iconic artifact so they could create the up-armored vehicles used in Iraq and Afghanistan.

27
 The story of the damage to this early example of an up-armored Humvee is told in an audio interview by the soldiers who were in
the Humvee when it was hit by an improvised explosive device. Because of the vehicle's armor, there were no casualties among the
soldiers riding in it.

The experimental cybernetic walking machine, which may have inspired the Star Wars “Imperial walker,” was commissioned in 1966
to advance soldiers in the battlefield. It was not put into production because of its excessive use of hydraulic fluid, but the Army
learned from it to make better machines.

28 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

In December, the museum tells the stories of how soldiers celebrated the holidays during each of the main conflicts. The Bird Dog
shown here was used as an observation aircraft during the conflicts in Korea and Vietnam.

This Black Hawk, which flew missions during Desert Storm, was upgraded to an executive model to be part of the Executive Flight
Detachment, a unit of the U.S. Army.

29
Pattern 1851
Dr agoon
Frock Coat
and Cap
By Robert J. Smith
F or the U.S. Army, the 1850s were a period of extensive
experimentation in the adoption of weapons, accoutrements,
and uniforms. The Pattern 1851 enlisted dragoon frock coat was the
a leather visor that measures 2¼ inches at the center. A chin strap
of black leather with a yellow metal buckle adorns the front of
the cap. A band of orange cloth encircles the lower portion of the
product of the Army’s desire to replace the Pattern 1833 dragoon cap, with a 1-inch yellow metal letter of the company (or troop)
coat. The 1833 jacket resembled that of earlier patterns and lagged prominently placed in the center. An orange pompom of 2¼-inch
far behind the latest European styles. The 1833 coat was to be worn diameter decorates the top of the shako. Below the pompom,
on all occasions, as dictated in the General Regulations for the measuring 1¾ inches wide, is a yellow metal eagle with wings
Army of the United States. Specifically, the jacket could be worn “on outstretched, clutching in its talons an olive branch and arrows.
certain duties off parade; to wit: at drills—inspections of barracks The Pattern 1851 dragoon frock coat and cap were worn by
and hospitals—courts of inquiry and boards—inspections of soldiers in the U.S. Army’s 1st and 2d Dragoon Regiments.
articles and necessaries—working parties and fatigue duties—and During their twenty-eight-year existence, these regiments
upon the march.”1 The Pattern 1851 was a radical departure in the served with distinction, guarding the Western territories and
look of the dragoon uniform. Inspired by the War Department’s earning battle honors in the Mexican War and the Seminoles
desire to update the Army’s uniform, the new design exhibited Campaign of the Indian Wars. The U.S. Cavalry Museum in Fort
a noticeable French influence. General Orders 31, dated 12 June Riley, Kansas, is privileged to have this beautifully preserved
1851, noted that for the enlisted, “the uniform shall be a single- antebellum uniform in its artifact collection.
breasted frock of dark blue cloth, with the skirt extending one-half
the distance from the top of the hip to the bend of the knee.”2
However, issuance of the newly prescribed Pattern 1851 uniform Dr. Robert J. Smith is the director of the Fort Riley Museum.
was uneven at best, with units being informed to wear the old
pattern until it was no longer serviceable. With the publication of
General Orders 1, dated 20 January 1854, the Pattern 1851 frock
coat became the regulation uniform for all units comprising the
Army’s mounted arm.3 Notes
The single-breasted frock coat retains the previous dragoon 1. U.S. War Department, General Regulations for the Army of the
coat’s orange facings on the stand-up collar, chevrons, and cuffs. United States, 1847 (Washington, DC: J. and G. S. Gideon, 1847), para.
The chevrons, constructed of either silk or worsted binding, 1012.
measure a ½-inch wide and are placed above the elbow. The coat 2. As quoted in Randy Steffen, The Horse Soldier, 1776–1943, vol. 2,
displays a row of nine yellow buttons placed at equal distances. The Frontier, the Mexican War, the Civil War, the Indian Wars, 1851–1880
The shoulder scales, worn for full-dress and parade duty, are made (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978), 6.
of sheet brass and attach to the coat by means of a shoulder stud. 3. John R. Elting and Michael J. McAfee, eds., Military Uniforms in
The shako (headgear), fashioned out of dark blue cloth, inclines America, vol. 3, Long Endure: the Civil War Period, 1852–1867 (Novato,
slightly downward from rear to front. The front of the cap features CA: Presidio Press, 1982), 4.

30 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

31
The Evolution of
Combat Medic Training for the
FUTURE BATTLEFIELD By Grant T. Harward

“W
e simply can’t expect to (MOS) training is the result of two major attendants for ambulances, wards, stations,
have absolute Vietnam-type overhauls of the 91B (Medical Specialist) and dispensaries. To enter the 91B MOS,
air superiority on a future MOS directed by the Office of the Surgeon medical corpsmen were required only to
battlefield. Our combat medics have to General (OTSG). This article shows how serve a minimum period (sometimes as little
provide critical, life support resuscitation training the combat medic for the future as three months at the height of the war) in
and care for several hours in preparation battlefield has developed since 1980. the 91A MOS. There was no separate AIT
for evacuation by either air or ground needed to advance. Medical specialists had
ambulances.”1 Other than the reference to Background two main skill levels: 91B20 for specialists
Vietnam, this sounds like something Maj. In the Vietnam War era, combat medics third class, corporals, specialists second
Gen. Dennis P. LeMaster, the commander were concentrated in the 91B MOS, which class, and sergeants; and 91B30 for specialists
of the Medical Center of Excellence, could was closely associated with the 91A (Medical first class and staff sergeants. These soldiers
say today; however, Brig. Gen. Robert H. Corpsman) MOS. After basic training, received some on-the-job training while
Buker, the commandant of the Academy potential combat medics attended ten performing Skill Level 2 duties as aidmen
of Health Sciences (AHS), the forerunner weeks of advanced individual training (already more colloquially known as combat
to the Medical Center of Excellence, (AIT) before joining the 91A MOS. During medics), ward specialists, or dispensary
said it in 1982. The situations facing the AIT, students learned basic healthcare and assistants or while performing Skill Level 3
Army Medical Department (AMEDD) hygiene as well as how to administer shots; duties as senior aidmen, air ambulance
at the “home of the combat medic” at draw blood; start intravenous therapy; aidmen, senior ward specia lists, or
Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in the post- administer splints; treat gunshot wounds, dispensary specialists. Additional AIT was
Vietnam and post–Iraq and Afghanistan head wounds, amputations, shock, and required to reach the next skill level, 91B40,
periods are analogous. After fighting a burns; fix shoulder dislocations; perform but Skill Level 4 training primarily focused
counterinsurgency against a guerrilla cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and on instructing sergeants first class in how
enemy, the Army refocused on preparing tracheotomies; treat venereal diseases and to supervise other soldiers. (At this time,
to fight a conventional war against a regular seizures; and suture.2 Medical corpsmen had all Skill Level 5 soldiers in the AMEDD
enemy. Today’s 68W (Combat Medic only one skill level, 91A10, for privates and were grouped into the 91Z [Medical Senior
Specialist) military occupational specialty privates first class with duties as orderlies or Sergeant] MOS.) The 91B duties were

32 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 Education System (NCOES) in 1972,
prompting some changes to the Primary
Leadership Development Course, which
was required for promotion to sergeant. In
1973, the AHS introduced the new eight-
week 513–F2 AMEDD NCO Basic Course.
It joined the fifteen-week 513–F1 AMEDD
NCO Course, now redesignated as the
513–F1 AMEDD NCO Advanced Course.6
Both courses consisted primarily of leader-
ship training taught by officer instructors,
but they also included some MOS-specific
technical training taught by NCO instruc-
tors. In 1974, the AHS redesignated these
two classes as the 6–8–C40 AMEDD NCO
Basic (NCOES) Course for promotion to
staff sergeant and the 6–8–C42 AMEDD
NCO Advanced (NCOES) Course for
promotion to master sergeant or first
Vietnam-era aeromedical evacuation training at Fort Sam Houston sergeant. They were commonly referred to
(U.S. Army)
simply as the Basic NCO Course (BNCOC)
divided into two broad categories: dealing certified.5 The Army’s recently adopted Total and the Advanced NCO Course (ANCOC).
with the field or associated with hospitals. Force Policy caused the AHS to rush out Both the BNCOC and the ANCOC were
The 91A training was meant to prepare an exportable 91B10 course to retrain prior taught in-residence at the AHS by AMEDD
soldiers for either realm.3 service reserve enlisted personnel to the new personnel. The Sergeants Major Academy
The separate 91A MOS made sense for a civilian EMT standard. rounded out the NCOES, providing training
draftee army, when most soldiers left the At the same time, NCO training for the in supervision for promotion to sergeant
ranks after fulfilling the mandatory two-year AMEDD was restructured. The Army had major. Later, in 1977, the AHS revised the
obligation and never became noncommis- created the Noncommissioned Officer ANCOC. It became a ten-week common
sioned officers (NCOs), but not for the new
all-volunteer force after conscription ended
in 1973. The OTSG decided to integrate the
91A MOS into the 91B MOS and directed
the AHS to overhaul the training for combat
medics. In May 1974, all 91A10 medical
corpsmen became 91B10 medical special-
ists. Concurrently, the AHS introduced the
300–91B10 Medical Specialist Course. This
eight-week course taught basic medical
skills to future combat medics. Soldiers
preparing for other MOSs—91C (Clinical
Specialist), 91D (Operating Room Specialist),
91S (Preventive Medicine Specialist), 92B
(Medical Laboratory Specialist), and 42D
(Dental Laboratory Specialist)—also took
the 91B10 course as a prerequisite for the AIT
in their respective specialties. The AHS also
created an accelerated four-week version of
the course for licensed registered nurses
entering the 91C MOS.4 In January 1975,
the 91B10 course added emergency medical
technician (EMT) training to its curriculum.
All students received 90 percent of the
standard Texas EMT training in 120 hours
and earned a certificate for completing the
academic EMT requirements. Only the top The cover of a 1980 field manual features a drawing of the recently erected Combat
20 percent of each 91B10 course qualified to Medic Memorial at Fort Sam Houston. The statue and the manual were part of the
take the remaining forty hours of voluntary AMEDD’s shift in focus from hospital to field care.
on-the-job EMT training to become fully (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)

33
 Specialist (ISD) Course in 1978.9 The new
BASIC TRAINING 91B10 course was whittled down from
eight weeks to only six by dropping mate-
rials that the AHS deemed unnecessary.
91D10 The course broke down the necessary skills
into sixty-five tasks, listed in the critical
91S10 order to preserve life and give immediate
92B10 92F10 aid. Students had to learn these tasks in
91T10 Basic AMEDD Core 91G10 succession. (When 91B soldiers progressed
91E10 to higher skill-level training, they would
Basic Medical 91H10 gain a more sophisticated understanding
42D10 of the body through new tasks.) NCO
Specialist Course 91J10
42E10 instructors, now known as “facilitators of
(10 Weeks) 91L10
35G10 learning,” taught mainly from prepared
71G10 91N10 teaching materials, consisting mostly of
audiovisual cassettes played on a televi-
76J10 91P10
sion, to which they could add from their
91Q10 own experience. Each NCO instructor
91U10 was assigned fourteen students for the
91V10 whole ISD 91B10 course and would teach
all sixty-five tasks, supervising the perfor-
42C10
mance of each one. The following year,
the AHS added a skill qualification test,
which evaluated learning through both a
performance exam and a written exam.10
In 1980, an exportable ISD 91B10 course
was rolled out to the reserve compo-
nent. Unexpectedly, just as the AMEDD
AMEDD 91B10 AMEDD finished integrating the ISD approach, the
Duties Duties Duties Army introduced a new vision that neces-
sitated significant changes to training for
combat medics.

Preparing for World War III

In 1981, the Army announced plans to
91C20/30 91B20/30 refocus on preparing to fight the Soviet
Course Army in Europe and, more importantly,
Course
it received massive new funding to build
up and retrain its forces to accomplish
A recreation of a 1981 flow chart shows the importance of the expanded Basic Medical this mission. AMEDD planners imagined
Specialist Course, or Basic AMEDD Core, that nearly all recruits in medical MOSs had to this future battlefield as a nightmarish
take after the introduction of AirLand Battle.
place with massive casualties inf licted
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)
by newer and deadlier weapons, spread
base course for all medical MOSs with an skill level, in other words, just enough across a wider area than ever before, and
extra two weeks of MOS-specific technical information to perform the job intel- without the air supremacy necessary
training for 91B students.7 ligently and safely. “If someone breaks a for quick air evacuation by helicopter
After the introduction in 1974 of the leg, we are teaching our 91B10 medics how during the “golden hour”—the first sixty
Enlisted Personnel Management System to properly splint the leg without teaching minutes after a major traumatic injury,
(the total process supporting the Army’s them the whole body system,” said Capt. when prompt medical care is most liable
personnel readiness and the soldier’s Paul Richter, the administrative officer to help a patient survive. Combat medics
professional development and personal of the Training Development and Evalu- would have to operate isolated and care
welfare), the OTSG reassessed not just ation Directorate at the AHS.8 ISD also for wounded or injured soldiers for
what was being taught but how it was being determined what tasks were learned best many hours before they either could be
taught to AMEDD enlisted personnel. The in a classroom versus in a work setting. evacuated by a ground ambulance or the
AMEDD adopted Instructional Systems ISD instructors were not supposed to be scene became safe enough to transport
Development (ISD) practices created by mere lecturers, and ISD students were not them by an air ambulance. The OTSG
the Army. ISD emphasized hands-on supposed to be just listeners. The AHS decided to change training for combat
training. Instructors taught students only replaced the 300–91B10 Medical Specialist medics radically, so the AMEDD could
the knowledge they would need for each Course with the 300–91B10 Basic Medical fulfill its mission to conserve fighting

34 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

strength in this potentially apocalyptic
clash between the United States and the
Soviet Union.
In June 1981, the AMEDD announced
sweeping changes to the 91B MOS—by
then the third largest MOS in the Army,
with 17,000 active and 33,000 reserve
soldiers—which were designed to improve
training and career progression for combat
medics. The AHS would expand the 91B10
course dramatically and introduce a 91B30
course to train 91B soldiers to a much higher
skill level in field medicine. Furthermore,
these “Super B” soldiers would receive more
training in nursing tasks, allowing them to
take over positions as hospital aids from
91C soldiers. In 1979, 91C courses were
also restructured along ISD lines. Previ-
ously, clinical specialists started out at Skill
Level 2 and became Skill Level 3 licensed Medical specialists wear gas masks to practice decontaminating a patient during
practical nurses after forty weeks in the a simulated chemical attack as part of a field training exercise in 1984. Nuclear,
300–91C30 Clinical Specialist (Practical biological, and chemical warfare were a major concern of a possible third world war.
Nurse) Course. Under ISD, Skill Level 1 (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)
was created, requiring completion of the
six-week 300–91C10 Clinical Specialist disorders; alcohol and drug abuse; head for those trained as Special Forces combat
(Primary Technical) Course.11 Now, the and cold injuries; and nursing procedures. medics) as 91A soldiers. The 91B soldiers
AMEDD planned to eliminate this course The course culminated in a three-day field who were staff sergeants and above would be
and convert 91C10 soldiers to 91B10 soldiers. training exercise. The AMEDD dubbed this grandfathered into the 91B MOS and receive
Additionally, newly trained 91B20 and 91B10 course the “Basic AMEDD Core.” All extra training to meet the new standard.
91B30 soldiers, primarily in outpatient and soldiers in the AMEDD—including those As General Buker explained, “The 91A/B is
ambulatory care facility positions, would in 91B, 91C, and twelve additional medical really one career field. We are simply using
replace some 91C20 and 91C30 soldiers.12 MOSs—were required to complete the the difference in MOS rather than a skill
The AHS aimed to train the combat medics course as part of AIT in their respective identifier to indicate level of training.”15 The
to sustain a casualty for up to six (and, later, fields. Recruits who wanted to join the 91C 91A MOS would have Skill Levels 1 and
ten) hours on the future battlefield. MOS, however, not only had to pass the 2, whereas the 91B MOS would have Skill
In 1982, the Army introduced AirLand Basic AMEDD Core but also had to perform Levels 2, 3, 4, and 5. Therefore, after basic
Battle as the doctrine guiding development 91B10 duties before taking the 91C advanced training, soldiers would join the 91A MOS
and training. In October of that year, the course. Additionally, the AHS began work for AIT, and then, near the end of their first
AMEDD began the first of a three-phased on the 91B30 course. “The skills taught will enlistments, they would choose to take
personnel plan to restructure the 91B MOS be similar to those of civilian paramedics,” advanced training either in the 91B MOS
over the next two years. Phase 1 converted reported Lt. Col. Zula Johnston, the deputy as a combat medic or in the 91C MOS as
91C10 soldiers to 91B10 soldiers. The AHS chief of the Combat Medical Specialist a practical nurse. The OTSG confronted a
dropped the 300–91B10 Basic Medical Division at the AHS. “They will be used in problem that threatened to derail its plans.
Specialist (ISD) Course and began teaching the emergency room for pre-hospital care An initial “Women in the Army” study
the 300–91B10 Basic Medical Specialist and in a hospital clinic setting.”13 Until the determined the physical demands for the
Course, which had increased in duration 91B30 course was finished, the AHS initiated 91B MOS were “very heavy,” which would
from six to ten weeks. This expanded a 91B/91C program, enrolling 91B soldiers cause the deputy chief of staff for personnel
course began with a new four-week general into the 91C10 course to provide new to restrict women from the MOS. As a result,
medical orientation, which introduced the training in nursing skills to combat medics.14 the OTSG delayed beginning the conver-
topics of emergency procedures, anatomy The OTSG quickly determined that it sion for a year while it lobbied for another
and physiology, shock and hemorrhage would need a way to differentiate between review by personnel experts. Fortunately, a
treatment, field sanitation and operations, 91B soldiers who had received new training second study reclassified the 91B MOS as
medical terminology, and mathematics and those who only had old training, so “moderately heavy,” removing the obstacle.16
relating to the medical field. The remaining it planned to resurrect the 91A MOS and In the meantime, the AHS started the
six weeks covered medication; treatments convert 91B soldiers who had not completed 300–91B30 Advanced Medical Specialist
for dysfunctions of circulatory, respiratory, the Basic AMEDD Core course and the Course in October 1983. It was open to
skeletal, neurological, gastrointestinal, forthcoming 91B30 course to the 91A MOS. 91A (promotable) specialists third class,
and genitourinary systems; control of The AMEDD would reclassify all 91B (promotable) corporals, specialists second
infection; medical triage; neuropsychiatric soldiers who were sergeants or below (except class, sergeants, specialists first class, and

35
 practical nurses specializing in hospital care.
Soon after, the 300–91B10 Basic Medical
Specialist Course was redesignated as the
300–91A10 Medical Specialist Course, and
the 300–91B30 Advanced Medical Specialist
Course was renamed the 300–91B30 Medical
NCO Course.18 Concurrently, the AHS
finished the exportable 91B30 course to
bring the Skill Level 3 training to the reserve
component. It also started work on a 91B30
sustainment course for both the active and
reserve components. Finally, the 300–91C30
Advanced Practical Nurse Course underwent
its first major revision since 1964, expanding
in duration from forty to fifty-two weeks. The
course consisted of six weeks at the AHS and
forty-six weeks at one of six teaching hospitals.
The new 91C30 course was taught in modules,
each of which included both classroom
Students practice intravenous therapy and evaluate injuries on a classmate during a learning and clinical experience, instead of
field training exercise in 1984. lumping together all classroom instruction
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage) followed by all clinical training.19 Phase 3,
the final part of the personnel plan that
staff sergeants with fewer than two years MOS to the 91A MOS. It also renamed the would make the 91B30 course a prerequisite
at that rank. Even 91C soldiers who had three MOSs most affected by the reforms to before promotion to staff sergeant, never took
not finished advanced training could opt the combat medic training program. First, the place—for reasons that will become clear.
to take the course—although the AMEDD resurrected 91A (Medical Corpsman) MOS The Army’s 1986 revisions to AirLand
had invested too much in training the rest became the 91A (Medical Specialist) MOS Battle doctrine prompted the OTSG to
as licensed practical nurses to allow them to for combat medics who had not completed revise training for the 91A and 91B MOSs
switch their MOSs. Over sixteen weeks, the their advanced training. Second, the 91B once again. In July 1987, the AHS started
91B30 course taught body systems, anatomy, (Medical Specialist) MOS had to change to teaching a substantially altered 91A10
physiology, pharmacology, medication the 91B (Medical NCO) MOS for combat course. It had dropped the four-week general
administration, recognition and treatment medics who had been grandfathered in or medical orientation (although this remained
of combat trauma forward of the battalion had finished their advanced training. Third, a prerequisite for other medical MOSs) and
aid station, leadership, and management the 91C (Clinical Specialist) MOS became replaced it with new and expanded training.
skills. Lesson plans included emergency the 91C (Practical Nurse) MOS for licensed The course remained ten weeks long. New
medical skills (such as nasogastric intuba-
tion, cardiac resuscitation, urinary catheter-
ization, intravenous therapy, and suturing),
learning to evaluate patients’ illnesses or
injuries through a systematic approach, and
leadership skills for an NCO. The course
concluded with a field training exercise.
Instructors taught 91B medical specialists
to want and expect jobs that 91C practical
nurses alone used to fill. To distinguish
between 91B soldiers who had taken the
91B30 course and the rest who had been
grandfathered into the MOS, the AMEDD
introduced a transitional additional skill
identifier (ASI), Y1, for graduates. (This ASI
would be dropped once all 91B soldiers took
the training.)17 Separately, the AHS finished
an exportable version of the 91B10 course to
train National Guard and Reserve combat
medics to the new Skill Level 1 standard.
In October 1984, the AMEDD initiated Soldiers in the 91B MOS put classroom instruction into practice at the end of AIT at Fort
the second part of its three-phased personnel Sam Houston in 1984.
plan. Phase 2 converted soldiers from the 91B (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)

36 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

training included control of aidbag medica-
tion and supplies, treatment of return-to-duty
disorders and minor illnesses, basic physical
assessments, management of behavior
emergencies, and increased emphasis on
the treatment of shock. Expanded training
consisted of more anatomy and physiology,
CPR training, intravenous skills related to
shock and trauma, hands-on practice in
casualty extraction, and management of
casualties with artificial airways. Finally, all
students received American Health Associa-
tion Basic Life Support C training, and those
who passed a test received certification.20
Because more advanced training was added
to the 91A10 course, the AHS revised the
300–91B30 Medical NCO Course, short-
ening it from sixteen to twelve weeks and
redesignating it as the 300–91B20 Medical
NCO Course. This course focused on Students training for the 91B MOS guide “blinded” patients through an obstacle
modular medical systems, far-forward care, course during their field training exercise at Fort Sam Houston in 1984.
emergency medical treatment, trauma and (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)
paramedic skills, surgical procedures, clinical
skills, pharmacology, physical assessment advanced training down to lower skill levels future battlefield. In January 1988, the newly
of body systems, infectious diseases, and in the 91A and 91B MOSs. established Medical NCO Academy began
combat stress disorders.21 The AHS made As the OTSG threw more medical tech- teaching the BNCOC and the ANCOC at
new exportable 91A10 and 91B20 courses for nical training at the lower 91A and 91B the AHS. Both courses were overhauled
the reserve component soon after. The need enlisted ranks, it also moved to improve and, for the first time, were taught solely
for combat medics to be prepared to fight leadership training for AMEDD NCOs, by NCO instructors. The Medical NCO
a theoretical third world war had pushed so they could lead more effectively on the Academy reduced the BNCOC from eight
to five weeks and the ANCOC from ten to
eight. Temporarily, the BNCOC was not
required for promotion to staff sergeant
because the Medical NCO Academy had
not completed updated versions of the
course for all medical MOSs.22 While the
91A10 course and the 91B20 course created
medical professionals who were technically
proficient in lifesaving skills, the BNCOC
and the ANCOC molded Army profes-
sionals with leadership skills.
In 1989, the AHS tweaked the 91A10
course yet again, this time to incorporate
up-to-date EMT training that was recog-
nized by the National Registry of Emergency
Medical Technicians (NREMT). 23 As
civilian EMT standards periodically would
become more demanding, the AMEDD
continued to update the EMT aspect of the
course in response.

Drawdown
The almost bloodless triumph of the 1991
Gulf War banished the ghosts of Vietnam
and proved the Army’s focus on AirLand
Battle had paid off. Soon after, the Soviet
“Super B” students in the Medical NCO Course carry a patient to an evacuation point Union’s collapse ended the Cold War and
during a class casualty exercise at Fort Sam Houston in 1985. accelerated ongoing U.S. military force
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage) and budget reductions that Congress had

37
 Fortunately, the AMEDD was not affected
greatly. In fact, four of the sixteen medical
MOSs already had the desired NCO balance.
The only exception was the 91C MOS. For the
first time, the 91C MOS included specialist
and corporal authorizations (previously,
sergeant had been the lowest rank), which
meant that graduates of the 91C30 course
would have less of a chance for promotion.27
The effect that these changes had on the 91C
MOS, the belief that future wars would be
small-scale, and the repeated humanitarian
missions in recent years prompted the OTSG
to consider another radical restructuring of
the 91B MOS.
The OTSG decided to combine the
91B (Medical Specialist) MOS and 91C
(Practical Nurse) MOS into the new 91W
(Health Care Specialist) MOS. Maj. Gen.
James B. Peake, the commander of the
AMEDDC&S, argued, “The 91W initia-
tive, considering the existing numbers of
Combat medics wear full nuclear, biological, and chemical warfare gear during a field trained personnel, decreasing numbers
training exercise at Salado Creek near Fort Sam Houston in 1986. of medical units in the force structure,
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)
assignment flexibility, enhanced course
started several years earlier. The AMEDD the 6–8–C40 (91B Technical Training) content and promotion opportunity, is
was not left unaffected. As no significant AMEDD NCO Basic (NCOES) Course. clearly the best visible means to correct
adversary seemed to exist that might chal- The new BNCOC was fourteen weeks long: multiple problems affecting our enlisted
lenge the United States—the sole remaining two weeks of leadership training from the forces.”28 This initiative would affect up to
superpower—the Army’s vision changed. old BNCOC, plus twelve weeks of MOS 40,000 soldiers in the active and reserve
Anticipating a smaller force and fewer specialty training from the 91B20 course.24 components (the vast majority of whom
casualties in future nonpeer conflicts, the The post–Cold War era saw few significant were 91B soldiers) and make the 91W MOS
Army cut the number of hospitals worldwide. changes to combat medic training as the the second largest in the Army. Former
It was more efficient to airlift the handful of Army and AMEDD were preoccupied with 91C soldiers (less than a tenth of the total
seriously wounded, injured, or sick soldiers downsizing. affected) who had completed licensed
to permanent hospitals in the United States The AHS, reorganized into the AMEDD practical nurse schooling would receive the
than to bring temporary hospitals in theater Center & School (AMEDDC&S) in 1992, ASI M6 to distinguish them from run-of-
to treat casualties. The AMEDD still trained made some minor changes to training for the-mill 91W soldiers. (Other ASIs already
for war, but over the next decade, combat combat medics and NCOs at Fort Sam assigned to the 91C MOS would continue
medics more often than not supported Houston. In 1995, it updated the field in the 91W MOS, including M3 Dialysis;
disaster relief and humanitarian missions, training exercise at the end of the 91B10 N3 Occupational Therapy; N9 Physical
even though they were not specifically course to include a more realistic combat Therapy; P1 Orthopedic; P2 Ear, Nose, and
trained for such roles. scenario. 25 In 1998, the Medical NCO Throat; and Y6 Cardiovascular.) The center-
In October 1991, with all 91B soldiers Academy divided the ANCOC into two piece of 91W training would be more EMT
having received the Super B training, the parts: Phase 1, distance learning (DL), and training. All 91W soldiers would receive
OTSG again eliminated the 91A MOS, Phase 2, in-residence training.26 DL initially NREMT-Basic certification, but soldiers
converted 91A soldiers to 91B soldiers, and was completed through books, but as could elect to get NREMT-Intermediate
the 91B (Medical NCO) MOS reverted to personal computers became more common or NREMT-Paramedic certification; each
the name of 91B (Medical Specialist). The and the use of the internet for DL expanded level garnered more promotion points.
91B grade structure, which had ranged only over the next decade, it transitioned to The expanded AIT for the 91W MOS was
from sergeant to sergeant major, expanded online lessons. designed to meet the demands of Force XXI,
to encompass the ranks of private to sergeant After the drawdown, the Army realized it the Army’s latest plan for modernization
major across Skill Levels 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. had too many NCOs and decided to reduce and reorganization for the new millennium,
The 300–91A10 Medical Specialist Course the number to the predrawdown ratio, which included an emphasis on preparing
was renamed the 300–91B10 Medical shrinking the size of the NCO corps in the for noncombat missions.29 The 91B and 91C
Specialist Course. At the same time, the enlisted force from 50 to 47 percent. No NCO NCOs who held (promotable) specialist,
AHS integrated the 300–91B20 Medical was demoted, but it became somewhat harder (promotable) corporal, sergeant, and staff
NCO Course into the 6–8–C40 AMEDD for an NCO to be promoted, and some NCO sergeant ranks would be grandfathered into
NCO Basic (NCOES) Course, which became positions were converted to lower grades. the 91W MOS without additional training.

38 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 In October 1999, the 91W Pre-Transition new 91W AIT still prepared soldiers to care the student moved on and did not review
Phase began, which would run for the next for casualties in the field for many more those skills and tasks again. It was replaced
two years. During this time, former 91B hours beyond the golden hour to which the with repetitive skills training. Sfc. James
and 91C soldiers who needed training to Army was accustomed. Strode, the NCO in charge of the 91W
meet the new 91W standard could obtain it In October 2002, the AMEDDC&S Management Branch at the AMEDDC&S,
through a variety of ways. First, 91B soldiers introduced the 300–91W10 Health Care reported, “What we have learned is, once
could take NREMT-Basic training, plus a Specialist Course. It revamped and added we taught them the task, they need to
Pre-Hospital Trauma Life Support or a Basic six more weeks to the ten-week 300–91B10 repetitively do the task a number of times,
Trauma Life Support course. Second, 91C Medical Specialist Course. The 91W10 embedding the task within a set of more
soldiers could attend NREMT-Basic certifi- course began with six weeks of EMT complex tasks along the continuum of
cation, and if they had already finished their training. The next ten weeks covered training, so at the end of the course they
licensed practical nurse schooling, that was primary care, evacuation care, and force are proficient rather than simply familiar.”34
enough. If they had not, they could attend protection. Overall, it focused on greater The 91W10 course also introduced patient
the BNCOC ten-week medical track or proficiency and civilian certification; intro- simulators: human-sized mannequins
complete the Trauma Advanced Emergency duced a modest clinical rotation for the first that could be programmed to simulate
Medical Services course instead. Finally, any time; intensified training in lifesaving skills breathing or bleeding to make training
91B or 91C soldiers who became certified at like maintaining the airway and controlling even more realistic.35
the NREMT’s Intermediate or Paramedic bleeding; and placed increased emphasis on The AMEDDC&S made some changes
levels would meet the requirement. The chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, to other courses in 2003 to assist in the
91W soldiers who needed training received and high-yield explosives evacuation. 32 91W Transition Phase. The Medical
the ASI Y2 (which would be removed Additionally, the field training exercise NCO Academy replaced the 6–8–C40
eventually).30 Meanwhile, the AMEDDC&S more than doubled in length to a week. (91B Technical Training) AMEDD NCO
prepared new standardized training for the Finally, the 91W10 course adopted the adult Basic (NCOES) Course with the 6–8–C40
91W MOS. learning concept; students were responsible (91W30 Technical Training) AMEDD
In 2000, the AMEDDC&S assigned M. for their own training while instructors NCO Basic Course (NCOES), which
Sgt. Ricardo Andrade, a 91C soldier in the checked for proficiency.33 The AMEDDC&S was five weeks shorter than the previous
Texas National Guard, to lead the develop- also scrapped the old module-based fifteen-week BNCOC. The Medical NCO
ment of the new 91W training program. training because, after finishing a module, Academy a lso of fered t he 6 –8–C 40
“This is the first medical MOS built from the (91WY2 Technical Track) AMEDD NCO
ground up with the Reserve Component in Basic (NCOES) Course that lasted seven
mind,” he said. “My position and influence and a half weeks. This version of the
here underscore the AMEDD’s commitment BNCOC was designed to minimize the
to ensuring the success of the 91W in the amount of time 91W soldiers spent away
Army Reserve and National Guard.”31 The from their units. There was an even shorter
AMEDD designed the 91W MOS with the course, lasting just two and a half weeks,
Army’s experiences in the previous decade but it required applicants already to have
in mind, however, the next decade presented completed NREMT-Basic, Pre-Hospital
unforeseen challenges to the Army. Trauma Life Support, or Basic Trauma
Life Support, and CPR training. 36 Finally,
Global War on Terrorism the AMEDDC&S created the 91W sustain-
The terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 ment course because everyone agreed that
occurred just as the AMEDD was about 91W10 graduates needed to be recertified
to begin the much-heralded 91W Transi- every two years to make sure their EMT
tion Phase in October 2001, which was training had not atrophied. The 91W
planned to last six years for the Regular Tracking Module, a digital database, made
Army and eight years for the National sure each 91W soldier’s training was up to
Guard and Reserve. The OTSG did not date for readiness.
deviate from this plan and converted The OTSG announced plans to build upon
all 91B and 91C soldiers to the new 91W the computer-based simulation capability for
MOS. The Army’s apparent successes in the 91W AIT. The AMEDD would acquire
toppling both the Taliban in Afghanistan and deploy the Military Medical Microsimu-
in 2001 and Saddam Hussein’s regime in lation learning system to more than 150 Army
Iraq in 2003 soon transformed into twin emergency medical services training sites.
drawn-out counterinsurgency campaigns. This program would assist 91W soldiers in
The cover of a 2001 pamphlet detailing
Fortunately, U.S. forces had air supremacy the new 91W (Health Care Specialist) MOS, learning or refreshing medical cognitive skills
in both conflicts, so combat medics usually which combined medical specialists and at their own pace but at a consistent standard
could count on helicopters to air-evacuate practical nurses, reflects the optimism of while also reducing face-to-face instruction
wounded, injured, or sick soldiers speedily the new millennium. time. The Military Medical Microsimulation
for treatment in the rear. Nevertheless, the (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage) consisted of twenty-five patient scenarios

39
 This re-creation of a 2001 flow chart illustrates the
TRANSITION CHART multiple paths 91W soldiers could follow to complete
required additional training and emphasizes the
incorporation of up-to-date civilian EMT training.
E­–7(P) & E–8 (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)
91W Y2
divided into advanced life support and
chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear,
Legend and high-yield explosives modules.37
I Intermediate In 2005, the Army realigned MOSs, and
the 91 career management field became the
P Paramedic
68 career management field. Consequently,
B Basic
the 91W MOS became the 68W MOS.
PHTLS Pre-Hospital Trauma Life Support National The 91W soldiers converted to 68W in
BTLS Basic Trauma Life Support Registry
EMT-I September 2006 for the active component
LPN Licensed Practical Nurse and in August 2007 for the reserve compo-
or EMT-P
LVN Licensed Vocational Nurse nent. All ASIs remained the same in the
AIMS American Institute of Medical redesignated 68W MOS.38
Science & Education
The war in Iraq had become a serious
RC Reserve Component
counterinsurgency campaign by 2006
when the Army updated the Force XXI
National Registry plan to focus on the brigade as the basic
EMT-B Training formation for fighting future wars. The
110 hours or National OTSG ordered the AMEDDC&S to
Registry develop brigade combat team trauma
EMT Bridge Course EMT-B
60 hours training to familiarize medical personnel
with the necessary technical and tactical
skills. 39 The 300–68W (BCT3) Course
initially lasted five days but it was later
expanded to a full week. The class incorpo-
rated tactical combat casualty care, emer-
gency medical treatment, and evacuation
PHTLS or BTLS in a variety of operational combat settings
Advanced PHTLS from the point of injury to rear-echelon
or hospitals. The OTSG also opened the
Provider Training BTLS
21–24 hours medical simulation training center for
soldiers who needed prehospital and field-
echelon training. Most of this training had
taken place at Fort Lewis, Washington, at
the Joint Medical Training Center, but the
Army’s needs and new funding enabled
the OTSG to set up the first medical
91B simulation training center at Fort Lewis,
or 91C with another eighteen to follow. Training
with LPN/LVN at a medical simulation training center
License
focused on combat lifesaver and combat
medic advanced skills. The Combat Life-
saver course offered intermediate training
between the minimal first aid training
given to the average soldier and the
advanced training of the combat medic,
so there could be one combat lifesaver
91B per squad to provide lifesaving care if a
Trauma AIMS
BNCOC combat medic was absent. The Combat
Training Medical Medic Advanced Skills Training course
68 hours Track* validated skills learned by combat medics
through realistic combat scenarios. The
*RC BNCOC completed on medical simulation training centers also
or after 1 October 1996
offered NREMT-Basic full and refresher
courses, Basic Life Saver courses, and

40 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

the newly developed Individual First Aid The redubbed 68W Transition Phase
Kit 101 class.40 The surge in fighting in Iraq finished on schedule in 2007 for the active
meant combat medics were soon putting this component and in 2009 for the reserve
training into practice in theater. component. The OTSG celebrated with
The AMEDDC&S also altered its training a special ceremony at the AMEDDC&S,
program to better serve the needs of an gathering past and current AMEDD leaders
Army at war. The 300–91W10 Health Care together in early 2010. Lt. Gen. Eric B.
Specialist Course had been redesignated Schoomaker, the surgeon general, declared,
as the 300–68W10 Health Care Specialist “The essence of our professionalism and
Course and the 6–8–C40 (91W30 Tech- our ethos is embodied in our combat
nical Training) AMEDD NCO Basic medics.”44 Nonetheless, some believed
(NCOES) Course had become the 6–8–C40 the OTSG had gone too far by squeezing
(68W30 Technical Training) AMEDD combat medics, practical nurses, and other
NCO Basic (NCOES) Course. It was more hospital specialties all together in the 68W
than just a name change to the 91W10 MOS. “Our medics shouldn’t be working in
course. Although the AIT was not changed hospitals. Our medics should be saving lives
significantly, portions of it were revamped on the battlefield,” Lt. Col. Paul T. Mayor,
to incorporate lessons learned in Afghani- the director of the Department of Combat
stan and Iraq, especially as 60 percent Medic Training at the AMEDDC&S, had
of graduates departed for the battlefield argued a few years before.45 Momentum A private practices the “fireman’s
within six months of finishing the 68W10 for another revision to the 68W MOS was carry” as part of combat medic training
course. Combat medics were taught how already gathering in the AMEDD. at Fort Sam Houston in 2008.
(Department of Defense)
to perform surgical cricothyrotomies In 2010, the Army ordered a restructuring
to establish emergency airways, how to of the BNCOCs and the ANCOCs across the of two weeks of MOS-specific technical
conduct needle thoracenteses to remove entire force, renaming the NCO training skills training conducted in residence at the
air or fluid from the lungs, and—possibly courses, respectively, the Advanced Leader Medical NCO Academy. The Senior Leader
the single most important change—how Course and the Senior Leader Course. The Course was divided into two phases: Phase 1
to administer tourniquets. Previous AITs AMEDDC&S introduced the 300–68W30– was DL online training and Phase 2 was a
had taught combat medics that tourniquets C45 Advanced Leader Course and the 3–68– four-week leadership course with a situation
were a tool of last resort because, if applied C46 Senior Leader Course. The Advanced training exercise held at the Medical NCO
too tightly or left on too long, tourniquets Leader Course had three phases: Phase 1 Academy.46 Breaking down the Advanced
could cause permanent damage to nerves, was DL online training, Phase 2 was a seven- Leader Course and the Senior Leader
muscles, and blood vessels. However, after week leadership course with a situational Course into phases was designed to reduce,
the introduction of a new tourniquet and training exercise that could be completed again, how much time medical NCOs had
new training in its proper use, tourniquets at the Medical NCO Academy or with a to be away from their units for AMEDD-
went from taboo to commonplace, saving mobile training team, and Phase 3 consisted specific training.
many lives on the battlefield.41 The 91W
sustainment program was replaced with
the Medical Education and Demonstration
of Individual Competence program. This
consisted of Combat Medic Advanced Skills
Training, Basic Life Saver, NREMT-Basic
refresher skills training, and (if needed)
NREMT-Basic courses.42 The AMEDDC&S
also created mobile training teams to
assist with training 68W soldiers. Mobile
training teams from the AMEDDC&S
would travel to requesting units across the
country to teach the BNCOC.43 This mobile
version of the BNCOC was called the 6–8–
C40 (68W30 MTT) AMEDD NCO Basic
(NCOES) Course. Mobile training teams
could also teach Combat Medic Advanced
Skills Training, Basic Life Saver, and
NREMT-Basic courses. Mobile training cut
down the time that 68W soldiers were away A future combat medic is tested on inserting an advanced airway device at Fort Sam
from their units for individual training, Houston in 2008, exhibiting the new 68W repetitive skills training that replaced old
which in turn increased readiness for 91B module-based training.
deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan. (Department of Defense)

41
 Therapy Specialist), the 68WP1 became the
68B (Orthopedic Specialist), the 68WP2
became the 68U (Ear, Nose, and Throat
Specialist), the 68WP3 became the 68Y (Eye
Specialist), and the 68WY6 became the 68N
(Cardiovascular Specialist). Soldiers in these
new MOSs no longer had to complete the
sixteen-week 68W10 course. Instead, they
took an introduction to medicine program,
lasting four or five weeks, before going on
to the rest of their specialty training. They
also did not need to maintain NREMT-Basic
certification.48
The 68W MOS retained the ASI F3 Aero
Medical Evacuation (Rotary Wing). The
AMEDDC&S made minor adjustments to
the 68W10 course and wrote an updated
68W critical task list.49 The 68W MOS had
come full circle. After having integrated
Under the cover of smoke, 68W soldiers practice evacuating litter cases during a field practical nurses and other hospital special-
training exercise as part of the Health Care Specialist Course at Fort Sam Houston in ties with combat medics, the MOS was once
2011. more purely for combat medics.
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)
Preparing for Large-Scale Combat
The OTSG announced in 2011 that it training. Most importantly, 68W soldiers Operations
would be streamlining the 68W MOS with ASIs tended to lose the combat medic After the United States withdrew from Iraq
by making new MOSs out of most of its skills they had learned in AIT after a few in 2011 and drew down in Afghanistan in
ASIs. The AMEDD found it impossible to years of carrying out duties related to their 2014, the Army reassessed the global threat
manage the promotion of soldiers with ASIs ASIs.47 These changes affected 2,500 68W environment. The Army now switched
effectively, and this difficulty contributed to soldiers, over half of whom were practical its focus to the rising threats of China
shortages in key ASIs. In particular, ASI M6 nurses. In October 2013, the AMEDD and Russia (and, to a lesser extent, North
Practical Nurse shortages were exacerbated converted almost all of the 68W ASIs into Korea and Iran), and prepared to fight
because soldiers with advanced training MOSs. The 68WM6 became the 68C (Prac- conventional campaigns, instead of irregular
in various hospital jobs sometimes were tical Nursing Specialist), the 68WN3 became warfare. Large-scale combat operations
assigned to “pure” combat medic positions— the 68L (Occupational Therapy Specialist), focused on training to fight a near-peer
thus wasting their specialty advanced the 68WN9 became the 68F (Physical competitor capable of challenging the U.S.
military on land and sea and in air, space,
and cyberspace. The combat medic of the
future would need to sustain life on an
increasingly isolated and difficult battlefield.
In December 2016, the 68W (Health
Care Specialist) MOS was renamed the
68W (Combat Medic Specialist) MOS,
formalizing the colloquial term, to reflect
its sole focus on training and developing
combat medics.50 The AMEDDC&S, also
known as the Health Readiness Center
of Excellence since 2015, transitioned the
300–68W10 Health Care Specialist Course
to the 300–68W10 Combat Medic Specialist
Course. Nothing changed other than the
name. The OTSG also had announced that
flight medics and air ambulance NCOs with
the ASI F2 would be redesignated flight
paramedics and flight paramedic NCOs,
Students practice intravenous therapy as part of the 68W Sustainment Course at Fort respectively, and given the ASI F3, as the
Sam Houston in 2011. The higher standard of the MOS meant combat medics needed to AMEDD introduced new flight paramedic
recertify every two years. standard training lasting thirty-four weeks.51
(U.S. Army) The OTSG debated whether the 68W MOS

42 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 The 300–68W30–C45 Advanced Leader
C ou rse bec a me t he 3 – 68W30 – C 45
Advanced Leader Course. It consisted
of two rather than three phases: Phase 1
remained the same DL portion, but
Phase 2 became a five-week in-residence
program. 54 The 3–68–C46 Senior Leader
Course essentially remained the same,
but was reduced from four to three weeks.
This change made it possible for National
Guard and Reserve NCOs to attend the
Advanced Leader Course and the Senior
Leader Course; previous versions of both
courses had been too long for a normal
reserve component training rotation.
The Health Readiness Center of Excel-
lence, which was reorganized into the
Medical Center of Excellence in 2019,
continued to study how best to train combat
Teams of combat medics conduct field training at Camp Bullis near Fort Sam Houston medics for large-scale combat opera-
in 2013. tions even in the midst of the COVID–19
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage) pandemic. At the outset of the global health
crisis, the Army was not sure if travel to
needed any significant changes to its only needed to tweak the 68W10 course, and from installations could continue, and
training program. not overhaul it. it seemed the training pipeline might be
After an inf luential 2017 paper on The OTSG moved forward with other closed off. However, the Medical Center
multidomain battle cited AirLand Battle initiatives. AMEDD leaders focused on of Excellence created a “safety bubble” by
as a model for change, the Army began improving paramedic and f light para- screening (and, later, testing) all soldiers
preparing for large-scale combat opera- medic training. In 2018, the Health Read- for COVID–19 and requiring two weeks
tions with a near-peer adversary. Unlike iness Center of Excellence announced it of quarantine before they could begin their
in counterinsurgency operations, combat was writing a new 68W combat medic AIT. Combat medic training continued
medics in large-scale combat operations textbook to replace ten specialty text- much as it had before except for mask and
could not rely on helicopters to air- books that were in use at that time. 53 social distancing requirements. In April
evacuate casualties because of enemy anti- In 2019, the Medical NCO Academy 2021, General LeMaster proudly announced
aircraft defenses and because the potential rest r uc t u red t he Adva nced L eader at a special ceremony, “Today represents [sic]
destruction of global positioning satellites Course and the Senior Leader Course. the 10,000th soldier that we have shipped
would disrupt navigation. New weapon
systems with even greater firepower meant
units fighting on the battlefield would have
to be dispersed further. Combat medics
would be even more isolated and would
be required to stabilize casualties for even
longer periods. As S. Sgt. Benjamin A.
Proctor, a member of the staff at the
Medical NCO Academy, put it later,
“Since the inception of airpower, the U.S.
Military has been able to quickly dominate
the skies. In the next near-peer fight, air
dominance is not a guarantee. Even with
the U.S. Army’s rapid MEDEVAC [medical
evacuation] capabilities, medics of all
levels will need to be better prepared to
handle longer evacuation times and the
potential complications of long-term
patient care on the battlefield of the
future.” 52 Fortunately, combat medic
training had been designed with this During a field training exercise at Camp Bullis in 2013, 68W soldiers practice
in mind since 1982. Consequently, the conducting a needle thoracentesis to remove air or fluid from the lungs of a casualty.
Health Readiness Center of Excellence (AMEDD Center of History and Heritage)

43
from AIT to the first unit of assignment,
anywhere in the world. We have not shipped
a single sick soldier, and this is a remarkable
achievement.”55 Mass vaccination against
COVID–19 only further ensured the supply
of combat medics was not interrupted,
maintaining Army readiness.

Conclusion
The training for combat medics has taken a
number of turns in tandem with the changes
in their MOS designation—from 91B
(Medical Specialist) in 1974, to 91W (Health
Care Specialist) in 2001, to 68W (Health
Care Specialist) in 2005, to 68W (Combat
Medic Specialist) in 2016. Although there
were many reasons for tinkering with or
overhauling training over these four decades,
three factors stand out as being the most
important. Combat medics practice administering medical aid before evacuating a mock casualty
Career progression had a major influ- during training in Germany in 2018.
ence on decisions to change training for (Department of Defense)
combat medics. The transformation into
an all-volunteer force after the Vietnam the decision to merge the 91C and 91B Doctrine had an even greater influence
War resulted in the integration of the 91A MOSs into the 91W MOS. However, it on combat medic training. Since the
MOS into the 91B MOS to make it easier proved difficult to give equal attention to introduction of AirLand Battle in 1982, the
to manage promotion for combat medics all the specialties within one MOS. Later, goal has been to train combat medics to a
more centrally. When the OTSG revived toward the conclusion of the wars in Iraq higher competency so they are capable of
the 91A MOS, the goal was to facilitate and Afghanistan, these problems resulted not just administering first aid to a wounded
the identification of Super B soldiers who in the OTSG’s decision to recreate the soldier but also maintaining a casualty for
had the training required for promotion 91C MOS and pull practical nurses back many hours until evacuation is possible. The
into jobs previously restricted to the out of the 91W MOS. Similarly, career need for combat medics with greater skills
91C MOS. The drawdown after the Cold progression played a significant role in led to a longer Skill Level 1 course and an
War reduced opportunities for practical changes to the AMEDD NCO training additional Skill Level 3 (later reduced to a
nurses to be promoted, contributing to programs. Skill Level 2) course. However, more time
in the classroom meant less time in the field.
The demand to have combat medics with
their units instead of at Fort Sam Houston
resulted in merging the Skill Level 2 course
with the BNCOC in 1991. Over the next
decade, the BNCOC first was shortened,
and then part of it was conducted through
DL, to further limit the time soldiers spent
away from their units for training. When
the OTSG decided in 1999 that it needed a
combat medic capable of not just caring for a
casualty on the battlefield but also one ready
for disaster and humanitarian relief, it again
expanded Skill Level 1 training. During the
Global War on Terrorism, the immediate
needs of the field, plus the fact that combat
medics could rely on air evacuation in
theater, meant that training for sustained
casualty care was somewhat neglected.
After the Army’s adoption of multidomain
Future combat medics train while wearing masks at Fort Sam Houston in 2020. battle in 2017, readying combat medics to
The Medical Center of Excellence adapted to the challenges of training during the operate in a dispersed and isolated battlefield
COVID–19 pandemic, maintaining Army readiness. without ready air evacuation again became
(AMEDD Center of History and Heritage) the OTSG’s focus.

44 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 Civilian standards also shaped mili- 3. Joseph S. Ward et al., Development and 22. “Academy prepares to start basic NCO
tary standards. EMT training and skills Evaluation of an Integrated Basic Combat/Ad- courses in 1988,” HSC Mercury 14, no. 7 (May
are constantly developing in the civilian vanced Individual Training Program for Medical 1987): 4.
medical system, and the military medical Corpsmen (MOS 91A10) (Presidio of Monterey, 23. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual
system sometimes struggles to keep up. CA: Human Resources Research Organization, Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1989
Many changes to combat medic training 1970), 6–7. (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical
over the decades have integrated the latest 4. Academy of Health Sciences (AHS), Army Department, 1989), 62.
in civilian paramedic training. Medical Activities Annual Report for the Academy 24. AHS, “MOSs Change, 91As to be 91Bs,”
Looking to the future, the Medical Center of Health Sciences, 1974 (Fort Sam Houston, TX: HSC Mercury 18, no. 5 (Feb 1991): 3.
of Excellence will continue to ensure that U.S. Army Medical Department, 1974), 19. 25. J. Paul Bruton, “Tough Training Prepares
combat medics are trained to the high skill 5. Clare Thomas, “Academy Starts EMT Train- Army’s Combat Medics,” HSC Mercury 21,
level needed for large-scale combat opera- ing in Medic Class,” HSC Mercury 2, no. 6 (Jun no. 6 (Mar 1994): 7.
tions with a near-peer competitor. However, 1975): 4, 6. 26. “Advanced Noncommissioned Officer
it remains likely that combat medics will be 6. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual Course (ANCOC),” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 15,
called upon to help the Army fulfill other Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1973 no. 3 (Fall 1998): 4.
missions such as serving in irregular warfare, (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical 27. Harry Noyes, “Plans Will Reduce AMEDD
advising allies, and providing disaster relief. Department, 1973), 14. NCO Numbers, Mercury 25, no. 5 (Feb 1998):
Therefore, combat medic training will also 7. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual 1, 12.
provide soldiers with the skills they need Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1977 28. Anthony Klmery, “91-Proof ‘Whiskey’ for
to succeed in these scenarios. The Medical (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical Fut0 ure Medics,” Military Medical Technology 3,
Center of Excellence will produce skilled, Department, 1977), 16. no. 6 (2000): 2.
professional, and flexible combat medics 8. AHS, “Medic Course 91B Goes ISD: Stu- 29. F. Todd Silver, “91W: ‘More Knowledge-
who are ready to meet whatever challenges dents Learn by Doing in ‘Hands-On’ Task-based able’ in Combat Care,” US Medicine 36, no. 6
face the Army in the coming decades. Training,” HSC Mercury 6, no. 5 (Feb 1979): 6–7. (Jun 2000): 26.
9. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual 30. Jerry Harben, “Medics Prepare for New
Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1978 91W MOS,” Mercury 28, no. 2 (Nov 2000): 2.
Dr . Grant T. Harward is a native of (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical 31. Robert De Lorenzo, “Guard NCO to Lead
southern California. He completed his BA Department, 1978), 28. 91W Team,” Mercury 27, no. 8 (Jun 2000): 9.
in history at Brigham Young University in 10. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual 32. Matt Pueschel, “Army Transforms Combat
2009, his MSc in the Second World War
in Europe at the University of Edinburgh Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1979 Medic Role,” US Medicine 39, no. 2 (Feb 2003): 1.
in 2010, and his PhD in history at Texas (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical 33. Robert De Lorenzo, “Medic for the Millen-
A&M University in 2018. He is a former Department, 1979), 34. nium: The U.S. Army 91W Health Care Special-
Auschwitz Jewish Center fellow, a for- 11. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual Re- ist,” Military Medicine 16, no. 8 (2001): 685–86.
mer Fulbright scholar to Romania, and a port for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1977, 16. 34. Silver, “91W: ‘More Knowledgeable’ in
former Mandel Center fellow at the U.S.
Holocaust Memorial Museum. He was a 12. Jerry Harben, “91B, C Due Change,” HSC Combat Care,” 26.
historian for the U.S. Army Medical De- Mercury 8, no. 9 (Jun 1981): 1, 4. 35. Pueschel, “Army Transforms Combat
partment Center of History and Heritage 13. Jerry Harben, “‘91B’ Medics Will Expand Medic Role,” 26–27.
at Fort Sam Houston (“Home of the Com- Skills,” HSC Mercury 10, no. 12 (Oct 1983): 1, 16. 36. “New 91W Short Course Available,” Medi-
bat Medic”) in San Antonio from 2018 to 14. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual cal Soldiers’ Outlook 20, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 2.
2021. He now works as a historian for the
U.S. Army Center of Military History. Dr. Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1982 37. “Military Medical Microsimulation (M3)
Harward has written numerous articles (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical to be Deployed to Assist in 91W Transition and
about the history of U.S. Army medicine Department, 1982), 75. Sustainment,” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 20,
and the Romanian Army during World 15. Sonntag, “91B, C Changes Start in Octo- no. 4 (Winter 2003): 2.
War II. Cornell University Press recently ber,” 1. 38. “91 Career Management Field (CMF) to
published his book, Romania’s Holy War:
Soldiers, Motivation, and the Holocaust 16. Harben, “‘91B’ Medics Will Expand Change to 68 CMF,” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 22,
(2021). Skills,” 1. no. 3 (Fall 2005): 7.
17. Mary Storms, “Course Trains 91Bs for New 39. Army Medical Department Center & School
Roles,” HSC Mercury 12, no. 12 (Oct 1985): 12. (AMEDDC&S), Army Medical Department Ac-
18. AHS, Army Medical Activities Annual tivities Report for the Army Medical Department
Report for the Academy of Health Sciences, 1985 Center & School, 2006 (Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S.
(Fort Sam Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical Army Medical Department, 2006), 79.
Notes Department, 1985), 76. 40. David Wood, “Realistic Training Helps
1. Rick Sonntag, “91B, C Changes Start in 19. Jerry Harben, “Changes to Improve 91C Medics at JRTC,” Mercury 25, no. 8 (May 1998):
October,” HSC Mercury 9, no. 11 (Aug 1982): 1. Course,” HSC Mercury 11, no. 11 (Sep 1984), 1. 7; “Combat Medicine Simulation Training,”
2. “Combat Medic Training During the 20. AHS, “Field Medic Course Revised for Air- Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 23, no. 4 (Winter
Vietnam War,” Charlie Company Vietnam Land Battle,” HSC Mercury 14, no. 6 (Apr 1987): 5. 2006): 5.
1966–1972, 22 Feb 2014, https://charliecompany. 21. AHS, “Revised 91B course emphasizes 41. Fred W. Baker, “68W Students Learn to
org/2014/02/22/combat-medic-training-during- combat care,” HSC Mercury 14, no. 7 (May Save Lives in Combat,” Mercury 36, no. 6 (Mar
the-vietnam-war/. 1987): 5. 2009): 7.

45
 42. James Brabenec, “Medics Train for Operations,” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 28, no. 3 52. Benjamin A. Proctor, “Producing the Next
Combat,” 20 Feb 2009, https://www.army.mil/ (Fall 2011): 1–2. Generation of Combat Medic,” Medical Soldiers’
article/17218/medics_train_for_combat. 48. Michelle Tan, “7 Medical Fields Get Own Outlook 37, no. 3 (Fall 2020): 8–9.
43. AMEDDC&S, Army Medical Department MOSs: Soldiers Would Bypass Basic Medic 53. James Musnicki, “The New 68W Combat
Activities Report for the Army Medical Depart- Training,” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 29, no. 3 Medic Textbook,” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 35,
ment Center & School, 2007 (Fort Sam Houston, (Fall 2012): 11–12. no. 4 (Winter 2018): 2–3.
TX: U.S. Army Medical Department, 2007), 117. 49. AMEDDC&S, Army Medical Depart- 54. “Information for Course 3–68W30–
44. Jerry Harben, “Leaders Celebrate Transition ment Activities Report for the Army Medical C45,” Army Training Requirements and
of 68W MOS,” Mercury 37, no. 6 (May 2010): 4. Department Center & School, 2013 (Fort Sam Resources System, 1 Oct 2019, ht tps://
45. Baker, “68W Students Learn to Save Lives Houston, TX: U.S. Army Medical Department, w w w.at rrs.a rmy.mi l/at rrscc/courseInfo.
in Combat,” 7. 2013), 38–39. aspx?fy=2021&sch=082&crs=3-68W30-C45&
46. Training Program Management Depart- 50. John Flannigan, “Military Occupational crstitle=COMBAT+MEDIC+ALC&phase=2,
ment, Course Catalog (Fort Sam Houston, TX: Skill (MOS) 68W Retitled,” Medical Soldiers’ author’s files.
U.S. Army Medical Department Center of Ex- Outlook 34, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 5. 55. Tish Williamson, “Army Medicine Ad-
cellence, U.S. Army Health Readiness Center of 51. “Army Medical Department Transition- vanced Individual Training Marks a Significant
Excellence, 2016), 143. ing to 68W ASI F2 National Registered Flight Milestone in the Fight Against COVID–19,”
47. Althea C. Dixon, “Career Management Paramedic,” Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 32, no. 1 Medical Soldiers’ Outlook 38, no. 1 (Spring
Field 68 Restructure: Supporting Full Spectrum (Spring 2015): 9. 2021): 9–10.

NOW AVAILABLE
FROM CMH

46 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

NOW
AVAILABLE 47
 authority of Great Britain” (3). Additionally, activities on the battlefield, where it
the regiment became a diverse, borderland took part in the failed attack on Staten
community that transcended political Island and the defeat at Brandywine. At
borders and frontiers. Brandywine, Colonel Hazen reported
In nine chapters, Mayer masterfully tells enemy troop movements, but General
in great detail the story of the Congress’s George Washing ton discredited the
Own Regiment from its genesis to its information, which proved to be costly.
disbandment. Using social history, she After the Brandywine campaign, Hazen’s
maps out the evolution of the unit. Early reg i ment w i ntered at Wi l m i ng ton,
in the conflict, the Second Continental Delaware. 
Congress built a network of united Then, Mayer discusses the Congress’s
colonies to address political grievances. Own Regiment’s expedition into Coos
The vision included not just the thirteen Country in northern New England. She
colonies that we know today, but all the explores how the regiment matured and
British colonies in North America. When developed as a community during this
Congress created the Continental Army campaign. The makeup of the regiment
on 14 June 1775, it was “a manifestation community was not just the officers and
of an imagined continental community” soldiers, but also the camp followers
(20). The Continental Army failed to gain a who were often the family of the soldiers.
foothold in Canada because of the ongoing Mayer, much like in her previous book,
CONGRESS’S OWN: A smallpox epidemic and it withdrew to the Belonging to the Army, examines the
CANADIAN REGIMENT, THE Hudson River Valley in New York. The civilians, including the wives and children,
CONTINENTAL ARMY, AND 2d Canadian Regiment and its soldiers’ who followed the military into the field.
AMERICAN UNION families (who were camp followers) became Using pension and military records, she
refugees because they were a group without pieces together the regimental community
By Holly A. Mayer a state, as Canada remained in British history. As in all groups, there were
University of Oklahoma Press, 2021 hands.  personal and professional disputes, and
Pp. xvi, 391. $45 Next, Mayer successfully shows that the these problems even plagued the Old
regiment had an identity crisis because it Canadian Regiment’s community. These
REVIEW BY TIMOTHY C. HEMMIS had no state to provide money, supplies, arguments and disagreements bogged
Holly A. Mayer’s new book, Congress’s Own: and soldiers. Therefore, Congress allowed down the officers and gave the regiment a
A Canadian Regiment, the Continental the regiment to recruit from most of the poor reputation. 
Army, and American Union, illuminates a “states except South Carolina and Georgia” Despite these shortcomings, the war
forgotten part of Revolutionary War–era (98). The members of the regiment claimed raged on. In late 1781, the regiment ended
America and the history of the United they came from across the United States—a up at the siege of Yorktown as Washington
States Army. The Congress’s Own Regiment, truly national regiment. They created their reassigned it under the command of
more formally known as the 2d Canadian own regimental nickname, the Congress’s General Marquis de Lafayette. Some of the
Regiment, was raised from the Canadian Own. However, this nickname would regiment took part in the attack on Redoubt
borderlands and commanded by Col. become a political issue in Congress, as it Number 10. One of the many great aspects
Moses Hazen, who held property in both seemed that this unit was not under any of Mayer’s book is the maps, especially
Canada and New England. It originated state’s control. Other states viewed this the one that details where the regiment
following the initial American invasion regiment as a slippery slope to a strong was during the battle. After Yorktown,
of Canada in 1775, as Canadians who central government not controlled by any the regiment ended up in Lancaster,
were angry with British authority filled individual state—a concern for those who Pennsylvania, where it waited for further
the regiment’s ranks. Mayer argues that wanted to limit executive power in favor of orders and guarded prisoners of war.
the Congress’s Own Regiment was a a more decentralized political system.  In the last chapter, Mayer discusses
microcosm of the Continental Army, as The Congress’s Own Regiment had how the identity of the regiment still was
“it was an armed force of peoples from similar issues to the states with recruitment a divisive topic among the members of
different colonies, countries, classes, and supplies, but it did the best with what the unit. However, after the war, when
ethnicities, and religions united against the it had. Mayer highlights the regiment’s they filed for pensions, they still believed

48 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

themselves to be members of the Congress’s Right there, the author introduces a
Own. Mayer tracks down the veterans persistent fatalism that sees British
from the Congress’s Own Regiment in the activity everywhere in the South as leading
pension records and tells their stories after relentlessly and inexorably to Yorktown’s
the war. Many returned to their borderland Surrender Field, British defeat, and
homes near the Lake Champlain region, American independence.
but others moved around, including to In Chapters 1 and 2, Carpenter carries
Maine and Kentucky (271). Congress British operations from the 1778 Battle
often awarded Revolutionary War veterans of Savannah through the 1780 Siege of
land bounties as payment of their service. Charleston. Beginning with the twin
Using veteran records, she shows that Loyalist defeats at Kettle Creek and
there were some success stories, but also Brier Creek, Georgia, in early 1779, the
tragedy and sufferings. Mayer’s Congress’s “Southern Strategy started to unravel,” as
Own magnifies a “grittier story of how British conventional victories were not
the Continentals lived and fought within accompanied by supporting Loyalist ones
the Revolution’s military and political (55). This dissonance between tactical
borderlands” as they went from rebels to British success and Loya list failure
citizens (286).  continued to characterize the remainder of
Congress’s Own is well written and the campaign. The author also introduces
meticulously researched. It provides a fresh the theme of disunity of command and
view of the Continental Army and an often- SOUTHERN GAMBIT: effort, which he sees as corrosive of
overlooked regiment from the Canadian CORNWALLIS AND THE BRITISH continued British operational success. In
borderlands. As a military history, but also MARCH TO YORKTOWN this regard, Lt. Gen. Sir Henry Clinton,
a detailed social history, this book adds British commander in chief in North
to the Continental Army historiography By Stanley D. M. Carpenter America and in direct command of the
that has been relatively stagnant in recent University of Oklahoma Press, 2019 1780 operations against Charleston; his
years. Mayer’s analysis of the regimental Pp. xiii, 314. $34.95 second in command, Lt. Gen. Charles,
history and the regiment’s growth as an Lord Cornwallis, himself soon to head
American community could be valuable REVIEW BY J. BRITT MCCARLEY the British Southern Campaign; and
to leaders today who have soldiers from Wit h t he 250t h a nniversa r y of t he Lord George Germain, British Secretary
various backgrounds, including those American War of Independence fast of State for America, all created what
of different citizenship and immigration approaching, Stanley D. M. Carpenter’s Carpenter labels “strategic incoherence.”
statuses. These dynamics are nothing new Southern Gambit: Cornwallis and the This stemmed from Cornwallis’s habit of
for the American Army. Mayer’s work lays British March to Yorktown comes at an using backchannels to communicate with
the historical groundwork for discussions opportune time to better understand the the secretary, who shared his lordship’s
of how diversity can be beneficial to the pivotal role of the conflict’s 1778–1781 preference for conventional maneuver and
Army and to the republic. Southern Campaign. In the introduction, battle. This produced strategic divergence
Carpenter defines the elements of Great between Cornwallis and Clinton (55).
Britain’s Southern Strategy as “strategic Overall, Sir Henry focused on the strategic
Dr. Timothy C. Hemmis is an assistant professor coherence, strategic leadership, and [both] defensive until Britain’s global military
at Texas A&M University Central Texas in Killeen, theory of victory and desired strategic success might allow reinforcement of North
Texas. He holds a doctorate in American history
from the University of Southern Mississippi.
effects” (19). The author catalogs eleven America to defeat the upstart Americans
steps to the last two categories, which and their French allies.
today’s U.S. military also uses for analysis British success in the Siege of Charleston,
(17–18). Together, these actions relate a the high-water mark of their Southern
hybrid warfare approach in which British Campaign, produced “victor y fever”
Regular and Provincial units would defeat (67). For the rest, Carpenter argues,
their Continental Army counterparts in the combination of the British loyalty
detail in a series of potentially decisive proclamations, the myth of the Waxhaws
conventional engagements to “clear” Massacre, and the defeat of Loyalist
territory, and then Loyalist forces would irregulars at Ramsour’s Mill permanently
“hold” that same ground and supply British alienated Southern public opinion (the
forces in the ever-northward drive to proverbial hearts and minds), which the
reestablish crown rule. After describing author identifies as the campaign’s true
a f i nely spu n sc ena r io, C a r penter center of gravity. Carpenter ends the
undermines his interpretation when he second chapter with another expression
claims that the “British campaign to win of fatalism: “Like a row of dominoes, the
back the southern colonies ultimately lay events of the first few months of 1779
beyond a realistic hope of success” (19). followed by the success of Charleston the

49
 following spring set in motion a chain discussed for some time the role British an aggressive offensive to a passive enclave
of events that culminated on a Virginia operations in Tidewater, Virginia, would defense [of Yorktown] had cost him the
Peninsula over two years distant” (94). play in relation to those in the Carolinas opportunity to defeat the enemy” (248).
Carpenter uses Chapters 3 and 4 to and Georgia, his lordship arrived in With another fatalistic remark, the author
convey Clinton’s departure for the British Petersburg, Virginia, in mid-May 1781 ends where he began: “The task [of winning
base of operations in North America at New without authorization from the theater the Southern Campaign and thus the
York City and the effect of Cornwallis’s commander in New York City. From then American War of Independence] simply
assumption of command of the Southern on, the earl changed his conduct of the lay beyond the scope of British resource
Campaign. With Clinton absent from Southern Campaign to ignoring Loyalist capability and institutional organization
the theater of operations, the ambitious hearts and minds, except to indicate by of the day” (257).
earl pursued his preferred conventional his actions to get out of the way. Instead, Carpenter’s study is well worth the
“campaign of attrition by a strategic offensive,” he focused on “demonstrating [to Virginia effort, so long as the reader understands
while imploring Clinton to launch a Patriots] that rebellion and support the book’s two overarching characteristics.
supporting raid into the Chesapeake Bay of independence incurred a dreadful One is a persistent presentism. The
area to threaten the Americans’ sources economic price,” thus inducing thousands author’s “theory of victory” and “desired
of supply and reinforcement emanating of the state’s enslaved people to emancipate strategic effects” are current among the
from Virginia (104). For a potentially themselves, “which further undercut the U.S. military’s many analytical structures,
decisive conventional battle, Cornwallis Virginia plantation-and-commodities- and in the book they become Carpenter’s
also sought the Continental Army’s main based agrarian economy,” all to “ensure yardstick for measuring all Southern
force under Maj. Gen. Horatio Gates of 1777 [that] appropriate behavior became the Campaign events and outcomes. The author
Battle of Saratoga fame. In mid-August new key to strategic victory in the South” frequently repeats himself to buttress
1780, at Camden, South Carolina, “in a (232). Throughout, Cornwallis continued to those frameworks. The work’s other trait
single day the earl removed from the field pursue a Camden-style decisive battle and is an equally continuous fatalism. The
a substantial enemy army and literally the came close to achieving it in early July at the reader learns early of Carpenter’s belief
only Continental forces of any consequence Battle of Green Spring near Williamsburg, that the British had no hope of winning
south of the middle colonies” (115). For but sunset and the fighting qualities of the Southern Campaign, an interpretive
Cornwallis, Camden became the false American Continentals deprived him of thread woven into the book’s fabric to the
concept of a single, decisive battlefield that achievement. end. This presentism and fatalism deprive
victory achieved in as little as one day. A feature of his lordship’s trek inland from the narrative of both contingency and
But the Americans fought on, first in the Tidewater area was correspondence agency. The arc of the past that is historical
partisan bands striking British convoys, with Clinton that one historian has labeled chronology was not inevitable. If so, it
then with Patriot militia, and finally as a “dialogue of the deaf,” during which the removes the contingent moment and the
a reconstituted Continental force under earl and Sir Henry debated the virtues individual’s agency from history. Finally,
Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Greene. From then of the Virginia campaign and whether this reviewer, who has studied and led
through April 1781, the Americans fought Cornwallis should withdraw to the crown’s Army staff rides to Yorktown for a quarter
a series of critical engagements with local base of operations at Portsmouth and century, can find nothing in the primary
British forces at King’s Mountain and prepare to send reinforcements to New record to support the author’s claim that
Cowpens, both in South Carolina, and York City to counter the American and on 19 October Cornwallis “remained at
at Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina, French threat there.1 After abandoning his quarters [in the town] with a case of
the overall strategic effect of which was Portsmouth by Clinton’s direction, the dysentery” (254). Over the British defeat
that Cornwallis, argues Carpenter, “won earl chose the deepwater, former tobacco at Yorktown, his lordship surely was sick
the Southern Campaign . . . but lost the port of Yorktown. Carpenter claims that at heart if not also in body.
War of American Independence” for lack “Cornwallis now became simply a garrison
of a Camden-like, war-winning triumph commander” and thus “tied himself
(192). Especially for those critical first four irrevocably to the defense of the Yorktown Dr. J. Britt McCarley holds a PhD in history
months of 1781, Clinton and Cornwallis post” (235–36). Following months of from Temple University. After working for the
National Park Service, he came to the Army His-
did not communicate, and by late April, indecisive conventional campaigning tory Program in 1988. He is now the U.S. Army
the resulting personal vacuum turned in Virginia against Continental and Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC)
their military relationship into “full-blown militia forces under Maj. Gen. Marquis chief historian and the TRADOC Military History
antagonism,” Carpenter maintains (213). de LaFayette, and after the Royal Navy and Heritage Program director.
Finally, Cornwallis himself decided to lost local control of the sea to the French
march north to knock Virginia logistically Caribbean fleet operating temporarily in
out of the war or at last achieve a Camden- the Chesapeake Bay region, Cornwallis
style victory. faced a traditional siege on the banks of the
In Chapter 5 a nd t he conclusion, York River. Outnumbered two to one, he Notes
Carpenter carries the story of Cornwallis’s surrendered his entire Anglo-German force 1. Lee Kennett, The French Forces in America,
Southern Campaign from Wilmington, on 19 October 1781. Carpenter maintains 1780–1783, Contributions in American His-
North Carolina, to Yorktown’s Surrender that “the contradictory orders from Clinton tory, no. 65 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
Field. Though Clinton and Cornwallis had that changed [Cornwallis’s] actions from 1977), 124.

50 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

 resort to violence once again on the fraternization stories in the diaries and
battlefield? letters of Civil War soldiers should have
This is the question that Lauren K. made the historical importance of these
Thompson answers in Friendly Enemies. episodes much more obvious to scholars.
Thompson, an assistant professor of history Historians and authors have, at best,
at McKendree University, argues that in included instances of fraternization only
both the U.S. and Confederate armies, “the as stories in their larger narrative, or at
military hierarchy and the harsh realities of worst, as proof of a Lost Cause–driven
warfare caused an identity crisis for citizen emphasis on shared camaraderie and
soldiers” (2). There were gaps between national reconciliation between White
what the soldiers expected and what they soldiers. Through her tremendous research
actually experienced; although “men saw and analysis, Thompson has successfully
military service as a way to strengthen proven that soldier fraternization served
and display their independence,” the a real purpose for those in both the U.S.
opposite happened (3). Soldiers therefore and Confederate armies. Perhaps most
used fraternization, which allowed them importantly, she also demonstrates how it
to “quickly shift their perception of the was possible for these soldiers to fraternize
enemy from one of fear and hatred to and yet still maintain their deep-rooted
one of empathy and commonality,” to hatred for the other side.
reassert their own independence and test The strength of the book is the author’s
the boundaries of authority that the army simple and effective thesis. It is only human
FRIENDLY ENEMIES: and their own officers placed on them (3). nature to attempt to control a situation in
SOLDIER FRATERNIZATION This demonstrates how soldiers could not which one has no agency, but Thompson
THROUGHOUT THE only remain committed to their cause, but skillfully and tactfully has employed this
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR also continue to fight the war on their own commonsense argument to drag the well-
individual terms. known instances of fraternization out of
By Lauren K. Thompson Thompson organizes her argument into the “war story” category and into the proper
University of Nebraska Press, 2020 six thematic and roughly chronological realm of serious scholarship.
Pp. xvii, 213. $55 chapters and gives equal weight to both the Fr iendly Enemie s , l i ke a ny good
Eastern and Western theaters. Chapter 1 historical study, does have its flaws. This
REVIEW BY NATHAN A. MARZOLI explains that when people first enlisted, reviewer would have liked to see a complete
Even those with only a cursory knowledge they encountered steep challenges to their discussion of the 1863 battlefields (in
of the American Civil War are probably individualism. Soldiers managed these addition to Vicksburg), such as Morris
familiar with tales of fraternization. A challenges by “repeating learned behaviors Island, South Carolina, or Knoxville,
common story is like that of an encounter from antebellum society and tailored them Tennessee, where extensive trench warfare
between 21-year-old Morris Brown Jr., a to fit their wartime environment” (11). existed before the final year of the war.
soldier in the 126th New York, and an Chapter 2 focuses on the first widespread Did soldiers on these battlefields also use
unknown Confederate soldier, the first of instances of fraternization in the war and cease-fires to alleviate the stress of near-
many such meetings described in Lauren K. explores how they occurred. Chapter 3 constant picket firing? Or did fraternization
Thompson’s book, Friendly Enemies: investigates the exchange of physical items instead rarely occur, if at all? The absence
Soldier Fraternization throughout the between socializing soldiers, such as coffee of discussion of these battlefields makes
American Civil War. In the fall of 1863, and tobacco, while Chapter 4 examines the one wonder if patterns of fraternization
Brown was camped with the Army of trade of information, usually in the form were truly as universal as Thompson claims,
the Potomac along the Rapidan River. of newspapers. Chapter 5 demonstrates or if they might have been dependent on
One morning while on picket duty, a how fraternization became a tool for the locale and the actual people doing the
Confederate soldier in the opposing lines survival when soldiers used informal fighting.
saw him eating breakfast. Brown asked cease-fires to provide a respite from the Nevertheless, Friendly Enemies is an
the man to come over and share the meal. unrelenting trench warfare during the excellent addition to the voluminous
“Down on the ground went his gun & over latter part of the war. Thompson uses the historiography of the Civil War soldier. An
he came,” Brown told his mother in a letter, final chapter to discuss how postwar stories interesting and fast-paced read, it stands
“& oh! you ought to have seen him eat & of fraternization, although usually written tall and deserves a space on the bookshelf
drink coffee.” After chatting for some time, by veterans with honest intentions, were next to the giants in the field written by
Brown wrote that the Confederate soldier used by reconciliationists to promote a Bell Irvin Wiley, Reid Mitchell, James
“concluded that he would go back & away narrative of sectional unity and to protect McPherson, Chandra Manning, and many
he went” (1). The following spring, Morris white supremacy. others.
Brown would return to fighting and Thompson’s book presents an intriguing
killing people like his hungry Confederate topic and a substantial addition to the Nathan A. M arzoli is a staff historian at the
companion. Why—and how—were Civil already extensive historiography of the Air National Guard History Office, located on
War soldiers able to fraternize and then Civil War soldier. The prevalence of Joint Base Andrews. A U.S. Air Force veteran,

51
 he completed his bachelor’s degree in combat battalions that supported infantry with Lembo’s return to the United States
history and master’s degree in history and
museum studies at the University of New
operations at close hand. This book covers and his discharge in 1946, along with a
Hampshire. His primary research interests the activities of Sgt. Frank T. Lembo and brief examination of his postwar life.
focus on conscription in the Civil War his unit, the 305th Engineer Combat This monograph vividly describes
North. He is the author of several articles,
including “‘A Region Which Will at the Same
Battalion (ECB), 80th Infantry Division. the efforts of the 305th ECB as they
Time Delight and Disgust You’: Landscape Lembo, the New Jersey–born son of Italian assisted the infantry in a variety of
Transformation and Changing Environmental immigrants, served in the Army from 1942 combat and other roles. The engineers
Relationships in Civil War Washington, D.C.”
(Civil War History, 2020); “‘Their Loss Was
until 1946. During this time, he wrote routinely engaged in such activities as
Necessarily Severe’: The 12th New Hampshire dozens of letters to his fiancée (and, later, road building and maintenance, mine
at Chancellorsville” (Army History, 2016); “‘We wife) Betty Craig, and the authors have clearing and planting, bridge building
Are Seeing Something of Real War Now’: The
3d, 4th, and 7th New Hampshire on Morris
used these as a foundation for this story. and demolition, culvert building, assault
Island, July–September 1863” (Army History, The authors, Lois Lembo—who is Frank’s boat operation for river crossings, and
2017); and “‘The Best Substitute’: U.S. Army daughter—and her husband Leon Reed, sometimes even infantry service. Missing,
Low-Mountain Training in the Blue Ridge
and Allegheny Mountains, 1943–1944” (Army
do a fine job of weaving Frank Lembo’s however, are detailed explanations of
History, 2019). letters into the story of how his battalion Lembo’s duties as a platoon leader in
supported the 80th Infantry Division an engineer combat battalion. Thus, we
during the European campaign in the final do not learn how he led his soldiers to
year of the war. accomplish their varied missions, both
The letters are interspersed within under fire and in relative safety. There are
a narrative based upon unit diaries, no detailed descriptions of how engineers
records, and memoirs, and they cover the erected bridges, built culverts, built and
period from Lembo’s training through maintained roads, cleared minefields,
his time in Europe. The 305th ECB or the like. Understandably, Lembo did
arrived in France, after a brief stay in not write about these things to his wife,
England, in late July 1944. Assigned with and readers must be satisfied with the
the 80th Infantry Division to Lt. Gen. descriptions he did provide.
George S. Patton’s Third Army, the 305th One interesting aspect of this book is
participated in combat in Normandy the revelation of the distinction between
and the Falaise Pocket before joining the engineer combat battalions assigned
in the race across France. The 305th to a division and those assigned to a
supported the crossing of the Moselle corps. The authors quote unit diaries that
R iver and t he move to t he German decry the lack of experience of the latter
border. In preparation for the crossing battalions when they supported Lembo’s
of the Seille River, Lembo led his troops battalion during combat river crossings.
on a hazardous reconnaissance mission Of course, this is a matter of perspective
behind enemy lines, an action for which and may be peculiar to the instances cited,
he received the Silver Star. The 305th but an examination of these distinctions
also participated in the Battle of the would be enlightening.
Bulge, including the relief of Bastogne. Combat soldiers experienced things that
A COMBAT ENGINEER WITH During the final months of the war, set them apart even from rear echelon
PATTON’S ARMY: THE FIGHT Lembo and his batta lion suppor ted soldiers, not to mention the folks back
ACROSS EUROPE WITH THE still more river crossings in the face of home. Lembo often complained to Betty
80TH “BLUE RIDGE” DIVISION heavy enemy fire. One of the unit’s final about what he perceived to be a lack
IN WORLD WAR II duties was to assist in the liberation of appreciation or understanding on
of the concentration camp at Ohrdruf. the home front about what the combat
By Lois Lembo and Leon Reed Although Lembo’s letters during this soldiers were experiencing. After digesting
Savas Beatie, 2020 period have not survived, the authors Lembo’s complaints, readers can get some
Pp. xii, 276. $32.95 use other sources to capture the horror of small idea of the isolation felt by some
what U.S. soldiers saw at the camp. While returning veterans. For them, there was
REVIEW BY PETER L. BELMONTE in combat, Lembo’s natural leadership no point in trying to explain what they
In the historiography of the ground war abilities rose to the fore. Promoted to had been through. Those who had not
in World War II, scholars understandably sergeant before the battalion left the experienced it could never imagine it, and
have devoted much attention to infantry United States, in France he was promoted those who had, had no desire to dwell on
and airborne troops. Often overlooked, to temporary platoon leader. Lembo such unpleasantness.
however, are those troops who supported was a popular and strong leader, which The authors include several appendixes
the infantry. This support ranged from resulted in his f inal promotion and that deal with such things as casualty
base depots and ports all the way to the commissioning as a second lieutenant totals, Army mail-handling practices,
front line. Key among such troops were and platoon commander in the 305th and the duties of engineer units. Several
the engineers, especially the engineer ECB in March 1945. The book concludes photographs and maps enhance the text.

52 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

The footnotes and bibliography reveal the toy guns and toy soldiers, I discovered, one The Big Picture presented a human face
authors’ fine use of primary and secondary Sunday morning, The Big Picture, a half-hour of the American soldier to the public he
sources. The memoirs of other people in the television program produced by the United represented.
division and unit diaries are very helpful in States Army and devoted to promoting the In its later years, the program continued to
understanding what the troops went through service to the general public. The narrative focus on soldiers and the jobs they did, while
during the final days of combat in Europe. often went over my 10-year-old head, but also exposing some of the more controversial
This book is an excellent illustration of how the show also presented lots of filmed shots aspects of military life. Although the series
division-level combat engineer battalions of tanks, guns, and soldiers, much of which I never produced specific episodes devoted
supported their division’s operations in later discerned was actual combat footage. In to the military’s racial integration, episodes
World War II. Although it does not contain many ways, The Big Picture helped to push me throughout the 1960s included numerous
technical details or the specifics of bridge along the way to a career devoted to military scenes showcasing Black soldiers performing
building, A Combat Engineer with Patton’s service and the U.S. Army. their duties alongside White soldiers. In other
Army is highly recommended as an example John Lemza’s book gets off to a ponderous areas, Lemza quite correctly takes the Army
of how one battalion supported the U.S. start. The introduction and early pages set the to task, such as for omitting the Japanese-
Army’s war in Europe and of one soldier’s stage for the reader to perceive the television American 442d Regimental Combat Team
service to his country. program as overt propaganda that promoted from its historical coverage and for the
a conservative agenda and an exceptionalist stereotypical treatment of Native Americans
Peter L. Belmonte is a retired U.S. Air Force of- interpretation of American values. In the in episodes that discussed the Army of the
ficer and veteran of Operation Desert Storm. He foreword, series editor Stacy Takacs notes frontier.
holds a master’s degree in history from Califor- that Lemza’s analysis explodes the “canard Ultimately, the Vietnam War spelled the
nia State University, Stanislaus, and has written
several books, including Italian Americans in that Americans are reluctant fighters” (viii). end for the Army’s television series. The
World War II (Arcadia, 2001), Days of Perfect Hell: As I continued reading, I prepared myself consistently positive spin that episodes
The U.S. 26th Infantry Regiment in the Meuse- to be condemned for falling for the Army’s placed upon various combat actions soon
Argonne Offensive, October–November, 1918
(Schiffer, 2015), and Forgotten Soldiers of World positive depiction of the service and the ran afoul of the more cynical American
War I: America’s Immigrant Doughboys (with Al- American soldier. public. By 1970, Senators Mike Mansfield
exander F. Barnes, Schiffer, 2018). Happily, the book quickly leaves the and J. William Fulbright accused the Army
bombast behind and turns instead to a and the Defense Department of deliberately
historical overview of how The Big Picture distorting the progress of the war. The Big
came about. Thirteen initial episodes Picture, Fulbright said, was part of a Pentagon
covering the war in Korea prompted leaders propaganda machine designed to brainwash
throughout the Army to request an expansion the American people. Such controversy
of the program’s focus to cover broader convinced Army leaders that the program
aspects of the service’s history. Episodes such had outlived its usefulness and, in 1971, they
as “The History of Cavalry” and “The Army ended production.
Reserve Team” soon followed. However, the Despite my early reservations, I believe
Army’s Public Information Office and the that the author does an even-handed job of
Troop Information Division envisioned a relating the story of The Big Picture. Although
higher purpose for the enterprise. The service the prose is a bit dry at times and a little
had a glorious history, they acknowledged, polemical in others, the book is, for the
but that history was not comparable to the most part, an enlightening and enjoyable
Army of today. The Big Picture could be used read. Lemza includes a catalog of all of the
to greater effect by showcasing the modern, episodes produced during the series’ twenty-
atomic-age Army. year run. My only criticism here is the lack
Throughout the 1950s, the Army faced of descriptions accompanying the episode
an uphill battle both for public support titles. One or two sentences per episode could
and for funding from the Eisenhower have turned this book into an indispensable
administration, which based its national reference work. Nevertheless, the volume,
defense policy on the Air Force, the Strategic just as it is, offers an important contribution
Air Command, and atomic weapons. to the history of the United States Army in
THE BIG PICTURE: THE COLD Through most of the book, the author does the Cold War.
WAR ON THE SMALL SCREEN a skillful job showing how service leaders
used the television program to present
By John W. Lemza their message directly to the American Dr. Donald A. Carter is a senior historian at the
University Press of Kansas, 2021 public. Programs about new technology U.S. Army Center of Military History (CMH). He
received his PhD in history from the Ohio State
Pp. xiii, 274. $24.95 and weapon systems demonstrated how the University in 1985. He is the author of Forging the
Army could adapt to the atomic battlefield. Shield: The U.S. Army in Europe, 1951–1962 (CMH,
REVIEW BY DONALD A. CARTER Not only was the Army relevant, it was 2015) and coauthor with William Stivers of The
As a young boy, I was obsessed with all things a vital component of America’s defense City Becomes a Symbol: the U.S. Army in the Occu-
pation of Berlin, 1945–1949 (CMH, 2017).
army. In addition to enjoying the traditional team. More importantly, the author argues,

53
 his nation’s approach to the most pressing the Swiss system that existed at the time, but
questions of the day. he adapted it to suit American democracy”
Five of the nine chapters in the book touch (17). However, the chapter never explains the
on Marshall’s contributions to domestic Swiss system of UMT or describes the ways
military affairs: the debate over universal in which Palmer adapted it. Without this
military training, postwar policies on the supplementary information, it is difficult for
development and use of nuclear weapons, a reader to understand Marshall’s approach
the significant defense reorganization to UMT or evaluate the reasons why it met
of the 1947 National Security Act, the with either resistance or indifference in senior
creation of the independent U.S. Air Force U.S. political and military circles. Another
in 1947, and the racial integration of the U.S. missing element, conspicuous by its absence,
armed forces. Four further chapters have is any discussion of Marshall’s perspectives
a more international angle: U.S. relations on the postwar Middle East. Most notably, he
with postwar China, the development of did not support President Truman’s decision
the European Recovery Program (more to recognize Israel as a country, openly
commonly known as the Marshall Plan), claiming that it was a political maneuver
the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty, intended to bolster the Democratic voting
and U.S. involvement in the Korean War. bloc in the forthcoming 1948 presidential
The source notes at the end of each chapter elections. Because other sections of the
provide helpful jumping-off points for book cover instances in which Marshall’s
GEORGE C. MARSHALL AND readers to explore the existing literature policy views did not align with those of
THE EARLY COLD WAR: POLICY, on each topic. The chapters, overall, treat his contemporaries, it seems a remarkable
POLITICS, AND SOCIETY Marshall evenhandedly, neither giving him oversight that this disagreement—a serious
excessive credit as a prime decision maker rupture in his relationship with Truman—is
Edited by William A. Taylor nor downplaying his contributions as a not mentioned to any real extent in this
University of Oklahoma Press, 2020 team player. They depict how his managerial volume. The question of Marshall and the
Pp. xxvi, 282. $29.95 skills enabled him to grasp the complex Middle East could have filled another chapter
requirements of modern warfare and built his on its own.
REVIEW BY SHANNON GRANVILLE reputation as a capable leader and trustworthy These concerns notwithstanding, George C.
As both a soldier and a statesman, George C. figure. Even in the instances where he failed to Marshall and the Early Cold War is a
Marshall had an undeniable effect on the achieve his goals, as in his short-lived mission convenient, compact source of information
U.S. military effort in World War II and on to China to mediate the civil war between the for those whose knowledge of Marshall is
the worldwide economic and political order Communists and Nationalists, his failures (as limited to the proverbial highlight reel of
that came out of the Allied victory. As the renowned Marshall biographer and editor his military career or the Marshall Plan.
Army’s chief of staff from 1939 to 1945, he Mark A. Stoler says in his foreword) “are in The book reveals the staggering breadth of
oversaw the U.S. Army’s mobilization for many ways as instructive as the successes” policy issues with which Marshall contended
a multifront, global conflict. During his (xiii). In the case of China, for example, the throughout his lifetime of public service.
service first as secretary of state and then as United States’ contradictory goals for the Few individuals have held so many senior
secretary of defense for President Harry S. mission set up Marshall to fail almost from positions in or out of uniform; still fewer have
Truman between 1947 and 1951, he helped the start. Though critics such as General risen to meet the challenges of their time as
restructure the postwar U.S. defense Douglas MacArthur and Senator Joseph R. decisively, or with such personal integrity, as
establishment, supported Western Europe’s McCarthy later lambasted Marshall for his Marshall did.
economic recovery through the Marshall role in the “loss” of China to the Communists,
Plan, and worked to rebuild U.S. military it would have taken more than the efforts of Shannon Granville is the senior editor in the
capacity to meet the challenges of war in any one diplomat to rescue the United States Multimedia and Publications Division of the U.S.
Korea. Even though Marshall’s achievements from its overarching policy failures toward Army Center of Military History. Previously, she
have received significant scholarly attention, China in the late 1940s. was editor and deputy publications director with
the Woodrow Wilson Center Press, where her re-
much of the literature has focused on his There are a few frustrating points in the
sponsibilities included editing manuscripts for the
wartime work and the postwar economic book, mostly in instances where clarity Cold War International History Project series co-
restructuring plan that bears his name. appears to have been sacrificed for brevity. published with Stanford University Press. She has
The ten contributors to George C. Marshall One example appears in the chapter on a master’s degree in international history from the
and the Early Cold War, edited by security Marshall’s support for universal military London School of Economics and a bachelor’s
studies professor William A. Taylor, seek training (UMT) as a means of improving in history from the College of William and Mary.
Her research interests include Cold War nuclear
to fill in the gaps by examining Marshall’s national readiness for international conflict history, postwar British and Japanese politics, and
contributions to U.S. policymaking in the or domestic emergencies. In discussing political satire in popular culture. She is a member
early Cold War period. In doing so, they Marshall’s work with his special adviser John of the 26th class of Mansfield Fellows (2022–2023).
demonstrate how Marshall’s skills, talents, McAuley Palmer to refine their concept of
and personal connections influenced a wide UMT in the interwar years, one passage reads:
range of policy decisions that would shape “Palmer based many of his ideas [for UMT] on

54 ArmyHistory SPRING 2022

chief historian’s FOOTNOTE

THE ARMY’S HISTORICAL

THINK TANK Jon T. Hoffman

A s I write this column, the eyes of the world are fixed on the
Russian invasion of Ukraine. Over the past few years, the
Department of Defense and the Army have been refocusing their
leaders in Training and Doctrine Command and throughout
the Army. They range from James C. McNaughton’s The Army in
the Pacific: A Century of Engagement (2012) through the official
attention on Indo-Pacific Command and its area of operations, history volumes of the Pacific campaigns in World War II, the
looking at the People’s Republic of China as the peer competitor Korean War, and the Vietnam War.
of most concern in the world. Events in Ukraine likely will not Another initiative is coming out of Peter Knight’s Field and
alter that long-term strategic emphasis on China, but the Russian International Division within the Field Programs Directorate.
action highlights how quickly the situation can change in the His small staff, aided by graduate research assistants, is building
here and now. In either case, the U.S. Army’s ongoing effort to a mobilization staff ride. While we tend to think of mobilization
better prepare itself for large-scale combat operations is proving these days as calling up the National Guard and the Army
to be a wise investment that is paying immediate dividends. Reserve, this seminar will focus on a full-scale mobilization
The Center of Military History (CMH) is playing a small that would require the Army to create an even bigger force for
but significant part in that preparation for major conflict. Just large-scale combat operations. The staff ride thus looks at the
recently, the Department of the Army Management Office— U.S. Army’s effort in the early days of World War II to build a
Strategy, Plans & Policies Directorate within the office of the massive army of some eight million men and women from a very
Deputy Chief of Staff, G–3/5/7, asked us to conduct a series of small prewar base, even counting the entire National Guard.
seminars on the history of Army operations in the Asian-Pacific That mobilization entailed not just obtaining personnel via
region. Two historians from the Headquarters, Department recruitment and the draft, but also building the base structure
of the Army, Studies and Support Division within the Field to train very large numbers of individuals and units, ensuring
Programs Directorate provided the first session in February. there was sufficient industrial infrastructure and labor to
William Donnelly led off with a presentation on the U.S. Army equip the massive force, developing the right organization
and the People’s Liberation Army during the Korean War. He and doctrine, and establishing a logistics pipeline that would
first described the American and Chinese war aims and how encircle the world. Our most senior leaders of today’s Army were
those strategic objectives affected each army. He then discussed not even alive when the Army last conducted a mobilization
the similarities and differences of the two armies during the of this type, so history can provide critical guidance when no
war, and how these influenced the course of the conflict. In one has any personal experience upon which they can draw.
his conclusion, he recommended Bryan Gibby’s book Korean Giving the Army’s current leaders a chance to think about how
Showdown: National Policy and Military Strategy in a Limited their predecessors created the force that won World War II will
War, 1951–1952 (University of Alabama Press, 2021) as an stand them in good stead as they contemplate how to prepare
excellent case study that links the strategic, operational, and for large-scale conflicts in the future.
tactical levels in an analysis of the war during 1952. CMH has a wealth of knowledge in its workforce and is well
Eric Setzekorn looked at Taiwan in the 1950s, where the U.S. positioned within Training and Doctrine Command to be the
Army demonstrated the ability to assist local armed forces and Army’s think tank when it comes to the use of history to inform
forge a lasting military partnership based on shared interests. current and future planning.
During the 1958 Taiwan Straits crisis, the U.S. Army helped resist
Chinese aggression through flexible and effective deployments,
as well as the targeted modernization of our ally. American
Army personnel on the front lines in Taiwan also provided vital
information to senior policymakers in the United States.
To broaden this educational effort, CMH distributed a list of
all its publications related to the Indo-Pacific Theater to senior

55
THE PROFESSIONAL BULLETIN OF ARMY HISTORY

Headquarters, Department of the Army

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