Chemlcal LarLh

1 1he /ivino ond non/ivino components of the orth contoin mixtures

O ConsLrucL word equaLlons from observaLlons and wrlLLen descrlpLlons of a ranae of chemlcal
equaLlons
Acld + 8ase SalL + WaLer
Acld + MeLal Pvdroaen + SalL
Acld + CarbonaLe SalL + WaLer + Carbon uloxlde
O denLlfv Lhe dlfference beLween elemenLs compounds and mlxLures ln Lerms of parLlcle Lheorv
1he part|c|e theory sLaLes LhaL all maLLer conslsLs of parLlcles whlch are consLanLlv movlna
L|ement An elemenL ls a pure subsLance made up of one Lvpe of aLom L cannoL be decomposed lnLo
slmpler subsLances
Compounds Compounds are pure subsLances made up of Lwo or more elemenLs L can be decomposed
lnLo slmpler subsLances
M|xtures MlxLures are subsLances made of parLs ln whlch Lhe parLs keep Lhelr own properLles 1hev are
elLher made of compounds mlxed LoaeLher elemenLs mlxed LoaeLher or boLh 1hev do noL have a
deflnlLe composlLlon
nomogenous (unlform composlLlon LhrouahouL) ea salL waLer peLrol
neterogenous (nonunlform composlLlon LhrouahouL) ea aranlLe sand
O denLlfv LhaL Lhe blosphere llLhosphere hvdrosphere and aLmosphere conLaln examples of
mlxLures of elemenLs and compounds
1he spheres of the Larth Descr|pt|on Lxamp|es
8losphere All llvlna Lhlnas 8lood Cell sap ln planLs
LlLhosphere 1he rocks and crusLs of Lhe
LarLh
Soll
Pvdrosphere 1he waLers of Lhe LarLh SalL WaLer
ALmosphere 1he aases of Lhe LarLh Alr

O denLlfv and descrlbe procedures LhaL can be used Lo separaLe naLurallv occurrlna mlxLures of

O Sollds of dlfferenL slzes |ev|ng
O Sollds and llqulds ||trat|on (SubsLance remalnlna res|due) (SubsLance passlna Lhrouah Lhe
fllLer paper f||trate)
O ulssolved sollds ln llqulds Lvaporat|on or crysta|||sat|on
O Llqulds D|st|||at|on fract|ona| d|st|||at|on or decantat|on
O ases ract|ona| D|st|||at|on
1he process of d|st|||at|on 1he separaLlon Lechnlque of dlsLlllaLlon can be used Lo separaLe llqulds of
dlfferenL bolllna polnLs bv heaLlna Lhe mlxLure wlLh a 8unsen burner 1he llquld wlLh Lhe lowesL bolllna
polnL evaporaLes flrsL and Lhen ls condensed (waLer vapour becomlna a llquld) lnLo a condenser Lo form
a llquld whlch can be collecLed 1he llquld wlLh Lhe hlaher bolllna polnL ls lefL behlnd ln a round boLLom
flask
1he process of fract|ona| d|st|||at|on
O Assess separaLlon Lechnlques for Lhelr sulLablllLv ln separaLlna examples of LarLh maLerlals
ldenLlfvlna Lhe dlfferences ln properLles whlch enable Lhese separaLlons
M|xture separated Method of separat|on roperty used |n separat|on
Sollds of dlfferenL slzes Slevlna arLlcles of dlfferenL slzes
Sollds and llqulds lllLraLlon arLlcles of dlfferenL slzes
ulssolved sollds ln llqulds CrvsLalllsaLlon Llquld has a lower bolllna polnL
Lhan solld
Llqulds ulsLlllaLlon/lracLlonal Larae/Small dlfference ln
bolllna polnLs
ases lracLlonal ulsLlllaLlon Small dlfference ln bolllna
polnLs

O uescrlbe slLuaLlons ln whlch aravlmeLrlc analvsls supplles useful daLa for chemlsLs and oLher
sclenLlsLs
ravlmeLrlc analvsls ls quanLlLaLlve analvsls bv welahL or mass Lxamples of aravlmeLrlc analvsls lnclude
1 M|n|ng company wanLs Lo know Lhe composlLlon of an ore sample Lo see lf lL ls flnanclallv
vlable Lo mlne Lhe ore
2 nea|th author|ty wanLs Lo know Lhe composlLlon of alr near an lndusLrlal area Lo see lf Lhe alr
ls polluLed
3 harmac|es can use Lhe process ln mlxlna varlous chemlcals Lo manufacLure Lhe druas

O Applv svsLemaLlc namlna of lnoraanlc compounds as Lhev are lnLroduced ln Lhe laboraLorv
namlna blnarv compounds
8lnarv compounds are Lhose LhaL conslsLs of Lwo elemenLs onlv (noLe MeLalllc ls not a blnarv
compound)
onlc CovalenL
O MeLal and nonmeLal form a O nonmeLal and nonmeLal form a
composlLlon composlLlon
O MeLal ls wrlLLen flrsL O 1he nonmeLal furLhesL Lo Lhe lefL ln Lhe
perlodlc Lable ls wrlLLen flrsL ln Lhe name
O nonmeLal modlfled wlLh 'lde'
La naCl Sodlum Chlorlde
MaC Maaneslum Chlorlde
O 8ecause nonmeLals have dlfferlna
valencles Lhe preflxes mono dl Lrl LeLra
eLc are used Lo show Lhe numbers of
aLoms of Lhe nonmeLal ln Lhe molecule
ea CC Carbon Monoxlde
CC2 Carbon uloxlde
Cova|ent ref|xes
ul Lrl LeLra penLa hexa hepLa ocL non and dec
1hev are used Lo lndlcaLe PCW MAn? aLoms Lhere are for LhaL elemenL
4/thouoh most e/ements ore found in combinotions on orth some ore found uncombined
O Lxplaln Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe reacLlvlLv of an elemenL and Lhe llkellhood of lLs exlsLlna as
an uncomblned elemenL
1he hlaher Lhe reacLlvlLv Lhe less llkelv lL ls Lo exlsL as an uncomblned elemenL Less reacLlve elemenLs
lnclude Lhe noble aases (sLable ouLer shell no reacLlon)
Plahlv reacLlve elemenLs lnclude Lhe alkall meLals (roup 1)
O Classlfv elemenLs as meLals nonmeLals and semlmeLals accordlna Lo Lhelr phvslcal properLles
Meta|s NonMeta|s em|Meta|s
O Are sollds aL room
LemperaLure excepL
mercurv (llquld)
O Plah elecLrlcal
conducLlvlLv
O Shlnv lusLre
O Malleable (hammered)
O uucLlle (drawn lnLo
wlres)
O Plah ranae melLlna and
bolllna polnL
O oor elecLrlcal
conducLlvlLv
O uull lusLre
O 8rlLLle (break when
Lrvlna Lo break Lhem)
O nonducLlle
O Low denslLv melLlna
and bolllna polnL
O oor conducLors
O roperLles of meLals
and nonmeLals (also
known as meLallolds
ea 8oron Slllcon)
O Low denslLv and
malleablllLv
O Plah lusLre ea Slllcon
ls shlnv
O Medlum ranae melLlna
and bolllna polnL

O AccounL for Lhe uses of meLals and nonmeLals ln Lerms of Lhelr phvslcal properLles
Meta|s Nonmeta|s
1 Mercury used ln LhermomeLers
llquld sLaLe expands when heaLed
2 ron used ln bulldlna consLrucLlon and
carmaklna hlah Lenslle sLrenaLh and
1 Carbon ood conducLors used ln
baLLerles
2 xygen for medlcal purposes Lo help
wlLh breaLhlna
hardness
3 Copper ood conducLors for domesLlc
appllances
3 rgon aas for fllllna llahL bulbs

/ements in orth moterio/s ore present most/y os compounds becouse of interoctions ot the otomic
/eve/
O denLlfv LhaL maLLer ls made of parLlcles LhaL are conLlnuouslv movlna and lnLeracLlna
Matter ls made of parLlcles whlch are consLanLlv movlna and lnLeracLlna 1he movemenL of Lhe parLlcles
occurs ln
o||ds arLlcles are compacLlv packed Lhev vlbraLe wlLhln Lhe space avallable (vlbraLlonal movemenL)
L|qu|ds n llqulds Lhe parLlcles are all over each oLher 1hev move abouL freelv
Gases arLlcles are well separaLed ln space and more freelv
O uescrlbe aLoms ln Lerms of mass number and aLomlc number
Mass number Lhe number of proLons plus neuLrons ln Lhe aLom
tom|c number Lhe number of proLons ln Lhe aLom
O uescrlbe quallLaLlvelv Lhe enerav levels of elecLrons ln aLoms
1he elecLron ls an exLremelv small neaaLlvelv charaed parLlcle 1/1836 Lhe mass of a proLon LlecLrons ln
an aLom move verv rapldlv and randomlv buL noL ln flxed poslLlons
L|ectron conf|gurat|on Lhe arranaemenL of elecLrons around Lhe nucleus
1hev are arranaed ln dlfferenL shells or enerav levels 1he more valence shells an aLom has Lhe more
8C1CnS nLu18CnS Anu LLLC18CnS lL conLalns 1herefore Lhere ls more enerav
O uescrlbe Lhe formaLlon of lons ln Lerms of aLoms aalnlna or loslna elecLrons
ons are charaed aLoms or charaed aroups of aLoms %rev|ew chem|stry formu|ae sheets!)
ons
MonaLomlc ons olvaLomlc ons 8adlcals
La na+ Ca2+ k+ Cl nP4+ CC32 SC42

O Applv Lhe perlodlc Lable Lo predlcL Lhe lons formed bv aLoms of meLals and nonmeLals

1 CaLlons (oslLlvelv charaed lons) lose elecLrons
2 Anlons (neaaLlvelv charaed lons) aaln elecLrons for an ocLeL (sLable shell) of elecLrons

O Applv Lewls elecLron doL sLrucLures Lo

Lhe formaLlon of lons
Lhe elecLron sharlna ln some slmple molecules
Lewls svmbols are also known as elecLron doL svmbols L conslsLs of Lhe svmbols of Lhe elemenL and Lhe
doLs represenLlna Lhe valence elecLrons
Note racLlce Lewls doL dlaarams
O uescrlbe Lhe formaLlon of lonlc compounds ln Lerms of Lhe aLLracLlon of lons of opposlLe charae
onlc compounds form from a meLal (+ve caLlon) wlLh a non meLal (ve anlon) ea naCl 1he lonlc bonds
are Lhe sLrona e|ectrostat|c attract|on beLween poslLlve and neaaLlve lons 1he formula of an lonlc
compound alves Lhe raLlo ln whlch lons are presenL (emplrlcal formula)
Note racLlce drawlna models
O uescrlbe molecules as parLlcles whlch can move lndependenLlv of each oLher
Molecules form when Lwo or more aLoms bond bv sharlna elecLrons (covalenL bonds) Molecules can
exlsL as elemenLs ea 02 n2 Cl2 and compounds ea P2C CC2 CP4 SC2 eLc
WlLhln molecule forces ntramo|ecu|ar forces (elecLrolvsls)
lorces beLween Lhe molecules ntermo|ecu|ar forces (bolllna)
O ulsLlnaulsh beLween molecules conLalnlna one aLom (Lhe noble aases) and molecules wlLh more
Lhan one aLom
Mo|ecu|es
Monatom|c Gases
La noble ases
L conLalns full ouLer shell and Lhev don'L
comblne wlLh oLher aLoms LxlsLs as slnale
aLoms
D|atom|c Gases
La C2 P2 Cl2
1wo aLoms bonded covalenLlv

O uescrlbe Lhe formaLlon of covalenL molecules ln Lerms of sharlna of elecLrons
ond|ng 1he forces LhaL hold an aLom LoaeLher ls known as bondlna 8ondlna ls of dlfferenL Lvpes
1 onlc 8ondlna
2 MeLalllc 8ondlna
3 CovalenL 8ondlna
on|c bond|ng Lhe aLLracLlons beLween Lhe poslLlve and neaaLlve lons due Lo elecLrosLaLlc aLLracLlon
Meta|||c bond|ng aLLracLlons beLween Lhe poslLlve lons and Lhe sea of delocallsed elecLrons
Cova|ent ond|ng 1he sharlna of elecLrons beLween nonmeLal aLoms (neaaLlve lons caLlons)
neroy is reouired to extroct e/ements from their noturo//y occurrino sources
O denLlfv Lhe dlfference beLween phvslcal and chemlcal chanae ln Lerms of Lhe rearranaemenL of
parLlcles

hys|ca| change ls a chanae of sLaLe wlLh no new producL made L can be easllv reversed
and less enerav chanaes are lnvolved 1he part|c|es |n a phys|ca| change are not
rearranged
ndlcaLlons of phvslcal chanaes lnclude
1 MelLlna lead
2 8olllna waLer
3 Solld dlssolvlna ln a llquld

Chem|ca| change ls Lhe formaLlon of a new subsLance wlLh a new producL made L ls
dlfflculL Lo reverse and hlah enerav chanaes are lnvolved 1he part|c|es |n a chem|ca|
change are rearranged to form new substances
ndlcaLlons of chemlcal chanaes lnclude
1 new aas formed
2 reclplLaLe (solld formed)
3 Colour chanae
4 SlanlflcanL chanae ln LemperaLure
3 ulsappearance of a preclplLaLe
6 Cdour ls produced

O Summarlse Lhe dlfferences beLween Lhe bolllna and elecLrolvsls of waLer as an example of Lhe
dlfference beLween phvslcal and chemlcal chanae
o|||ng and e|ectro|ys|s of water
o|||ng L|ectro|ys|s
1 uoes noL produce anv new subsLances
[usL a converslon of a llquld Lo aas
2 Lasllv reversed bv coollna Lhe vapour
3 8equlres less enerav
4 uoes noL alLer Lhe acLual parLlcles lL [usL
separaLes Lhem from one anoLher
1 LlecLrolvsls ls Lhe process bv whlch an
elecLrlc currenL produces a chemlcal
chanae
2 roduces Lwo new subsLances hvdroaen
and oxvaen aases le P2 and C2
3 ulfflculL Lo reverse
4 8equlres much more enerav for Lhe Lwo
aases Lo be decomposed
3 8reaks Lhe parLlcles up lnLo P2 and C2

O denLlfv llahL heaL and elecLrlclLv as Lhe common forms of enerav LhaL mav be released or
absorbed durlna Lhe decomposlLlon or svnLhesls of subsLances and ldenLlfv examples of Lhese
chanaes occurrlna ln evervdav llfe

1 LlahL alven off ofLen ln ox|d|zat|on
2 PeaL alven off ln all exotherm|c reacLlons
3 LlecLrlclLv alven off ln react|ons occurrlna wlLhln a battery

Decompos|t|on (breaklna of a chemlcal subsLance lnLo slmpler subsLances) occurrlna ln evervdav llfe

1 Sodlum Azlde decomposes Lo sodlum and n aas alr baa
2 LlmesLone calclum carbonaLe ls decomposed Lo CC
2
and CaC Lo make alass cemenL eLc

ynthes|s (formaLlon of a compound from slmpler compounds or elemenLs) ln evervdav llfe

1 8usL le leC
2 8urnlna coal C CC
2


O Lxplaln LhaL Lhe amounL of enerav needed Lo separaLe aLoms ln a compound ls an lndlcaLlon of
Lhe sLrenaLh of Lhe aLLracLlon or bond beLween Lhem
1he sLronaer Lhe chemlcal bondlna ln a compound Lhe more enerav LhaL ls requlred Lo break Lhe
compound lnLo aLoms AlLernaLlvelv Lhe sLronaer Lhe chemlcal bondlna ln a compound Lhe more
enerav LhaL ls released when Lhe compound ls formed from lLs aLoms
1he properties of e/ements ond compounds ore determined by their bondino structure
O denLlfv Lhe dlfferences beLween phvslcal and chemlcal properLles of elemenLs compounds and
mlxLures
hys|ca| propert|es are Lhose relaLed Lo chanaes of sLaLe and phvslcal chanaes lncludlna lusLre
hardness ducLlllLv conducLlvlLv eLc

Chem|ca| propert|es lnclude relaLlna Lo chemlcal chanaes lncludlna reacLlvlLv and valencv
whlch bonds wlll work and whlch won'L eLc
O uescrlbe Lhe phvslcal properLles used Lo classlfv compounds as lonlc or covalenL molecular of
covalenL neLwork

Molecular sollds LaLLlce Sollds
CovalenL molecular MeLalllc onlc CovalenL neLwork
MelLlna and bolllna Low varlable Plah verv hlah
polnLs
ConducL
elecLrlclLv?
no ?es As solld no
MolLen ves
ulssolved ?es
no
Pardness and/or
workablllLv
SofL varlable
hardness
malleable and
ducLlle
Pard and
brlLLle
Pard and brlLLle
lorces holdlna
parLlcles LoaeLher
ln Lhe solld
nLermolecular
(beLween
molecules)
uelocallzed
elecLrons
(meLalllc
bondlna)
LlecLrosLaLlc CovalenL bondlna
LhrouahouL Lhe
crvsLal



O ulsLlnaulsh beLween meLalllc lonlc and covalenL bonds
Meta|||c bonds are held LoaeLher bv a sea of delocallzed elecLrons wlLh poslLlve lons (caLlons)
on|c bonds are held LoaeLher bv Lhe elecLrosLaLlc aLLracLlon of poslLlve and neaaLlve lons
Cova|ent bonds are held LoaeLher beLween anlons (neaaLlvelv charaed lons) wlLh weak lnLermolecular
forces
O uescrlbe meLals as Lhreedlmenslonal laLLlces of lons ln a sea of elecLrons
MeLalllc bondlna resulLs ln an orderlv 3u arrav of poslLlve lons held LoaeLher bv a 'sea' of delocallsed
elecLrons (valence elecLrons onlv) 1hese elecLrons move freelv LhrouahouL Lhe laLLlce holdlna lL
LoaeLher and causlna Lhe meLal Lo be a conducLor of elecLrlclLv 1hese delocallsed elecLrons also hold
Lhe meLal LoaeLher when dlsLorLed Lhus maklna meLals malleable and ducLlle 1he laLLlce formaLlon
makes meLals hard
O uescrlbe lonlc compounds ln Lerms of repeaLlna Lhreedlmenslonal laLLlces of lons
onlc bondlna forms crvsLals Lhe elecLrosLaLlc aLLracLlon beLween Lhe opposlLe charaes exLends
LhrouahouL Lhe enLlre laLLlce 1hls sLrona aLLracLlon makes lonlc subsLances hard buL also brlLLle
dlsLorLlna Lhe crvsLal brlna opposlLe charaes LoaeLher Lhev repel each oLher causlna Lhe crvsLal Lo
shaLLer 1hls orderlv arrav means LhaL ln solld form lonlc subsLances do noL conducL elecLrlclLv Lhe lons
are noL free Lo move Lowards a charaed elecLrode Powever when melLed or dlssolved ln waLer Lhe
arranaemenL of lons ls broken up allowlna Lhe lons Lo move Lowards an elecLrode hence conducLlna
elecLrlclLv
O Lxplaln whv Lhe formula for an lonlc compound ls an emplrlcal formula
Lmp|r|ca| ormu|a ls Lhe lowesL raLlo formula L does noL Lell vou Lhe number of aLoms presenL
lor example -f means LhaL for everv 1 na Lhere ls 1 Cl (noL Lhe exacL amounL of each elemenL)
1be empltlcf fotmof ls oseJ fot loolc compoooJs becfose tbe slze of tbe fttlce ls ookoowo
tbetefote f tftlo most be oseJ

AnoLher example ls alucose
C
6
P
12
C
6
ls lLs molecular formula whereas lLs emplrlcal formula (lowesL raLlo) ls CP
2
C
Mo|ecu|ar ormu|a does Lell vou Lhe number of aLoms presenL
O denLlfv common elemenLs LhaL exlsL as molecules or as covalenL laLLlces
Cova|ent Mo|ecu|es
noble aases (monaLomlc)
P2 C2 l2 n2 and Cl2 (dlaLomlc aases)
8r2 (llquld) and 2 (solld)
Cova|ent Latt|ces
Carbon dlamond (3u) and araphlLe (2u)
O Lxplaln Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe properLles of conducLlvlLv and hardness and Lhe sLrucLure
of lonlc covalenL molecular and covalenL neLwork sLrucLures
on|c Latt|ces Lhe sLrona elecLrosLaLlc aLLracLlon beLween Lhe lons makes lonlc subsLances hard and
Lhev are brlLLle because anv dlsLorLlon of Lhe crvsLal brlnas opposlLe charaes lnLo conLacL and Lhev repel
each oLher As sollds Lhev do noL conducL elecLrlclLv as Lhelr 'orderlv arrav' does noL allow Lhe lons Lo
mlaraLe Lowards a charaed elecLrode When melLed or dlssolved ln an aqueous soluLlon Lhe orderlv
arranaemenL ls broken up allowlna for Lhe movemenL of lons Lowards Lhe opposlLelv charaed elecLrode
Cova|ent mo|ecu|es covalenL molecular subsLances are sofL because Lhelr lnLermolecular forces (forces
beLween palrs of molecules) are weak 1hese weak lnLermolecular forces also mean LhaL covalenL
molecular have low melLlna and bolllna polnLs 8ecause covalenL molecules are a neuLral specles Lhev
do noL conducL elecLrlclLv as a pure subsLance or ln a soluLlon however some covalenL subsLances
reacL wlLh waLer when mlxed and form lons capable of conducLlna elecLrlclLv La hvdroaen peroxlde F
hvdrochlorlc acld
Cova|ent network so||ds covalenL laLLlces are verv hard and brlLLle (ea dlamond quarLz) due Lo Lhe
covalenL bonds LhaL exLend LhrouahouL Lhe enLlre laLLlce AparL from araphlLe covalenL laLLlces do noL
conducL elecLrlclLv as Lhev do noL conLaln anv lons and all Lhe elecLrons are Lled up ln covalenL bonds