Libs 803: Research Methodology

Distance Learning Centre

Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria, Nigeria

LIBS 893:
Research Principles & Analysis

Course Material

Program: Masters in Information Management

(MIM)

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

© Distance Learning Centre, ABU Zaria, Nigeria, 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the Director, Distance Learning Centre, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

First published 2018 in Nigeria

Published and Printed by

Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited
Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
Tel.: 08065949711.
e-mail: [email protected];
[email protected]

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

Course Writers/
Development Team
Editor
Prof. M.I Sule

Course Materials Development Overseer

Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria

Subject Matter Expert

Dr Hayatu Musa

Subject Matter Reviewer

Abdullahi Hussaini

Language Reviewer
Enegoloinu Adakole

Instructional Designers/Graphics
Ibrahim Otukoya, Abubakar Haruna

Proposed Course Coordinator

Abdullahi Hussaini

ODL Expert
Dr Hayatu Musa

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

QUOTE
Open and Distance Learning has the exceptional ability of meeting the challenges of the three
vectors of dilemma in education delivery – Access, Quality and Cost.
– Sir John Daniels

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

Contents
Copyright Page ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ii
Course Writers/Development Team... ... ... ... ... ... ... iii
Content… … … … … … … … … … … v

COURSE STUDY GUIDE... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
i. Course Information ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1
ii. Course Introduction and Description ... ... ... ... ... 3
iii. Course Prerequisites ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3
iv. Course Learning Resources ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3
v. Course Objectives and Outcomes ... ... ... ... ... ... 5
vi. Activities to Meet Course Objectives... ... ... ... ... ... 6
vii. Time (To complete Syllabus/Course) ... ... ... ... ... ... 6
viii. Grading Criteria and Scale ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8
ix. OER Resources ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10
x. ABU DLC Academic Calendar ... ... ... ... ... ... 11
xi. Course Structure and Outline

xii. STUDY MODULES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17
1.0 Module 1: An Overview of Research... ... ... ... ... ... 17
Study Session 1: Introduction to Research ... ... ... ... ... ... 17
Study Session 2: Types of Research ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23
Study Session 3: Ethical Issues in Research ... ... ... ... ... ... 32
Study Session 4: Qualitative Research... ... ... ... ... ... ...

2.0 Module 2: The Research Process... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43
Study Session 1: Identifying and Formulating research problem ... ... ... 43
Study Session 2: Research Paradigm, Literature Review and Theoretical Framework... 55
Study Session 3: Research objective and Variable Measurement ... ... ... 63
Study Session 4: The Research Design ... ... ... ... ... ... 72

3.0 Module 3: Data Presentation and Analysis... ... ... ... ... ... 83
Study Session 1: Sample Design and Instrument for Data Collection... ... ... 83
Study Session 2: Data Collection and Analysis ... ... ... ... ... 91
Study Session 3:The Research Hypothesis ... ... ... ... ... ... 101
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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

Study Session 4: Writing a Research Report ... ... ... ... ... 110

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Course Study
Guide
Course Information

Course code: LIBS 803

Course Title: Research Methodology
Credit units: 3 credit units
Year: One
Semester: First

Preamble
You are welcome to Research Methodology, LIBS 803. A class that will prepare
you to be able to conduct an independent research. I look forward to a rewarding
semester with you. This course is a three-part process from concepts to
applications, delivery and implementation. Each part consists of several central
concepts and steps in research, investigations and analysis. The following is a
description of the stages and steps for your development. This document is based
on the past practices and current directions of research into contemporary course
design and quality assurance practices. You are expected to feel free to compare
the content of this document with similar others in other academic institutions and
report any cogent variation for possible input into this document or the course for
its development process based on contemporary best academic practices.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Introduction and
Description
Course Introduction:
This course will introduce you to the basics of Research Methodology. This Course
is designed to expose them to the theory and practices of researches as applied in
management research. In this course, they will learn to approach qualitative and
quantitative researches as iterative processes revolving around research problems
and issues of interest to modern management executives as day to day decision
makers. Emphasis is given to understanding and application of basic research
concepts and principles as applied in management researches and activities.

Course Description:
This course is about exposing you to the theory and practice of qualitative and
quantitative researches. In this course, you will learn how to approach qualitative
and quantitative research as iterative processes revolving around research problems
and issues of interest to modern management executives as day to day decision
makers. The course is also designed to deepen your thinking about qualitative and
quantitative research, data, problems, interests, questions. It is also to develop
students‘ competence in both theory and application of research methodology as
commonly used in management /administration research. In this course, you will
be acquainted with varying procedures of sampling design, data collection,
hypothesis testing and analysis required for carrying out independent research

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

project. The course will draw your attention to important but usually neglected
ethical issues in research management.

Plagiarism: Essentially, you should ensure that all works submitted for any
academic purpose are from their personal efforts/contributions. Plagiarism is a
form of dishonest practice. Plagiarism is defined as copying or paraphrasing
someone else‘s work and presented as one's own without due necessary
acknowledgements. In practice, this means plagiarism includes any attempt to by
whosoever to submit/present someone else piece of work (e.g. an assignment or
test) as one's own work (whether of another student or a published authority).

Anyone found responsible for plagiarism in any piece of work submitted for
assessment shall be penalised in accordance with the University rules and
regulations as they affect plagiarism. The possible penalties may include forfeiture
of marks for the piece of work submitted leading to obtaining a zero grade for the
paper. In extreme cases, it could lead to expulsion from the University.

i. COURSE PREREQUISITES
Basically, the prerequisites of the course are that students should possess:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills

ii. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

There are no specific/dedicated textbooks assigned for the course.
Notwithstanding, students are encouraged to consult some other relevant texts
in addition to the listed ones for further reading at the end of each study session.

iii. COURSE OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOME

After studying this course, students should be able to, in quantifiable and
measurable perspectives:
1. explain the basic concepts and principles of research as applied in
management/ administrative processes and practices;

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2. employ appropriate research methodologies to conduct researches;

3. integrate knowledge in the area of research into core areas of management;
4. conduct independent research of all kinds;
5. collect appropriate data using appropriate research designs and instruments;
and
6. successfully collate, analyse, interpret and discuss collected data and
highlight the implications of the findings for necessary management/
administrative decisions.

The objectives of the course will be achieved through presentations, discussions

and group work. The effectiveness at achieving the objectives will be assessed
through tests and the evaluation of students‘ performance with regard to
presentations, discussions, written work, examinations and performance measured
in their ability to tackle the relevant questions.

Specifically, the primary aim of this course is to review, deepen, and broaden your
understanding of research methodology concepts and frameworks; and to allow
them gain experience in applying them to real management challenges as decision
makers. Besides, the overriding objective of an MIM programme is to develop
sound all round decision-makers.

Major Learning Outcomes:

After studying this course, students are expected to be able to:
1. understand and discuss the basic concepts of research methodology;
2. understand the basic concepts and principles of research;
3. develop ability to appreciate and use appropriate research methods;
4.conduct researches as student researcher, an independent research
manager/administrator or research scholar ready to integrate researched
knowledge in the core areas of management practices;
5.conduct independent research;
6.collect appropriate data using relevant research designs and instruments; and
7. successfully collate, analyse, interpret and discuss collected data and
highlight the implications of the findings for appropriate management/
administrative decisions.

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iv. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Our interest in this class is for students to understand research methodology and
how they can put it into use. They are also to know about diverse managerial and
administrative challenges and understand how to harmonise various research
efforts to bring about the needed results for the day to day decisions of managers
and administrators. Class sessions will be ran primarily as seminar with emphasis
on discussing assigned readings materials and other assignments.

Individual and group assignments will provide the basis of your assessment for
much of the work in the class. It is therefore expected that you read and study each
question or assignment and be fully prepared for the assignments to be given out as
the class progresses. Topical discussion will also form part of your assessments.
Thus, you are to be adequately ready and prepared to discuss issues raised and
presented for their intelligent interrogations, discussions, arguments and
contributions as ways of expressing themselves willingly to enrich class
sessions/discussions without bias or sentiments. Thus, your participation in such
class sessions will be judged by the extent of their contributions.

Group discussion will be run primarily as assignments too. Each topic shall be
assigned to you or a group of you to write and upload on a programme block.
Where a group is assigned, each member is expected to show evidence of personal
contribution. The assignments are contained in the course materials/resources.
Groups‘‘ responses to each assignment or question are to be submitted
accordingly. They will be recognised and rewarded accordingly.
Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios
3. Watching relevant course videos
4. Course assignments (individual and group)
5. Forum discussion participation
6. Tutorials (optional)
7. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based {pen on paper}).

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v. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLLABUS/COURSE)

In order to cope with this course, students are expected to commit a minimum of 3
hours weekly during the contact semester.

vi. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10

B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

CBT based 30
Essay based(pen on paper) 30
TOTAL 100%

C. Grading Scale:
A = 70-100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
D = 45-49
F = 0-44

D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)

Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments

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Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).
vii. LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES
OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or
open software.
School Forge and Source Forge are good places to find, create, and publish
open software. Source Forge for one item could have about millions of
downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials
for children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently
launched the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application,
and impact of "openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
 OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of
colleges and rankings of college degree programmes
 Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
 OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary
school through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and
high school resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
 Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a
friendly search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford,
and other universities with subject and description listings
 Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
 JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects
including digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!

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Other sources for open education resources

Universities
 The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for
Teacher Education (ORBIT)
 OpenLearn from Open University in the UK

Global
 Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and
research initiatives
 African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on
subjects in English, French, and Portuguese
 https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software
that is designed to let anyone create online education courses
 Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community
of bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world,
including on open source and open educational resources

Individuals (which include OERs)

 Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
 K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
 Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
 Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source
software
 Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age,
grade, or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)

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ix. COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE

Course Structure
WEEKS MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY
Week 1 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 1: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Introduction to Research https://goo.gl/E7iYAb
Pp. 27 https://goo.gl/Bbr96J)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2JVPSXG)
Week 2 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Types of Research https://goo.gl/fWkoHj
Pp. 35 https://goo.gl/CkyoCY)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
STUDY https://bit.ly/2JBWivY)
Week 3
MODULE 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 3 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Ethical Issues in Research https://goo.gl/BrZn9j
Pp. 47 https://goo.gl/tDGyHy)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

https://bit.ly/2EnpnH9)

Week 4 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 4 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Types of Research https://goo.gl/zaGd3a
Pp. 62 https://goo.gl/xaLw6x)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2vLpoAc)
Week 5 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Identifying and 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Formulating Research https://goo.gl/RVknVc
Problem https://goo.gl/SP54pN)
Pp. 76 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2MfPrtU)
Week 6 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
STUDY Study Session 2 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
MODULE Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
2 Research Paradigm, Literature 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Review and https://goo.gl/BFgs7j
Theoretical Framework https://goo.gl/2LnXdo)
Pp. 90 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2Ew3B46)

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Week 7 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 3 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Research Objective and https://goo.gl/VdQRrM
Measurement of https://goo.gl/9fjBGz)
Variable 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
Pp. 100 https://bit.ly/2JAEC3O)
Week 8 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Study Session 4 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
The Research Design https://goo.gl/FZYMyS
Pp. 111 https://goo.gl/vj74F7)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2JCQcvc)
Week 9 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Study Session 1 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Sample Design and 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Instrument For Data https://goo.gl/NX8orT
Collection https://goo.gl/cBrt16)
Pp. 126 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2X2bS75)

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Week 10 STUDY 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
MODULE Study Session 2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
3 Title: 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Data Collection and https://goo.gl/FxJL54
Analysis https://goo.gl/diq3Jh)
Pp. 137 5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2wfcsmf , https://bit.ly/2HUVdf8)
Week 11 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.
Study Session 3 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Reporting Research 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Findings https://goo.gl/aV4awT
Pp. 151 https://goo.gl/BJm97p)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/2Wk7TWh)

Week 12 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Study Session 4 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Title: 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
The Research 4. View any other Video/U-tube (address/site
Hypothesis https://goo.gl/diAWzq
Pp. 161 https://goo.gl/1azFzc)
5. View referred Animation (Address/Site
https://bit.ly/1tYwl9G)
Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online) &
CONSOLIDATION WEEK
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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Week 14 & 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

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Course Outline
Module 1: An Overview of Research
Study Session 1: Introduction to Research
Study Session 2: Types of Research
Study Session 3: Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Study Session 4: Ethical Issues in Research

Module 2: The Research Process

Study Session 1: Identifying and Formulating research problem
Study Session 2: Formulation of Research Objectives, Questions and Hypothesis
Study Session 3: Research Paradigm, Literature Review and Theoretical
Framework
Study Session 3: Research objective and Variable Measurement
Study Session 4: The Research Design

Module 3: Data Presentation and Analysis

Study Session 1: Sample Design and Instrument for Data Collection
Study Session 2: Data Collection and Analysis
Study Session 3: The Research Hypothesis Testing
Study Session 4: Reporting Research Findings

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Study Modules

MODULE 1: An Overview of Research

Contents:
Study Session 1: Introduction to Research
Study Session 2: Types of Research
Study Session 3: Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Study Session 4: Ethical Issues in Research

Study Session 1
Introduction to Research
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Definition of Research
2.2 - Objectives of Research
2.3 - Importance of Research
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out- of- Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
This is first study module in this session. You are to learn more about the various
definitions of research, the objectives of research as well as the importance of
conducting research. Please, do stay tune as we will start with the learning outcome
of this study.

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1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of the study of this session, you will be able to:
1. define research in various forms;
2. highlight the objectives of research; and
3. explain the importance of research

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Definition of Research
Let‘s start with brief explanation of the term ‗research‘.
‗Research‟ comprises of two words Re + Search. It means search again. So
research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new knowledge of the
already existing facts. Research is an intellectual activity. It is necessary for
bringing to light new knowledge. It is
also essential to correct past or present
mistakes; remove past or existing
misconceptions; and add new learning
to the existing pond of knowledge.

Fig 1.1.1: Definition of Research

We should note that research is also considered as the application of scientific

method in solving problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of
employing scientific method of analysis. There are many ways of obtaining
knowledge such as through intuition, revelation, authority, logical manipulation of
basic assumptions, informed guesses, observation, and reasoning by analogy.
Scholars across various academic disciplines have defined research. For example:

In the field of Humanities, Younge (1960) defined social research as ―a scientific

undertaking which by means of logical and systematized techniques aims to
discover new facts or verify and test old facts, analyse their sequences ,
interrelationships and casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate
theoretical frame of reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and theories
which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour.‖

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

In Education, Creswell (2012) opined that ―research is a process of steps used to

collect and analyse information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue".
It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and
present an answer to the question‖.

In the field of Library and Information Science, Hernon (1991) defined

research as ―an inquiry process that has clearly defined parameters and has as its
aim, the: discovery or creation of knowledge, or theory building; testing,
confirmation, revision, refutation of knowledge and theory; and/or investigation of
a problem for local decision making‖.
It can be observed that there are some common points in all these definitions. They
all agree that research is an inquiry aimed at the discovery of knowledge about
whatever. Since the concept of research is understood, it is important we know the
purpose for which research is conducted. Study that in the next subheading

ITQ: What is research?

ITA: Research is a systematic process of finding the cause of a problem and data
collection, analysis interpretation and discussion of the implication of the findings to
proffer solutions to the problem

2.2 Objectives of Research

Each research study has its own specific objectives. However, some general
objectives of research are:
(i) to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.
(Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formative
research studies).
(ii) to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation
or a group. (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive
research studies).
(iii) to determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated with something else.
(Studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies).
(iv) to test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between or among variables.
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Libs 803: Research Methodology

(Such studies are known as

hypothesis-testing research studies).

Fig 1.1.2: Objectives of Research

ITQ: Relate any general objective of research?

ITA: To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. A
phenomenon could be any social issue/problem.

2.3 Importance of Research

The following are the three primary importance of research:
(1) Additions to Knowledge
(2) Improvements of practices and
(3) Informed policy formulation and discourse

2.3.1 Research adds to Knowledge

Research is undertaken to contribute to existing information about
issues/problems. Through research, results that help to answer questions are
developed. By accumulation research results, deeper understandings of problems
come to light. In this way, researchers can be seen more like bricklayers who build
a wall brick by brick, continually adding to the wall. In the process, they create
stronger structure. How can research add to knowledge and existing literature?
Research report could provide a study that has not been conducted and thus fill
gaps in existing knowledge. It can also provide additional results to confirm or
disconfirm results of prior studies. It can help add to the literature about practices
that work or advance better practices that educators might try in their educational
settings. It can provide information about people and places that have not been
previously studied.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

2.3.2 Research improves practice

Research is also important because it suggests improvements for practice.
Information managers become more effective with utilisation of results from
researches in the field. This effectiveness translates into better services provision
for users of customers. Research also helps practitioners evaluate approaches that
will hopefully work with individuals in educational settings. This process involves
sifting through research findings to determine which results will be most relevant
and useful.

2.3.3 Research informs policy formulation and discourse

In addition to helping information managers become better practitioners, research
outcomes also provide information to policy makers when they research and debate
issues concerning the target institution. By and large, policy makers may range
from Federal Government employees and State workers to local school board
members and administrators. In the educational sector for example, they discuss
and take decisions on educational issues important to constituencies. For these
individuals, research will offer results that can help them weigh various options to
go for. When policy makers read about researches on issues, they will be better
informed about current debates and stances taken by other public officials on the
matter of concern. In order to be useful, researches need to have clear results, be
summarized in a concise fashion, and include data-based evidences.

ITQ: Why is Research important?

ITA: Research adds to knowledge, improves practice and ensure informed policy formulation
process.

3.0 Session Conclusion/Summary

The word research is made up of two syllables, re and search. Re-is a prefix
meaning again, anew or over again while search is a verb meaning to examine
closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together, they form a noun called
research. It can be defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that line an
individual‘s speculations with reality or to answer a certain question or solve a
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Libs 803: Research Methodology

problem. In this session, students have learnt the various definition of research, the
objectives of research and the importance of research, the processes of research
were also discussed.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the concept of research in social and physical science.
2. Explain the reason why people conduct research in the local communities,
organisations and the world at large.
3. Discuss the importance of research to our communities, organisations and
the world at large.
4. What are the processes that make a study to be called research?
5. Discuss in detail, the objectives of research.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/E7iYAb , https://goo.gl/Bbr96J. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2JVPSXG and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Beasley, M. R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research. Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. (4th ed) Boston, MA:
Pearson.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,

http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.
Yenza Research methodology, in, http://
www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Study Session 2
Types of Research
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1- General Classification of Research
2.2 - Classification based on Objectives of the Research
2.2.1- Descriptive research:
2.2.2 - Correlational research:
2.2.3 - Explanatory research:
2.2.4 - Exploratory research:
2.3 - Classification based on Inquiry Mode of Research
2.3.1 - Structured approach
2.3.2 - Unstructured approach
2.3.3 - Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
2.4 - Normal and Revolutionary Researches
2.5 - Characteristics of Research
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
Welcome to study session two of this course. So far, we have learnt the general
meaning and importance of research. This session will introduce types of research.
Fundamentally, research can be classified into two perspectives. That is, the
purpose for which it is being conducted and the method by which it is conducted.
More specifically, students will learn about pure research, applied research,
descriptive research, correlational research, explorative research, experimental
research as well as qualitative and quantitative research in this session. Before we

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continue with our discussion on the types of research, it is important we highlight

the learning outcome of this study session. They are spelt out as follows:

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this session, students should be able to:
1. Identify the general classification of research study,
2. Discuss classification of research based on objectives of the research,
3. Highlight the classification of research based on inquiry mode employed for
a research, and
4. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative research.
5. Identify normal and Revolutionary researches and
6. Explain the characteristics of research.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 General Classification of Research
There are two General classifications of research. They are pure research and
applied research.

Pure Research: This involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that
are intellectually challenging to the researcher. They might or might not have
practical application at the present time or in the future. The key thing to be noted
is that the knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to
the existing body of knowledge and literature.

Applied research: this type of research is conducted to practically solve specific

problems or questions for policy formulation, administration and understanding of
a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. Most often, it is
done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by
academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as
Universities ought to have specific applied research programmes funded by
whoever including an industrial partners interested in that programme.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Fig 1.2.1: General Classification of Research

TQ: What are the two general classification of research?

ITA: Pure and Applied Research

2.2 Classification based on Objectives of the Research

The first discussion on the types of research highlighted pure and applied research.
The next focus is its classification from the viewpoint of the objectives. A research
can be classified as descriptive, correlation, explanatory and exploratory.

Descriptive research: This type of research attempts to systematically describe a

situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme. Also, it provides
information about, say, living condition of a community or describes attitudes
towards an issue.
Correlational research: This type of research attempts to discover or establish the
existence of a relationship or interdependence between or among various aspects of
a situation.
Explanatory research: This type of research attempts to clarify why and how
there is a relationship between or among various aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
Exploratory research: This type of research is undertaken to explore an area
where little is known about or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study (feasibility study or pilot study). However, in practice,
most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

ITQ: Describe exploratory Research?

ITA: It is a type of research undertaken to investigate an area where little is known about it. It
is usually investigative in nature.

2.3 Inquiry Mode

The last classification/ type of research to be studied is the process adopted to find
answers to research questions. The two approaches are structured approach and
unstructured approach.

Structured approach
The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research. In
this case, everything that forms the research process such as objectives, design,
sample and the questions to be asked of respondents is predetermined. It is more
appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation. For example: how many people have a particular
problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach
The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It explores
the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. The main
objective of unstructured approach is to describe the variations in a phenomenon,
situation or attitude. Examples are: description of an observed situation; the
historical enumeration of events; an account of different opinions people have
about an issue; and description of working condition in particular work places etc.

However, both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths
and weaknesses. In some studies, a researcher may have to combine both
qualitative and quantitative approaches. An example is finding the types of cuisine
/ accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity. Hence, the
types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them
entails description of the culture and cuisine. Whereas the extent of their popularity
is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit
restaurants serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the
extent of popularity.
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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

ITQ: What are the classifications of research based on inquiry method used?
ITA: Structured and Unstructured approaches

2.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both.
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount such as
the study of two or more variables (Dependent and Independent). The process is
expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities.

Fig 1.2.2: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

The result of such research is essentially expressed in numerical figures.

Some of the characteristics of quantitative research method are:

1. it is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses
numbers;
2. it is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated;
3. the results are often presented in tables and graphs;
4. it is conclusive;
5. It investigates the what, where, how and when for decision making.
6. It studies the relationship between and among variables.

Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research. It

is applied not only in physical and natural sciences, but also in social sciences and
humanity. Application of quantitative research methodology using statistical
methods often involves collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis or

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 Libs 803: Research Methodology

experiment, followed by application of descriptive or inferential statistical

methods.

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative aspects of phenomenon as it

relates to quality.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research method are:
1. it is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words;
2. its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation;
3. qualitative data cannot be graphed;
4. it is exploratory;
5. it investigates the why and how of decision making.

Things are measured and weighted in the study of substance or structure. For
instance, can patterns of whatever be measured or weighted? Certainly, they cannot
be measured or weighted Thus, to study patterns; there is the need to map a
configuration of relationships. That is, structures involve quantities whereas
patterns involve qualities. If one wishes to investigate why certain data are random,
then it is a qualitative research. If the aim is to study how random data is, what is
the mean, variance and distribution function? It then becomes quantitative.
Explaining how digestion of food takes place in our body is a qualitative
description. It does not involve any numbers or data and quantities. However, the
detection of a particular compound is a qualitative analysis. This can be done by
carrying out physical or chemical tests.
Determination of exact amount of a
particular compound present in a volume
is essentially quantitative analysis. This
can be done by volumetric, gravimetric
and colorimetric methods or instrumental
methods. Experimental and simulation
studies are generally quantitative
Fig 1.2.3: Characteristics of Research
research.

In fact, qualitative methods can be used to understand the meaning of the numbers
obtained by quantitative methods.

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ITQ: what is the major difference between quantitative and qualitative researches?
ITA: quantitative researches study the relationship between two or more variables using
numerals while qualitative researches explore a phenomenon of interest by trying to
understand the meaning that participants being studied ascribe to the phenomenon.

2.5 Normal and Revolutionary Researches

Basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds: normal research and
revolutionary research. In any particular field, normal research is performed in
accordance with a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is
well accepted by the scientists working in that field. Normal research is something
like puzzle-solving. Interesting, even beautiful, solutions are found but the rules
could be the same. In normal research, sometimes unexpected novel results and
discoveries are realized which are inconsistent with the existing paradigm.

Among scientist, a tense situation then ensures, which increase in intensity until a
scientific revolution is reached. This is marked by a paradigm shift and a new
paradigm emerges under which normal scientific activity can be resumed.

ITQ: Describe normal research

ITA: Any research that is conducted in accordance with set rules, concepts and procedures
(paradigm) of a particular discipline.

2.5 Characteristics of Research

It is clearly understood that research is a process of collecting, analysing and
interpreting information to answer questions. However, to know that the process,
there is to have certain characteristics to qualify as research. It must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical. How each of the characteristic contributes to research.

Controlled: In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept
of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors),
one sets up a study in a way that minimise the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences
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Libs 803: Research Methodology

(cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the

social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is
carried out on issues relating to human beings living in society, where such
controls are not possible. Thus; in hospitality and tourism, as one cannot control
external factors, attempt is made to quantify their impact.

Rigorous: There is the need to be careful in ensuring that the procedures being
followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
However, the degree of rigour may vary markedly between the physical and social
sciences and within the social sciences.

Systematic: This implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation

follows certain logical sequence. What is meant is that the different steps cannot be
taken in a haphazard way. Some steps/procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable: This concept implies that whatever is concluded on the basis
of findings is considered to be correct and can be verified by whomever.

Empirical: This means that any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is
crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be fool proof and
free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to
withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above
characteristics.

ITQ: list the characteristics of a good research?

ITA: controlled, Rigorous, systematic, Valid/verifiable, Empirical and critical

3.0 Conclusion/Summary
This session has introduced students to the various types of research.
Fundamentally, research can be classified into two perspectives; the purpose for
which it was conducted and the method by which it is conducted. More
specifically, the pure research, applied research, descriptive research, correlational
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Libs 803: Research Methodology

research, explorative research, experimental research as well as qualitative and

quantitative research have been learnt in this session. Structured and unstructured
approaches to research have also been discussed.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Differentiate between structured and unstructured approaches to research.
2. List five research topics that are suitable for qualitative research and another
five research topics that are suitable for quantitative research.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/fWkoHj , https://goo.gl/CkyoCY. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2JBWivY and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings.

Beasley, M.R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999). The History of Science in the
Eighteenth Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.
Yenza Research Nmethodology, in, http://
www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Study Session 3
Ethical Issues in Research

Section and Subsection Headings

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Research Involving Human Participants
2.1.1 - Therapeutic research:
2.1.2 - Non-therapeutic research:
2.2 - Why does Research with Human Participants require Ethical approval?
2.3 - Ethical Principles underpinning Research
2.3.1 Veracity:
2.3.2 Respect for Vulnerable Persons:
2.3.3 Privacy and Confidentiality:
2.3.4 Justice and Inclusiveness:
2.3.5 Harms and Benefits:
2.4 - Participant- Centred Perspective
2.5 - Ethical Issues in the Research Process itself
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
This is study session 3. In the previous session, effort was made to explore the
world of research and its types.
This session will further enhance students‘ understanding of research as they will
learn the ethics of research. Research is primarily driven by the desire for new
knowledge and understanding of phenomena beneficial to the target audience and
the society at large.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. identify ethical issues involving research participants;
2. explain why research requires ethical approval;
3. highlight the ethical principles underpinning research; and
4. discuss ethical issues in the research processes.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Research Involving Human Participants
The conduct of researchers is under close scrutiny, largely due to the likely
incidences of maltreatment of research participants and the demand for high
quality and ethically appropriate research (Department of Health, 2001/2005,
ESRC 2005).

As a researcher, one has a clear responsibility to ensure that the rights and general
well-being of participants are recognized and protected regardless of the nature of
the research. Codes of practice in research provide guidelines that reinforce the
basic principles of both human rights and ethics. Many ethical aspects are legally
enforceable (Eby, 1985).
It has been discovered that the Nazi atrocities during the Second World War,
significantly violated the basic principles of human rights as a result of which, the
first code of practice for ethical research was developed (Dempsey and Dempsey,
1992) (The Nuremburg Code of Ethical Practice). This provided the basis for the
development of the recommendations involving Human Subjects (Declaration of
Helsinki) adopted by the World Medical Assembly in 1964. This clearly
differentiates between therapeutic and non-therapeutic research (Levine, 1979) viz:

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Fig 1.3.1: Research Involving Human Participants

2.1.1 Therapeutic research: Research offers participants an opportunity to receive

an experimental treatment that may have beneficial effects (e.g. treatment with an
experimental drug).

2.1.2 Non-therapeutic research: Research permits the generation of knowledge

that may benefit future generations but which is unlikely to benefit those involved.
A majority of researches carried out in University as either staff or students, fall
into the on-therapeutic category.

The Helsinki Declaration illustrates the ethical issues that must be considered in
undertaking research involving human participations. Such issues are based on
respect for human dignity, autonomy (self-determination), truth (veracity) and
justice. There must be no preferential advantage to potential participants and there
must be no inducement to participate.

These considerations have been defined as reflecting the conflict between the
protection of human rights and the generation of knowledge (Ford and Reuter,
1990). This means that researchers (you) must take particular care to ensure that
people are not exploited or harmed in anyway by the conduct of research. Though
this may be difficult to achieve since it is possible that the work was designed to
generate knowledge that will ultimately have many benefits in the short term at
least, or at best has no effect; and at worst, be clearly deleterious to those
concerned.

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Thus, involving human participants in research places a significant emphasis on

the principles of autonomy and informed consent. It stresses the need for truth
and disclosure of relevant information. Respect for human dignity is therefore,
the cardinal ethical principle underlying research ethics. It is intended to protect the
interests and the physical, psychological or cultural integrity of the individual. This
in turn reflects a number of important ethical principles which should underpin all
research involving human beings.

ITQ: What are the two kinds of research that was agreed upon in the Helsinki Declaration?

ITA: Therapeutic and Non-therapeutic Research

2.2 Why does Research with Human Participants Requires Ethical approval?
Ethics approval for research with human participants is needed for the following
reasons:
1. to protect the rights and welfare of participants and minimise the risk of
physical and mental discomfort, harm and/or danger from research procedures;
2. to protect the rights of researcher to carry out any legitimate investigation as
well as the reputation of University for research conducted and/or sponsored
by it;
3. to minimise the likelihood of claims of negligence against individual
researchers, the university and any collaborating persons or organizations; and
4. the Research Funding bodies and refereed journals increasingly require a
statement of ethical practices in applications for research funds and/or as a
condition for publication.

ITQ: Give one reason why research involving human subjects requires ethical approval?

ITA: to protect the rights and welfare of the participants and minimise the risk of physical and
mental discomfort, harm and/or danger from research procedures.

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2.3 Ethical Principles Underpin Research

That the need for ethics in research has been learnt, the next stage is to delve into
the guiding principles that underpin a research study. Such principles are designed
to guide researchers in the planning and conduct of research. They are based on a
number of central and important ethical principles which reflect the common
standards, values and aspirations of research community. The factors to consider
are:

2.3.1 Autonomy: This describes acknowledgement of the right of the individual to

determine their own course of action in accordance with their own wishes and
plans. Respect for individuals is expressed by recognising that their autonomy
and right to self-determination underpin their ability to make judgments and
decisions for themselves. Autonomy underlies the need for informed consent.

2.3.2 Free and Informed Consent: Informed consent comprises three major
elements. They are: information, voluntariness and comprehension. When
providing information as a researcher, ensure that participants are given sufficient
detail about the nature of the research and the procedures involved. This should
highlight the objectives of the study, potential risks and benefits and any
alternative treatments must be made clear. Voluntariness in research is important.
Consent must be freely given and may be withdrawn at any time.
Undue influence may take the form of inducement, deprivation or exercise of
control, or authority over prospective participants. This is particularly important in
research involving vulnerable people. Its absent when consent is secured by the
order of authorities or as a result of
coercion or manipulation. It should be
noted that voluntary participation implies
that participants make an informed choice
while informed consent assumes that the
information given is accurate. In practical
terms, within an ethics review process, this
translates into scrutiny of the process,
Fig 1.3.2: Free and Informed Consent
rights, duties and requirements for free and

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

informed consent of the research participant.

2.3.3 Veracity: Truthfulness is central to obtaining informed consent. Without

this, participants cannot exert their right to informed consent, justice or fairness.

2.3.4 Respect for Vulnerable Persons: It should note that, vulnerable individuals,
such as the old, the young, the sick or the mentally impaired are entitled to
participate in research on grounds of human dignity, caring, fairness, and
special protection against abuse, discrimination, deception or exploitation.
Ethical obligations to vulnerable individuals in the conduct of research will often
necessitate special procedures to protect their interests. These must be
demonstrated where appropriate.

2.3.5 Privacy and Confidentiality: Each individual is entitled to privacy and

confidentiality both on ethical grounds and in terms of the protection of their
personal and sensitive data under the Data Protection Act (1998). Note that each
person/participant has the freedom to decide the time, extent and circumstances
under which they will withhold or share information. It is important to agree to the
standards of privacy, confidentiality as well as protection of access, control and
dissemination of personal information. Maintenance of such standards helps to
protect the mental or psychological integrity of the participant.

All research proposals must demonstrate that ethical principles are upheld as well
as the procedure to be followed in data storage and retention. Further details are
available in the Code of Conduct: Practice for Research Involving Human
Participants (CCCU, 2006), and Data Protection in Research (CCCU 2006).

2.3.5 Justice and Inclusiveness: In this context, justice connotes fairness and
equity for all research participants. Procedurally, justice requires that ethics review
processes involve methods that are fair and transparent based on established
standards and procedures for reviewing research protocols and processes. Justice
also concerns the distribution of benefits and burdens of research.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

On the one hand, justice can be distributive when it is directed towards ensuring
that no segment of research population is unfairly burdened with the harms of
research and no individual or group is neglected or discriminated against. The
principle of justice thus imposes particular obligations toward individuals who are
vulnerable and unable to protect their own interests in order to ensure that they are
not exploited for the advancement of knowledge.

2.3.6 Harms and Benefits: The analysis, balance and distribution of harms and
benefits are central to research ethics. Modern research ethics requires a favourable
harms-benefit balance so that the foreseeable harms should not outweigh
anticipated benefits. Harms and benefits analysis thus affects the welfare and rights
of research participants. It is acknowledged however, that, research involves
advancing the frontiers of knowledge and undertaking it could involve uncertainty
about the magnitude and/or kind of benefits or harms associated with
individual research projects. This imposes particular ethical obligations on
researchers to ensure the scientific validity, design and conduct of their research.

a. Minimising Harm (Non-maleficence): This reflects the need to avoid,

prevent or minimise harm to others. In practice, it means that research participants
must not be subjected to any unnecessary risks of harm. Their participation in
research must be essential to achieve scientifically and socially important aims that
cannot be achieved without the participation of human participants. The principle
of minimising harm also requires that the research should involve the smallest
number of human participants and the smallest number of tests on the participants
that will ensure scientifically valid data.

b. Maximising Benefit (Beneficence): As a duty, the principle of beneficence

ensures provision of benefits to others. Thus, in research, it is a necessity to
maximise net benefits to the stakeholders. Care must be taken to ensure that the
intention of research is to generate new knowledge that will produce benefits for
participants, other individuals and the society as a whole for the advancement of
knowledge.
c.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

ITQ: Explain why free and informed consent is relevant in research process?

ITA: Participants’ consent must be freely given and may be withdrawn at any time. Undue
influence of participants may take the form of inducement, deprivation, exercise of control, or
authority over prospective participants. This is particularly important in research involving
vulnerable people. It can be absent if consent is secured by the order of authorities or as a
result of coercion or manipulation. Voluntary participation implies that participants make an
informed choice while informed consent assumes that the information given is accurate.

2.4 Participant- Centred Perspective

In participant-centred approach, research participants make significant contribution
to research progress and advancement of knowledge. Collaboration between
participants and researchers is important. It helps to ensure that the interests of the
participants are central to the work. They should not be treated simply as objects
and their concerns not listened to. However, in some situations, a formal separation
between subject and researcher may be needed due to the nature of the research
design. Thus, this must be clearly justified in any research proposal.

Similarly, a participant-centred approach must acknowledge that researchers and

research participants may not always see the harms and benefits of a research
project in the same way. Indeed, individual participants within the same study may
respond very differently to the information provided in the free and informed
consent process. It is for this reason that lay members in research project are
included in all Research Ethics Committees.

This can have important practical implications. Researchers must recognise that
those asked to participate in research by, for example, their caregiver (e.g., nurse,
midwife or therapist) or teacher, may be persuaded to participate by factors
unrelated to the research itself. Rather, it could be by any true assessment of the
benefits and harms of participation. Care must be taken to ensure that this does not
occur. Thus, placing additional demands on researcher for accuracy, candour,
objectivity and sensitivity in informing potential participants about proposed
research may not be necessary.

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Researchers and Research Ethics Committees must recognise that there are
legitimate situations in which research may be opposed to the interests of the
research participants. This is particularly true of research in the social sciences and
the humanities that is seeking to investigate policy or organisations. It may also
apply to experimental studies involving a controlled group and/or the use of
placebos. While it is crucial that such research is carried out according to
professional standards, it should not be blocked through the use of harms/benefits
analysis. It may not involve collaboration with the research participants or because
of the potentially negative nature of the findings. Negative findings may be as
important as positive ones in determining future policy

ITQ: Why is it important to approach ethics of research from the participants’ perspective?
ITA: Individual participants within the same study may respond very differently to the
information provided in the free and informed consent process. Tthis can be important. The
individual perspectives must be considered. It is for this reason that lay members are included
in all Research Ethics Committees.

2.5 Ethical Issues within Research Process

Though many of the issues to be highlighted succinctly will be central to peer
review, they are also central to Research Ethics Committees as decision must be
made as to whether the research is justified and whether it will contribute to the
generation of knowledge. Thus, the focus should be balancing between the level of
intrusion into the lives of participants and the need for the new and potentially
valuable information that may be obtained.

Research involving human participants‘ issues should take into account whether
the research has been done before and whether there are consistent results in the
area of study. This could be based on examination of the literature review and the
justification of the need for the study.

Research design: In the design of any study, it is imperative that a researcher

ensures potential harm to participants is reduced to the minimum possible level,
whether such harm is physical, psychological or social in nature. Similarly, when
experimental designs are adopted, it should be noted that some participants may act
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as controls and so not receive a potentially beneficial intervention. This should be

taken into account in the consent process.

Sample: Decisions related to sampling may have significant impact on the

meaning that can be attributed to the findings. The size of a research sample must
be considered and justified to ensure that it is sufficient to provide valid and
generalisable results.

Data collection: Research design largely depends on the appropriateness of the

nature of the research question(s) and/or hypothesis (es) to be tested. In turn,
research design should clearly determine and describe the methods of data
collection to be employed. Depending on the instrument to be used and the
location of the research domain, data can be collected through direct approach by
the researcher, indirectly through research assistant(s) or a combination of both
approaches.

A number of ethical problems can arise in determining data collection techniques.

For example, in studies that are reliant on covert methods of data collection such as
participants‘ observation; such approach should be used only in rare circumstances
where data collected cannot be simply in any other way.

Unforeseen needs: Clear plans must be in place to address particular needs that
may arise during the course of any research but which may lie outside the
researcher's knowledge, skills or expertise, bearing in mind the need for
confidentiality. The subject's permission must be obtained before disclosing any
information to a third party.

ITQ: why should Ethics in research process be adhered to in areas of sampling?

ITA: Decisions related to sampling may have significant impact on the meaning that can be
attributed to the findings. The size of sample must be considered and justified to ensure that it
is sufficient to provide valid and generalisable results

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4.0 Session Summary

Research is primarily driven by the desire for new knowledge on the understanding
that it may have a number of benefits. It may, for example, benefit research
participants (e.g. improved treatments for disease/illness); particular groups; and
society as a whole. In this session, ethical issues related to researcher and the
research participants have been learnt. This is in addition to the ethical principles
that underpin research and the ethical issues relating to research processes..

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the ethical issues in research that relates to a researcher.
2. Why does research with human participants require ethical approval?
3. Elucidate the guiding ethical principles underpinning research.
4. Discuss ethical issues research processes.
5. Explain how ethical principles in research can be put into practice.
6. Discuss the ethical issues in research that relates to research participants.
7. How does law affect ethical issues in Nigerian academic research?
8. An attempt to draw the debit and credit side of balance sheet of ethics in
research is misleading. Discuss the pros and cons of ethics in research.
9. How can a researcher adhere to ethics of the following terms while
conducting a research: research design, sample, data collection, unforeseen
needs?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/BrZn9j , https://goo.gl/tDGyHy). Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2EnpnH9 and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Canterbury Christ Church University (2006) Code of Conduct: Practice for
Research Involving Human Participants. CCCU.
Canterbury Christ Church University (2006) Data Protection in Research. CCCU.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Canterbury Christ Church University (2006) Ethics Policy for Research

Involving Human Participants. CCCU.
Canterbury Christ Church University (2006). Ethical Procedures for the Conduct
of Research involving Human Participants. CCCU.
Dempsey, P. and Dempsey A. (1992). Trials of War Criminals before the
Nuremburg Military Tribunals: The Medical Case 1948. Boston: Jones and
Bartlett.
Department of Health (2005) Research Governance Framework for Health and
Social Care (Second Edition) London: Department of Health.
Department of Health (2001) Research Governance Framework for Health and
Social Care. London: Department of Health.
Eby, M. (1999) Ethical issues in nursing research: the wider picture. Nurse
Researcher.3 (1), 5-13.
Economic and Social Science Research Council (2005). Research Ethics
Framework. Swindon: ESRC.
Nolan Committee (1995) Committee on Standards in Public Life. London: The
Stationery Office.

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

Module 2
The Research Process

Content:
Study Session 1: Identifying and Formulating research problem
Study Session 2: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Study Session 3: Research objective and Variable Measurement
Study Session 4: The Research Design

Study Session 1
Identifying and Formulating Research Problem

Section and Subsection Headings

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Identification of a Research Topic and Problems
2.2 - Definition of the problem
2.3 - Steps in formulation of the research problem
2.3.1 - Statement of the Problem
2.3.2 - Operationalisation of variables of evaluation of the Problem
2.3.3 – Significance of the problem.
2.3.4 – Feasibility of the problem for the particular research.

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3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction
There are practical steps through which a researcher must pass through in a
research journey in order to find answers to research questions. The path to finding
answers to research questions constitutes what is called research methodology. At
each operational step in research process, researcher is required to choose from a
multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which
will help to achieve the objectives.

This session will take you through the first step of research process. More
specifically, they will learn how to identify and formulate research problem(s) and
what to consider when choosing a research topic for project of study.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study this session, you should be able to:
1. Formulate MIM research problem(s),
2. Discuss what to consider when choosing a research problem,
3. Highlight the steps in formulating a research problem, and
4. State the research problem of project of study.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Identification of Research Topic and Problems
When carrying out information management and information science research
project, the research topic and problems can be identified through the followings:
(1) theory of one‘s own interest;
(2) daily problems;
(3) technological changes and advances;
(4) contemporary/recent trends of events and activities;
(5) unexplored areas; and
(6) discussion with experts and research supervisors

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It is a fact that our daily experiences and the day to day affairs have rich openings
on various aspects such as the daunting tasks of AIDS, air pollution, afforestation
and deforestation, child labour, problems of aged citizens, racial discrimination,
gender violence, insecurity and insurgency, banditry and kidnapping, etc.

Technology has brought about rapid changes in various branches of science,

business and marketing, social sciences and humanity, etc. For example, in the
early years, computers were built in large sizes with vacuum tubes. The evolution
in electronic technology has replaced them with integrated circuits. Recently,
scientists have developed quantum dots. Now the interest is in developing efficient,
super-fast and miniaturised computing machine made up of materials with
particle size of the order of nano (10−9) meter or even smaller. Similarly, another
fascinating topic namely, thin film has multiple fields of applications. Recent
research on fullerenes resulted in many practical applications.

Fig 2.1.1: Identification of a Research Topic and

Problems
Choosing a topic of current interest or recent trends provides bright and promising
opportunities for young researchers to get post-doctoral fellowship and position in
leading institutions in our nations and abroad.

In each subject there are several topics which are not explored in detail, even
though the topic was considered by scientists‘ long time ago. For example, string
theory, quantum computing, Nanoparticles, and quantum cloning and quantum
cryptography and gene immunology are fascinating topics and are in preliminary
stages.

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The supervisors and experts working on one or few fields over a long time are the
specialists in the field They are considered well versed with the developments and
current status of the field. A researcher can make use of expertise in knowing
various possible problems in a topic to be solved or resolved by providing better
opportunities in all aspects. Do not choose a topic simply because it is fascinating.
In choosing a topic, it is necessary to take care of the possibility of data collection,
quantity of gain, breadth of the topic and so on.

Research topic should not be too narrow. For example, the study of social status
and sexual life of married couples of same sex (man-man marriage and woman-
woman marriage) is interesting and it is of social relevance. However, the intricate
problem is that there are not enough number of such known couples in the country
to study. Thus, such topic is very narrow and at the same time the researcher may
not get enough data to analyse. On the other hand, the changes in the social life of
caravans in recent times are valuable social problems and one can collect enough
data to analyse.

It necessary for a researcher to know all the methods, techniques, concepts in a

research topic before identifying a problem for investigation. After learning some
fundamental concepts, recent developments and current trends of a topic, a
researcher can identify a problem for research and the tools necessary to solve it.

ITQ: What are the sources from where a researcher can identify a topic?

ITA: 1) theory of one’s own interest 2) daily problems 3) technological changes 4) recent
trends 5) unexplored areas 6) discussion with experts and research supervisor

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2.2 Definition of the Problem

After a problem has been identified, the next task is to define it in a form
amenable to research. The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail
and narrowing it down to workable size. Each
question and subordinate questions to be
answered are specified at this stage and the scope
and limits of investigation are determined.
Usually, it is necessary to review previous studies
in order to determine just what is to be done.
Sometimes, while defining research problem, it is
necessary to formulate the point of view or
educational theory on which the research study is Fig 2.1.2: Definition of the Problem
to be based. In case certain assumptions are made, they must be explicitly stated.
Formulation of the problem includes:

Stating the problem in the form of statements or questions which makes the
problem clear and understandable;
1. Identification and Operationalisation of the variables concisely, and
2. Evaluating the problem in terms of its significance, novelty and feasibility.

ITQ: How are research problems formulated?

ITA: i) stating the problem in the form of statements or questions which makes the problem
clear and understandable. ii) identification and operationalisation of the variables concisely,
and iii) evaluating the problem in terms of its significance, novelty and feasibility.

2.3 Steps in Formulation of a Research Problem

The last discussion enlightened the things needed to be considered when selecting
a research problem. This session will focus on how to formulate research
problem. Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of
knowledge in the broad subject area within which the study is to be undertaken.

Where a prospective researcher has such knowledge it will be difficult to clearly

and adequately ‗dissect‘ a subject area.

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Fig 2.1.3: Steps in Formulation of a Research Problem

Step 1- Identify a broad field or subject area of interest;

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas;
Step 3-Select what is of most interest to study;
Step 4- Raise research questions;
Step 5- Formulate objectives;
Step 6- Assess the objectives; and
Step 7- Double check.
Every study in social sciences has a second element. That is, the study population
from which the required information to find answers to research question is
obtained.
As research problems are narrowed, there is the need to decide very specifically
who constitutes the study population in order to select the appropriate respondents.
Formulation of a problem After identifying a
problem, in order to solve it, it has to be
defined and formulated properly. For this
purpose, you can execute the following.

Fig 2.1.4: Formulation of a problem

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Libs 803: Research Methodology

1. State the problem in questionnaire form or in an equivalent form.

2. Specify the problem in detail and in precise terms.
3. List the assumptions made.
4. Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement of the problem.
5. Examine the feasibility of a particular solution.

Let us study each step and see how we can apply them in our practical MIM
research.

Defining your research problem is more important than its solution. It is a crucial
part of the research study and should not be defined in a hurry. But, how do you
assess whether the defined problem is a good problem? A problem in its first
definition may not be appealing. It may require redefinition in order to make it a
good problem. That is, by suitably rewording or reformulating the chosen problem,
it can be made to meet the criteria of a good problem. This is also important to
solve the problem successfully. To this end you as a researcher can ask a series of
questions on your problem. Some are:
1. Is the problem really interesting to me and to the scientific community?
2. Is the problem significant to the present status of the topic?
3. Is there sufficient supervision/guidance?
4. Can the problem be solved in the required time frame?
5. Are there necessary equipment, adequate library and computational facilities
among others?

If the answers to these questions are satisfactory, then you can initiate work on the
chosen problem. In addition, discuss the problem with the current doctoral
candidates and obtain the scope of the problem and other related aspects.

Statement of the problem

A good statement of a problem must clarify exactly what is to be determined or
solved or what is the research question. It must restrict the scope of the study to
specific and workable research questions. You are required to describe the
background of the study, its theoretical basis and underlying assumptions, and
specify the issues in concrete, specific, and workable questions. All questions
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raised must be related to the problem. Each major issue or element should be
separated into its subsidiary or secondary elements, and these should be arranged
in a logical order under the major divisions.

Fig 2.1.5: Statement of problem

Operationalization of variables
In stating a problem, the researcher (you) should make sure that it is neither stated
in terms so general as to make it vague nor specified so narrowly as to make it
insignificant and trivial. The most important step in this direction is to specify the
variables involved in the problem and define them in operational terms. To
illustrate; suppose you state that you want to study the ―Effectiveness of Television
on the Performance of Students in Course One of Post Graduate Diploma in
Distance Education offered by the Indira Gandhi National Open University‖.

This statement is broad and it communicates in a general way what you want to do.
But it is necessary to specify the problem with much greater precision. For this,
your first step is to specify the variables involved in the problem and define them
in operational terms.

The variables involved in the problem are, ―effectiveness‖ and ―performance‖,

please not that these expressions are to be understood beyond their dictionary
meanings. For example, the dictionary meaning of ―effectiveness” is “producing
the desired effect”. This meaning is not sufficient for research purpose. It is
important for you to specify exactly what indicator of effectiveness you will use or

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what you will do to measure the presence or absence of the phenomenon denoted
by the term ―effectiveness‖. Similarly, you have to define the other variable
―performance‖ also in terms of the operations or processes that will be used to
measure them. In this study, you might choose to define ―effectiveness‖ as the
improvement made by the diploma students in scores on a standardized
achievement test in Course One. The term ‗performance‘ might refer to the scores
on the achievement test in Course One.

It is worth nothing that the problem should be stated in a way that it indicates a
relationship between two or more variables. It should involve neither philosophical
issues, values nor questions of judgement that cannot be answered by scientific
investigations. For example, should television be more effective in increasing
performance level of students? Such value questions cannot be answered through
research. Similarly, the question ―what is there in television teaching that enhance
performances‖ is a philosophical question which cannot be probed easily.

Evaluation of the problem

It is worthwhile for you to ask yourself a series of questions before you undertake
the research. The questions should be helpful in the evaluation of the problem on
various criteria. All such questions must be answered affirmatively before the
study is undertaken. What are the questions that we should ask?
i) Is the problem researchable?
There are certain problems that cannot be effectively solved through the process of
research. A researchable problem is always concerned with the relationship
existing between two or more variables that can be defined and measured. The
problem should be capable of being stated in the form of workable research
questions that can be answered empirically.
ii) Is the problem new?
There is no use in studying a problem which has already been adequately
investigated by other researchers. To avoid such duplication, it is essential you
examine very carefully the literature available in the field concerned. The problem
should be selected only when you are convinced that it is really a new problem
which has never before been investigated successfully. However, it must be noted
that a researcher may repeat a study when he/she wants to verify its conclusions or

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to extend the validity of its findings in a situation entirely different from the
previous one.
iii) Is the problem significant?
The problem should be such that it is likely to fill in the gaps in the existing
knowledge, to help to solve some of the inconsistencies in the previous research, or
to help in the interpretation of the known facts.
The results or findings of a study should either become a basis for a theory,
generalisations or principles. Besides, they should lead to new problems for
further research or have some useful practical applications.
iv) Is the problem feasible for the particular research?
A research problem may be researchable, new or significant and yet not feasible
because of the following considerations:
a. Research Competencies: the problem should be in an area in which the
researcher is qualified and competent. He/she must possess the necessary skills and
competencies that may be needed to develop and administer the data gathering
tools, and interpret the data available for analysis. The researcher should also
have the necessary knowledge of research design, qualitative and quantitative
techniques of data analysis etc. that may be required to carry out the research to its
completion.
b. Interest and enthusiasm: The researcher should be genuinely interested in
and enthusiastic about the problem he/she wants to undertake for research.
c. Financial considerations and feasibility: The problem should be
financially feasible. The researcher should ascertain whether he/she has the
necessary financial and temporal resources to carry on the study. Each project has
a cost, particularly in the case of projects where students are dispersed. The cost is
an important element in feasibility. It is important to estimate the cost of the
project and assess the availability of funds. This will determine whether the project
can be actually executed.
d. Administrative considerations: In addition to personal limitations,
financial and time constraints, the researcher should also consider the
administrative facilities that are needed to complete the study successfully.
He/she should check whether he/she is able to get the cooperation from various
administrative authorities for collecting various types of data.

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e. Times: projects are a time bound exercise. Most of you if not all are already
engaged in more than one activity in office, at home and at completing a study.
For instance, if you wish to study instructional transactions in personal contact
programmes, your project must be timed so that you can actually observe a series
of sessions in personal contact programmes.

ITQ: What are the steps in formulating a research problem?

ITA: Step 1- Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
Step 2Diss-ect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3-Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4- Raise research questions.
Step 5- Formulate objectives.
Step 6- Assess your objectives.
Step 7- Double check.

3.0 Session Conclusion/Summary

There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in
order to find answers to your research questions. The path to finding answers to
your research questions constitutes what we call Research Methodology. At each
operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a
multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodology which
will help you to best achieve your objectives.

The definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail and narrowing it

down to workable size. Each question and subordinate questions to be answered
are specified at this stage and the scope and limits of investigation are determined.
In this session, you have learnt how to identify and formulate research problem and
what you are to consider when you want to choose a research topic for your
project.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Given that you find it very hard to formulate a researchable topic in Library
and information science discipline.
2. Discuss the steps you will follow in formulation of the research problem
from question 1 above.
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3. Evaluation the Problem of the topic you have identified.

4. Discuss how you can relate the dependent and independent variables of your
topic to your research problems.
5. Explain how your research topic and problem has linkage to societal benefit.
6. Who will benefit if you successfully find solution to your research problem?
7. Discuss the research design that best address your research problem.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/RVknVc , https://goo.gl/SP54pN. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2MfPrtU and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Beasley, M.R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S.(1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.
Yenza Research methodology, in, http://
www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Study Session 2
Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Review of Literature
2.2 - Search for existing literature
2.2.1 - Books
2.2.2 - Journals
2.3 - Review the literature selected
2.4 - Develop a theoretical framework
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
7.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 2. In the previous session, we found out that
there are practical steps through which you must pass while undertaking your
research project in order to find answers to your research questions. Extensive
literature review is the second step you need to follow. Thus, this session will take
you through the second step of research process.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to
1. Review literature for your MIM project
2. Critique previous study and take a position
3. Search for existing literature
4. Develop theoretical framework for your MIM project

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2.0 Main Content

2.1 Review of Literature
The next step after you have formulated your research problem is to do an
extensive review of literature and this constitutes:
1. Essential preliminary task in order to
acquaint yourself with the available
body of knowledge in your area of
interest.

2. Literature review is an integral part of

the entire research process and makes
valuable contribution to every Fig 2.2.1: Review of Literature
operational step.

3. Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is

also rewarding.

It is very important you review literature because of the role it plays in research.
Its functions are:
1. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
2. Improve your methodology;
3. Broaden your knowledge;
4. Contextualise your findings.

Now, let us study them one after another;

a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
The process of reviewing the literature help you to understand the subject area
better and thus enable you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and
precisely. It also help you to understand the relationship between your research
problem and the body of knowledge in the area.
b. Improve your methodology
A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to
the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well
for them, and what problems they have faced with them. Thus you will be better

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positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing valid answers to

your research questions.
c. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
It ensures that you read widely around the subject area in which you intend to
conduct your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of
study, it helps fulfil this expectation. It also help you to understand how the
findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.
d. Contextualise your findings
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found?
What contribution have you been able to make to the existing body of knowledge?
How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to answer
these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to
place your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of
enquiry.
The procedure for reviewing the literature include:
1. Search for existing literature in your area of
study;
2. Review the literature selected;
3. Develop a theoretical framework;
4. Develop a conceptual framework.
Let us proceed to discuss these basic procedures so as to enhance our
understanding of the subject matter.

ITQ: enumerate any function of a literature review?

ITA: It ensures that you read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct
your research study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill
this expectation. It also help you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the
existing body of knowledge.

2.2 Search for Existing Literature

1. To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative
that you have in mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the
problem you wish to investigate, in order to set parameters for your search.
2. Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. This can be sourced from
books and journals.
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Books
Books comprise a central part of any bibliography. Its advantage is that material
published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with other
research to form a coherent body of knowledge. On the other hand, its
disadvantage is that material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years
between the completion of a work and publication in the form of a book. Search
for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the
libraries or borrow from other sources. Examine their content, if contents are not
found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your reading list.

Journals
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a
gap of two to three years between the completion of a research project and the
publication in a journal. Just like books, you need to prepare a list of journals for
identifying literature relevant to your study. This can be done thus:
1. Locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;
2. Use the internet;
3. Look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and
read the articles.

Whichever method you choose; first, identify the journals you want to look at in
detail for your review of literature. Select the latest issue; examine its content page
to see if there is an article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a
particular article is of relevance to you, read it‘s abstract. If you think you are
likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for reference or
later use.

ITQ: What are any two sources of Literature for research?

ITA: Books and Journals

2.3 Review the Literature Selected

After identifying books and articles as useful, your next step is to start reading
them critically to pull together themes and issues that are associated. If you do not
have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets
of paper for each article or book.
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Fig 2.2.2: Review the literature selected

Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far
reviewed into that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of
that frame work. As you read further, go on slotting the information where it
logically belongs under the theme so far developed. You may need to add more
themes as you go. Read critically with particular reference to the following
aspects:
1. Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is
confirmed beyond doubt.
2. Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them.
3. Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations.

Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known. That is the gaps that exist in
the body of knowledge.

ITQ: what steps are adopted for reviewing literature?

ITA: Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:
1. Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed
beyond doubt.
2. Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the
methodologies adopted and the criticisms of them.
3. Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations. Ascertain
the areas in which little or nothing is known. That is the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge

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2.4 Develop a Theoretical

Framework
As you have limited time, it is
important you set parameters by
reviewing the literature in relation
to some main themes pertinent to
your research topic. As you start
reading the literature, you will
realise that it deals with a number of
aspects that have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these
aspects as a basis for developing your theoretical framework. Until you go through
the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have
developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
1. universal;
2. more specific (i.e. local trends or specific programme)
In writing about such information, you should start with the general and gradually
narrowing down to the specific.

Writing up the literature reviewed

In order for you to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to provide
theoretical background to your study, you should:
1. List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.
2. Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise,
descriptive of the theme in question, and follow a logical progression.
3. Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the
theme in question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if
they exist, and identify gaps and issues.

In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising
the findings of your study, you are requires to systematically compare your
findings with those made by others. Quote from these studies to show how your
findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places your findings in the context

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of what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing about
your findings i.e. after analysis of your data.

ITQ: how do you provide a theoretical framework for your study?

ITA:
1. List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.
2. Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of
the theme in question, and follow a logical progression.
3. Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in
question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and
identify gaps and issues.

3.0 Session Conclusion/Summary

To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you
have in mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish
to investigate, in order to set parameters for your search. Next, compile a
bibliography for this broad area. This can be sourced from books and journals. In
this study, you have learnt how to review literature, importance of literature review
and how to develop theoretical framework.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Explain what constitutes extensive review of literature.
2. Discuss the reasons why it is important for a researcher to review literature.
3. As a researcher who is ready to review literature on an area of interest,
elucidate the procedures you will follow in reviewing the literature.
4. Explain how a researcher can critique a published journal if he/she is
reviewing the article.
5. Discuss the concept of theoretical framework and highlight its features.
6. Distinguish between theoretical framework and conceptual framework.
7. How does a theoretical framework differ from a research model?
8. Highlight the distinguishing features of a theory and a model.

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5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/BFgs7j , https://goo.gl/2LnXdo. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2Ew3B46 and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S.(1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.
Yenza Research methodology, in,
http://www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Study Session 3
Research objective and Variable Measurement
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Formulation of Research Objectives
2.2 - Characteristics of Objectives
2.3 - The definition of a variable
2.3.1 - The difference between a concept and a variable:
2.3.2 - Concepts, indicators and variables:
2.4 - Types of measurement scales:
2.4.1 - The nominal or classificatory scale:
2.4.2 - The ordinal or ranking scale
2.4.3 - The interval scale
2.4.4 - The ratio scale
2.5 - Constructing hypotheses
2.5.1 - The functions of hypotheses
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 3, we did mentioned before that your research
project required some practical steps you must follow, in order to find solution to
your research problem. After you have identified and formulated your research
problem and you have reviewed literature on the subject area, the next step is for
you to formulate your research objectives and know how to measure your
dependent and independent variables.

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1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Formulate research objectives
2. Distinguish between concept and variable
3. Operationalise your research variables
4. Use the appropriate scale of measurement for your project

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Formulation of Research Objectives
Haven gone this far, you are expected to formulate your objectives. It refers to
the goals you set out to attain in your study. They inform a reader what you want to
attain through the study. It is extremely important to word them clearly and
specifically.
Your objectives should be listed under two headings:
1. main objectives ( aims);
2. sub-objectives.
The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a
statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or
establish.

Fig 2.3.1: Formulation of Research Objectives

The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate
within the main framework of your study.
1. They should be numerically listed.
2. Wording should be clear, complete and specific.
3. Communicate to your readers your intention.

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4. Each objective should contain only one aspect of the study.

5. Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
The objectives should start with words such as ‗to determine‘, ‗to find out‘, ‗to
ascertain‘, ‗to measure‘, ‗to explore‘ etc.
The wording of objectives determines the type of research (descriptive,
correlational and experimental) and the type of research design you need to adopt
to achieve them. E.g. Descriptive studies may be:
1. To describe the types of incentives provides by Hotel XYZ to employees in
Mumbai.
2. To find out the opinion of the employees about the medical facilities
provided by five star hotels in Mumbai.

Correlational studies may be:

1. To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
2. To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat
clientele.

Hypothesis –testing studies may be:

1. To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the incidence of
drug/alcohol abuse.
2. To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees
in Mumbai hotels will reduce staff turnover.

ITQ: What are the main objectives of a research work?

ITA: The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement
of the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.

2.2 Characteristics of Objectives

Clear +Complete +Specific + Identify main + Identify the variables to direction of
correlated relationship.

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Fig 2.3.2: Characteristics of Objectives

Identifying Variables:
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalized
in measurable terms, so that the extent of variations in respondents‘ understanding
is reduced if not eliminated.

Techniques about how to operationalize concepts, and knowledge about

variables, play an important role in reducing this variability. Their knowledge,
therefore is important in ‗fine tuning‘ your research problem.
For example:
1. Jet Airways‘ is a perfect example of quality cabin service.
i. Food in this restaurant is excellent.
ii. The middle class in Nigeria is getting more prosperous.

You see, when people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis
of certain criteria in their minds. Their judgment is based upon indicators that lead
them to conclude and express that opinion.

These are judgments that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This warrant
the use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that
knowledge about variables plays an important role.

ITQ: what are the characteristics of objectives of a study?

ITA: Objectives should be Clear, Complete, Specific, Identify main , Identify the variables to
direction of correlated relationship.

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2.3 The Definition of a Variable

An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence capable of taking
on different values- is called a variable. To this end, it is very important for you to
know the difference between a concept and a variable

The difference between a concept and a variable:

Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies
markedly from individual to individual. A concept cannot be measured whereas a
variable can be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective
units of measurement. It is therefore important for the concept to be converted into
variables.

Concepts, indicators and variables:

If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its
operationalisation. That is, how it will be measured. For this, you need to identify
indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the concept which can then be converted
into variables. The choice of indicators for a concept might vary with researchers,
but those selected must have a logical link with the concept.

ITQ: How do concepts and variables differ?

ITA: Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies
markedly from individual to individual. A concept cannot be measured whereas a variable
can be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or subjective/objective units of
measurement.

2.4 Types of Measurement Scales:

Now that you have understood the difference between variable and concept, we
must continue to see and know how variables are measured using scales.
Measurement is central to any enquiry. The greater the refinement in the unit of
measurement of a variable, the greater the confidence, all things being equal that
one can place in the findings. S.S. Stevens has classified the different types of
scales into four categories: • Nominal or classificatory scale
1. Ordinal or ranking scale
2. Interval scale
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3. Ratio scale
Let us study each of this scale so that you will be able to use any of them more
effectively, when undertaking your research projects.

The nominal or classificatory scale:

A nominal scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses into
subgroups based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A variable
measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or more subcategories depending
on the extent of variation. For example, ‟water‟ or „tree‟ have only one subgroup,
whereas the variable ―gender‖ can be classified into two sub-categories: male and
female. ‗Hotels‘ can be classified in to ---- sub-categories. The sequence in which
subgroups are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship among
subgroups.

The ordinal or ranking scale

Do you understand the nominal scale? Now, let us see what the ordinal scale is all
about. Besides categorising individuals, objects, responses or a property into
subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a
certain order. They are arranged either in ascending or descending order
according to the extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the
variable. For example, ‗income‘ can be measured either quantitatively (in rupees
and paise) or qualitatively using subcategories ‗above average‘, ‗average‘ and
‗below average‘. The ‗distance‘ between these subcategories are not equal as there
is no quantitative unit of measurement. ‗Socioeconomic status‘ and ‗attitude‘ are
other variables that can be measured on ordinal scale.

The interval scale

You have learnt the first two types of measurement scales. The next scale we will
look at in this session is the interval scale. An interval scale has all the
characteristics of an ordinal scale. In addition, it uses a unit of measurement with
an arbitrary starting and terminating points. For example, Celsius scale: 0*C to
100*C, Fahrenheit scale: 32*F to 212*F, Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30, 31-40
etc.

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The ratio scale

The last scale you will learn in this session is the ratio scale. A ratio scale has all
the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales plus its own property: the
zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed starting point.
Since the difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point, this
scale can be used for mathematical operations. The measurement of variables like
income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40
years old is twice as old as one who is 20 years old. Is that statement true? Keep
your answer to yourself and let us continue with our discussion of next subheading.

ITQ: List the four scales of measurements

ITA: Nominal, ordinal, Interval, Ratio

2.5 Constructing Hypotheses

As a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do have a hunch to
form the basis of certain assumption or guesses. You test these by collecting
information that will enable you to conclude, if your hunch was right.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your hunch may
prove to be: right; partially right; or wrong. Without this process of verification,
you cannot conclude anything about the validity of your assumption.

Hence, a hypothesis is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a

phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not
know. A researcher calls these assumptions/ hunches hypotheses and they become
the basis of an enquiry. In most studies the hypotheses will be based upon your
own or someone else‘s observation. Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity and focus
to a research problem, but are not essential for a study. You can conduct a valid
investigation without constructing formal hypotheses.

The functions of hypotheses

Now that you know what hypothesis is all about, it is time for us to figure out the
important roles hypothesis play in scientific research study. They are highlighted
as follows:
1. The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
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2. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby
providing focus to the study.
3. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity
in a study.
4. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It
enables you to specifically conclude what is true or what is false.

ITQ: discuss any two functions of hypothesis

ITA:
1. The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
2. Hypotheses tell you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby
providing focus to the study.

3.0 Session conclusion/Summary

Research objectives refers to the goals you set out to attain in your study. They
inform a reader what you want to attain through the study. Variable can be seen as
an image, perception or concept that can be measured. In this session, you have
learnt how to formulate research objectives, characteristics of good objectives, how
to operationalise both dependent and independent variables as well as how to use
different scales of measurement for your research variables.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the concept of research objective.
2. Explain the characteristics of a good research objective.
3. Relate variable to concept and discuss how indicator mediate their
relationship.
4. Discuss the classification of measurement scale as suggested by S.S.
Stevens.
5. What is hypothesis and how can you formulate a research hypothesis?
6. Discuss the important roles a hypothesis play in scientific research.
7. What are the distinguishes a measurement scale and Likert scale?

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5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/VdQRrM , https://goo.gl/9fjBGz. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2JAEC3O and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Beasley, M.R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm,11May 2004.
Yenza Research methodology, in:
http:// www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Study Session 4
The Research Design
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - The Research Design
2.1.1 - Preparing the Research Design
2.1.2 - Objectives of the Research Study:
2.1.3 - Methods of Data Collection:
2.2 - Methods of Primary Data Collection
2.2.1 - Observation Method
2.2.2 - Survey Method
2.2.3 - Contact Methods:
2.2.4 - Experimental Method
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 4, After you have successfully formulated your
research objectives and known how to measure your dependent and independent
variables. The next step is to define your research design. In this session, you will
learn how to prepare a research design, various methods of data collections, their
advantages and disadvantages. However, it will be more informed if we first of all
know the learning outcome of this study session before we continue.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you to be able to:
1. Structure your research design
2. Explain the observation method of data collection

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3. Discuss the survey method of data collection

4. Interview your research participants during your research

2.0 Main Content

2.1 The Research Design
Plan your work and work your plan is the suggestion of Napoleon Hill. For a
scientific research, one has to prepare a research design.

It should indicate the various approaches to be used in solving the research

problem, sources and information related to the problem and, time frame and the
cost budget.

Essentially, the research design creates the foundation of the entire research
work.

Fig 2.3.1: The Research Design

The design will help you perform the chosen task easily and in a systematic way.
Once the research design is completed the actual work can be initiated.

The first step in the actual work is to learn the facts pertaining to the problem.
Particularly, theoretical methods, numerical techniques, experimental techniques
and other relevant data and tools necessary for the present study have to be
collected and learnt. It is not necessary that every theory, technique and
information in the topic of research is useful for a particular problem. A researcher
has to identify and select materials which are useful to the present work.

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Further, the validity and utility of the information gathered should be tested before
using them. Scientific research is based on certain mathematical, numerical and
experimental methods. These sources have to be properly studied and judged
before applying them to the problem of interest.

2.1.1Preparing the research design

The next step we will look at is how you will develop your MIM research design.
Your research design is the conceptual structure within which you will conduct
your research. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. For you
to prepare a research design that will be appropriate for research problem, you
must consider the following:
1. objectives of the research study,
2. method of data collection to be adopted,
3. source of information—sample design,
4. tool for data collection,
5. data Analysis- qualitative and quantitative.
Let us study them one after the other to learn how we can better formulate our
individual research design.

2.1.2 Objectives of the research study

The objectives you identified to answer your research questions have to be listed,
making sure that they are numbered and statement begins with an action verb.

2.1.3 Methods of data collection: There are two types of data you can use for
your research. They include:
1. Primary Data: collected for the first time
2. Secondary Data: those which have already been collected and analysed by
someone else.
Now that you know primary and secondary sources of data collection, how or
through what means can you gather the data you need for your study? Let us start
with the primary method of data collections.

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ITQ: What is research Design?

ITA: Research design is the conceptual structure within which you will conduct your
research. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

2.2 Methods of Primary Data Collection

Primary data can be gathered through observation method, survey method, contact
methods, experimental method among others.

Let us learn how and where we can use them one by one.

Fig 2.3.2: Methods of Primary Data Collection

2.2.1 Observation method

This method is commonly used in behavioural sciences. It is the gathering of
primary data by investigator‘s own direct observation of relevant people, actions
and situations without asking from the respondent. e.g.
A. A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check
on cleanliness and customer service.
B. A food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn
menu items prices, check portion sizes and consistency and observe point-of
purchase merchandising.
C. A restaurant evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of
competing restaurants, traffic patterns and neighbourhood conditions.

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Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable
to provide. E.g. observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions - the
same menu items indicates that food is not satisfactory.

Types of observation:
1. Structured – for descriptive research
2. Unstructured—for exploratory research
3. Participant Observation
4. Non- participant observation
5. Disguised observation
6.
Mutations:
1. Feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour and infrequent
behaviour cannot be observed.
2. Expensive method. This often makes researchers to supplement observation
with survey research.

2.2.2 Survey method

This is an approach that is most suited for gathering descriptive information. Just
like observation, survey method of data collection can be:
Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the
someway.
Unstructured Surveys: this allows the interviewer to probe respondents and guide
the interview according to their answers.
Survey research may be direct or indirect.
Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and
thoughts. E.g., why don‘t you eat at MacDonald‘s?
Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: ―What kind of people eat at
MacDonald‘s?‖

From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer
avoids MacDonald‘s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not
consciously aware.

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Advantages:
1. Survey method of data collection can be used to collect many different kinds
of information.
2. Survey method of data collection is quick and low cost as compared to
observation and experimental method.

Limitations:
1. The survey approach allows respondent‘s reluctance to answer questions
asked by unknown interviewers about things they consider private.
2. Busy people may not want to take the time to answer the questions.
3. The respondent may try to help by giving pleasant answers.
4. Unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought to
what they do and why.
5. The respondent may answer in order to look smart or well informed.

2.2.3 Contact Methods:

This method of data collection allows information to be collected through
Mail
Telephone
Personal interview

Mail Questionnaires:
Advantages:
1. This approach can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low
cost per respondent.
2. The respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a
mail questionnaire.
3. No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent‘s answers.
4. This method is convenient for respondents who can answer when they have
time.
5. This approach is a good way to reach people who often travel.

Limitations:
1. This approach is not flexible

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2. It take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview

3. Response rate is often very low
4. Researcher has no control over who answers

Telephone interviewing:
Advantages:
1. This method is quick
2. It is more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the
respondent
3. Depending on respondent‘s answer, they can skip some questions and probe
more on others
4. It allows greater sample control
5. Response rate tends to be higher than mail

Drawbacks:
1. Cost per respondent is higher
2. Some people may not want to discuss personal questions with interviewer
3. Interviewer‘s manner of speaking may affect the respondent‘s answers
4. Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
5. Under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing

Personal interviewing:
This approach is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of
information. Trained interviewers can hold the respondent‘s attention and are
available to clarify difficult questions. They can guide interviews, explore issues,
and probe as the situation requires. Personal interview can be used in any type of
questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly. Interviewers can also show
actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record their reactions
and behaviour.

Personal interviewing is further subdivided into two. They are:

Individual; otherwise called intercept interviewing and Group; which is also called
focus group interviewing.
Let us study how we can utilise them in our research approach.

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Intercept interviewing:
This type of interview is widely used in tourism research.
1. It allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.
2. Is the only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are
unknown?
3. It involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping
malls.
4. Interviewer must gain the interviewee‘s cooperation.
5. Time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours (for longer
surveys compensation may be offered)
6. It involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as
to whom to ―intercept‖, such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60

Drawbacks:
1. This method often gives room for error and bias on the part of the
interviewer who may not be able to correctly judge age, race etc.
2. Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.

Focus group interviewing:

It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tools to understand people‘s
thoughts and feelings. It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather
for a few hours with a trained moderator to talk about a product, service or
organisation.

Fig 2.3.3: Focus group interviewing

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The meeting is held in a pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a
relaxed environment. The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject
and industry, and some understanding of group and consumer behaviour. The
moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more specific issues,
encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and thoughts. At
the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group
interviewing.

Advantage
It is often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions should be
asked in a later, large-scale, structured-direct interview. Comments are recorded
through note taking or videotaped and studied later to understand consumer‘
buying process. This method is especially suited for managers of hotels and
restaurants, who have easy access to their customers. E.g. some hotel managers
often invite a group of hotel guests from a particular market segment to have a free
breakfast with them. Managers get the chance to meet the guests and discuss what
they like about the hotel and what the hotel could do to make their stay more
enjoyable and comfortable. The guests appreciate this recognition and the manager
gets valuable information. Restaurant managers use the same approach by holding
discussion meetings over lunch or dinner.

Drawbacks
1. Cost: may cost more than telephone survey
2. Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time and
cost down, therefore; it may be difficult to generalise from the results
3. Interviewer biasness is possible

2.2.4 Experimental method

Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is a data-based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with
observation or experiment. Experimental research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. e.g.

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-Tenderisers (independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat

(dependent variable).
1. The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such
as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread
2. Develop recipes to use products
Such research is characterised by the experimenter‘s control over the variables
understudy and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. In
such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively
go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.

-Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the

probable results.

1. Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
2. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned, so as to bring forth the desired
information.
Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to
be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

ITQ: list any four methods of primary data collection.

ITA: Observation Method, Survey Method, Contact Methods, Experimental Method

4.0 Study Session Conclusion/Summary

Research design has to do with the various approaches to be used in solving the
research problem, sources and information related to the problem and, time frame
and the cost budget. Essentially, the research design creates the foundation of the
entire research work. The design will help perform the chosen task easily and in a
systematic way. Once the research design is completed, the actual work can be
initiated. In this session, you have learnt how to prepare a research design and
various methods of data collections. There advantages and disadvantages are also
discussed in this session.

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4.0Self-Assessment Questions
1. In your own understanding, what is research design?
2. Choose a research topic and discuss the research design that will be
appropriate for addressing the research problem.
3. Discuss the considerations that need to be followed in preparing the research
design.
4. Assuming you are undertaking research that requires you to use primary data
in you analysis. Discuss the available method you can use.
5. Choose a research topic and explain why survey research design is more
appropriate for the study. Explain the instrument you can use to collect the
data for the chosen topic.
6. Discuss the types of survey research design and explain the difference
between cross sectional and longitudinal survey.
7. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of collecting
primary data.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/FZYMyS , https://goo.gl/vj74F7. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2JCQcvc and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Beasley, M.R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S.(1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,

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http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.

Yenza Research methodology, in,
http://www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Module 3
Data Presentation and Analysis

Content:
Study Session 1: Sample Design and Instrument for Data Collection
Study Session 2: Data Collection and Analysis
Study Session 3: Reporting Research Findings
Study Session 4: The Research Hypothesis

Study Session 1
Sample Design and Instrument for Data

Collection Section and Subsection Headings

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Determining Sample Design
2.2 - Types of Samples
2.2.1 - Probability Samples
2.2.2 - Non Probability Samples
2.3 - Tool for Data Collection (Research Instruments)
2.4 - The Questionnaire:
2.4.1 - Closed –ended Questionnaire:
2.4.2 - Open-ended Questionnaire:
2.4.3 - Combination of both:
2.4.4 - Piloting the Questionnaire
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

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4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study module 4 of this course. This session is a continuation
of research process we started in module two. This session will enlighten you on
how you can draw your sample size from the total population of your study. You
will also learn probability and nonprobability sampling, guideline on how to
construct a questionnaire and the various instruments of primary method of
data collections such as questionnaire, interview and observation.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Determine sample size for your research project,
2. Discuss the probability and non-probability sample,
3. Construct questionnaire you will administer to your respondents,
4. Distinguish between open and close end questionnaire, and
5. Interview your research participants during your MIM research.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Determining Sample Design
Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample. A
Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a
whole. Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to
make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the larger population.

Fig 3.1.1: Determining Sample Design

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Designing the sample calls for three decisions:

1. Who will be surveyed? (The Sample): at this point, the researcher must
determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to have
it.
2. How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size): here, you should note
that large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However it
is not necessary to sample the entire target population.
3. How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling technique): Sample members
may be chosen at random from the entire population (probability sample) or
the researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from
(non-probability sample). However, what your research project need will
determine which method is most effective.
4.
ITQ: what factors affect sample determination?
ITA: Who to Sample, sample size and Sampling technique

2.2 Types of Samples

(i) Probability samples
1. Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known and
equal chance of being selected and the probability of the first and second
person been selected does not affect the probability that the third person will
or will not be selected.
2. Stratified random sample: Under this sample, the population is divided
into mutually exclusive groups such as age groups and random samples are
drawn from each group.
3. Cluster (area) sample: Here the population is divided into mutually
exclusive groups such as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the
group to interview.

(ii) Non probability samples

1. Convenience sample: This is the type of sample that allows you to select
the easiest population members from which you will obtain your
information.

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2. Judgment sample: This sample type gives you the opportunity to use your
judgment to select population members who are good prospects for
accurate information that you need.
3. Quota sample: under this sample, you as the researcher finds and interviews
a prescribed number of people in each of several categories.

ITQ: List any three non-probability sampling technique

ITA: convenience, Judgement and Quota Sampling

2.3 Tool for Data Collection (Research Instruments)

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most
important aspect of a research project because anything you say by way of findings
or conclusions is based upon the type of information you collect, and the data you
collect is entirely dependent upon the questions that you ask of your respondents.

The famous saying about computers- ―garbage in garbage out‖- is also applicable
for data collection. The research tool provides the input into a study and therefore
the quality and validity of the output (the findings), are solely dependent on it. Let
us quickly go through the guidelines to construct a research tool before we study
the instruments.

Guidelines to construct a research tool:

The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below is to ensure the
validity of your instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the
objectives of your study.
Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research
questions for your study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions
that you want to answer through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information
required to answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

ITQ: what are the steps for constructing research tools?

ITA: Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or research
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questions for your study.

Step II: For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions that you
want to answer through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step II and list the information required to
answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.

2.4 The Questionnaire:

Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a
questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a set of
questions presented to a respondent for answers. The
respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected
and then write down the answers themselves. It is called
an Interview Schedule when the researcher asks the
questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records
the respondent‘s reply on the interview schedule.

Since there are many ways to ask questions, the questionnaire is very flexible.
Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being used on a
large-scale. There are three basic types of questionnaire:
1. Closed –ended
2. Open-ended
3. Combination of both
Let us now learn what each of these instruments constitutes.
1. Closed –ended Questionnaire: Closed ended questions include all possible
answers/prewritten response categories, and respondents are asked to choose
among them. E.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions. These type of
questions are used to generate statistics in quantitative research. As these
follow a set format, and most responses can be entered easily into a
computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.
2. Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to
answer in their own words. Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but
instead leaves a blank section for the respondent to write in an answer.
Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find out how many
people use a service, open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out
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what people think about a service. As there are no standard answers to these
questions, data analysis is more complex. As it is opinion which are sought
rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.
3. Combination of both: This way it is possible to find out how many people
use a service and what they think of the service in the same form. It begins
with a series of closed –ended questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank,
and then finish with a section of open-ended questions or more detailed
response.
How to construct questionnaires
Now that you have studied the three types of questionnaires and how they work,
how then can you construct a questionnaire? Before you construct a questionnaire,
you need to:
1. Decide which questionnaire to use- closed or open ended, self or interviewer
administered;
2. Decides on the wording and structure of questions: Questions should be kept
short and simple-avoid double barrelled i.e. two questions in one –ask two
questions rather than one. Avoid negative questions which have ‗not ’in
them as it is confusing for respondent to agree or disagree. Question should
not contain Prestige Bias – causing embarrassment or forcing the respondent
to give false answer in order to look good. Questions about educational
qualification or income might elicit this type of response. You should use
indirect questions for sensitive issues- in indirect questions respondents can
relate their answer to other people; If you use closed- ended questions- try
to make sure that all possible answers are covered so that respondents are
not constrained in their answer. ―Don‟t know‖ category also needs to be
added;
Avoid Leading Question: Do not lead the respondent to answer in a certain way.
e.g. ―How often do you wash your car?‖ assumes that respondent has a car and
he washes his car. Instead, ask a filter question to find if he has a car, and then, ‗If
you wash your car, how many times a year?‘
1. Length and ordering of the Questions: you are to keep the questionnaire as
short as possible. Ask easy questions that respondents will enjoy answering.
If you employ combined questionnaire, keep open ended questions for the
end. Your questions should be as interesting as possible and easy to follow

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by varying type and length of question. Group questions into specific topic
as this makes it easier to understand and follow.

Piloting the questionnaire

Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means that
you must test it out to see if it is obtaining the result you require. This is done by
asking people to read it through and see if there are any ambiguities which you
have not noticed. They should also be asked to comment about the length, structure
and wording of the questionnaire and alter the questions accordingly.

ITQ: what are the three basic types of questionnaire?

ITA: Open-ended, Closed-ended and the combination of open and close ended questionnaire

3.0 Study Session Conclusion/Summary

A sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a
whole. Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to
make accurate estimates of the thoughts and behaviour of the larger population.
This session have enlightened you on how you can draw your sample size from the
total population of your study. You have also learnt probability and nonprobability
sampling, guideline on how to construct a questionnaire and the various
instruments of primary method of data collections such as questionnaire, interview
and observation.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

2. What is sample and how can a researcher determine an appropriate sample
for a particular study?
3. Discuss the probability and non-probability sample.
4. What is a questionnaire? Discuss how a researcher can construct a
questionnaire.
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of open-ended and close-ended
questionnaire. Which one is more useful in getting relevant data for a
scientific study?
6. Explain the concept of research tool. What are the guidelines for
constructing a research tool?
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7. Explain how a questionnaire can be piloted to verify and validate its

reliability.
8. Is there a difference between research tool and research instrument? Support
your argument with valid proof.

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/NX8orT , https://goo.gl/cBrt16. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2X2bS75 , https://bit.ly/2F7TUtc
and critique it in the discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

Beasley, M.R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Dawson, Catherine (2002) Practical Research Methods. New Delhi: UBS
Publishers‘ Distributors.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S.(1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.

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Study Session 2
Data Collection and Analysis

Section and Subsection Headings

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Data Collection
2.2 - Ethical Issues Concerning Research Participants
I. Collecting information:
II. Seeking consent
III. Providing incentives
IV. Seeking sensitive information:
V. The possibility of causing harm to
participant
VI. Maintaining confidentiality:
2.3 - Ethical Issues Relating to the Researcher
I. Avoiding bias
II. Provision or deprivation of a
treatment
III. Using inappropriate research
methodology
IV. Incorrect reporting
V. Inappropriate use of the information:
2.3 - Processing and Analysing Data
I. Editing
II. Classification
III. Tabulation
2.5 - Data Analysis Methods

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3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 2. When you have successfully formulated your
research problem, developed your study design, constructed your research
instrument and selected your sample, you then proceed to collect the data from
which you will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. In this session, you
will learn how to collect data, the ethical issues that relate to both the
researcher and the research participant and how the collected data is analysed to
come up with a meaningful and reliable result. Depending upon your plans, you
might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or
make observations.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Collect relevant data for your research project
2. Point out the ethical issues in research
3. Process and analyse the data you will gather for your project
4. Explain the quantitative method of data analysis
5. Discuss the quantitative method of data analysis

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Data Collection
Having formulated the research problem, develop a study design, constructed are
search instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you
will draw inferences and conclusions for your study. Depending upon your plans,
you might commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments
and/or make observations. Collecting data through any of the methods may
involve some ethical issues in relation to the participants and the researcher:
1. Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a
researcher become participants of the study.

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2. Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the

accepted code of conduct, is a researcher.

2.2 Ethical Issues Concerning Research Participants

There are many ethical issues in relation to participants of a research activity.
1. Collecting information: Your request for information may put pressure or
create anxiety on a respondent. Is it ethical? Research is required to improve
conditions. Provided any piece of research is likely to help society directly
or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask questions, if you first obtain the
respondents‘ informed consent. If you cannot justify the relevance of the
research you are conducting, you are wasting your respondents‘ time, which
is unethical.
2. Seeking consent: In every discipline it is considered unethical to collect
information without the knowledge of the participant, and their expressed
willingness and informed consent. Informed consent implies that subjects
are made adequately aware of the type of information you want from them,
why the information is being sought, what it is purposed to be put to, how
they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or
indirectly affect them. It is important
that the consent should be voluntary and
without pressure of any kind.
3. Providing incentives: Most people do
not participate in a study because of
incentives, but because they realise the
importance of the study. It is ethical to
provide incentives to respondents to
share information with you because they
are giving their time. However, you
should know that giving a present before
Fig 3.2.1: Providing incentives
data collection is unethical.
4. Seeking sensitive information: Certain types of information can be
regarded as sensitive or confidential by some people and thus an invasion to
their privacy, asking for such information may upset or embarrass a
respondent. For most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age,

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marital status etc., are intrusive. In collecting data you need to be careful
about the sensitivities of your respondents. It is not unethical to ask such
questions provided that you tell your respondents the type of information
you are going to ask clearly and frankly, and give them sufficient time to
decide if they want to participate, without any major inducement.
5. The possibility of causing harm to participant: When you collect data
from respondents or involve subjects in an experiment, you need to examine
carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm them in anyway. Harm
includes a research that might include hazardous experiments, discomfort,
anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or demeaning or dehumanising
procedures. If it is likely to, you must make sure that the risk is minimal i.e.
the extent of harm or discomfort is not greater that ordinarily encountered in
daily life. If the way information is sought creates anxiety or harassment,
you need to take steps to prevent this.
6. Maintaining confidentiality: Sharing information about a respondent with
others for purposes other than research is unethical. Sometimes you need to
identify your study population to put your findings into context. In such a
situation you need to make sure that at least the information provided by
respondents is kept anonymous. It is unethical to identify an individual‘s
responses. Therefore, you need to ensure that after the information has been
collected, the source cannot be known.

ITQ: why should sensitive information be a consideration in research?

ITA: Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential by some people
and thus an invasion to their privacy, asking for such information may upset or embarrass a
respondent. For most people, questions on drug use, pilferage, income, age, marital status etc.,
are intrusive. In collecting data you need to be careful about the sensitivities of your
respondents

2.3 Ethical Issues Relating to the Researcher

You have just learnt some ethical issues regarding a respondent to research
questions. Now, we are going to study some ethical issues relating to you as a
researcher. They are spelt out below for easy understanding.

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1. Avoiding bias: Bias on your part as a researcher is unethical. Bias is a

deliberate attempt to either hide what you have found in your study, or
highlight something disproportionately to its true existence.
2. Provision or deprivation of a treatment: Both the provision and
deprivation of a treatment/ intervention may pose an ethical dilemma for you
as a researcher. Is it ethical to provide a study population with an
intervention/ treatment that has not yet been conclusively proven effective or
beneficial? But if you do not test, how can you prove or disprove its
effectiveness or benefits? There are no simple answers to these dilemmas.
Ensuring informed consent, 'minimum risk‘ and frank discussion as to the
implications of participation in the study will help to resolve ethical issues.
3. Using inappropriate research methodology: It is unethical to use a
method or procedure you know to be inappropriate e.g. selecting a highly
biased sample, using an invalid instrument or drawing wrong conclusions.
4. Incorrect reporting: To report the findings in a way that changes or slants
them to serve your own or someone else‘s interest, is unethical.
5. Inappropriate use of the information: The use of information in a way
that directly or indirectly adversely affects the respondents is unethical. If so,
the study population needs to be protected. Sometimes it is possible to harm
individuals in the process of achieving benefits for the organisations. An
example would be a study to examine the feasibility of restructuring an
organisation.

Restructuring may be beneficial to the

organisation as a whole but may be harmful to
some individuals. Should you ask respondents
for information that is likely to be used
against them? It is ethical to ask questions
provided you tell respondents of the potential
use of the information, including the
possibility of it being used against some of
them, and you let them decide if they want to Fig 3.2.2.: Inappropriate use of the information

participate.

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ITQ: what are ethical issues relating to you as the researcher?

ITA: Avoiding bias, provision or depravation of research treatment, using a wrong research
methodology, inappropriate reporting of research findings and inappropriate use of research
information.

2.4 Processing and Analysing Data

After you have successfully gathered the data you need for your research, the next
step is to process and analyse the data before you can get the result of your study.

Processing and analysing data involves a number of closely related operations,

which are performed with the purpose of summarising the collected data and
organising these in a manner that they answer the research questions (objectives).
The Data Processing operations are:
1. Editing: A process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and
omissions and to correct these when possible.
2. Classification: This is a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
basis of common characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon
involved. The classification can be in any of the following forms;
a. Classification according to attributes: here data is analysed on the
basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive such
as literacy, sex, religion etc. or numerical such as weight, height,
income etc. Such classification can be either; simple classification:
where we consider only one attribute, and divide the universe into two
classes one class consisting of items possessing the given attribute and
the other class consisting of items which do not possess the given
attribute or manifold classification: here, we consider two or more
attributes simultaneously, and divide the data into a number of classes.
b. Classification according to class intervals: is done with data relating to
income, age, weight, tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such
quantitative data are known as the statistics of variables and are
classified on the basis of class intervals.
3. Tabulation: Tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and
displaying the same in compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly
arrangement of data in columns and rows. Tabulation is essential because:
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a. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement

to a minimum.
b. It facilitates the process of comparison.
c. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
omissions.
d. It provides the basis for various statistical computations.

Tabulation may also be classified as

simple and complex tabulation.
Simple tabulation generally results in
one-way tables which supply answers
to questions about one characteristic
of data only. Complex tabulation
usually results on two-way tables
(which give information about two
inter-related characteristics of data),
three –way tables or still higher order
tables, also known as manifold tables.
Fig 3.2.3: Tabulation

ITQ: What are data processing activities in research?

ITA: Editing, Classification and Tabulation

2.5 Data Analysis Methods

Qualitative data analysis: Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process
with few rigid rules and procedures. For this purpose, you as the researcher needs
to go through a process called content analysis. Content Analysis means analysis of
the contents of an interview in order to identify the main themes that emerge from
the responses given by the respondents. This process involves a number of steps:
Step 1. Identify the main themes: You as the researcher need to carefully go
through the descriptive responses given by respondents to each question. From
these responses you develop broad themes that reflect these meanings. People
use different words and language to express themselves. It is important that you
select wording of the theme in a way that accurately represents the meaning of the
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responses categorised under a theme. These themes become the basis for analysing
the text of unstructured interviews.

Step 2. Assign codes to the main themes: If you, the researcher wants to count the
number of times a theme has occurred in an interview, you need to select a few
responses to an open- ended question and identify the main themes. You continue
to identify these themes from the same question till a saturation point is reached.
Write these themes and assign a code to each of them, using numbers or keywords.
Step 3. Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the themes,
the next step is to go through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the
responses under the different themes.

Step 4. Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report: Having
identified responses that fall within different themes, the next step is to integrate
into the text of your report. While discussing the main themes that emerged from
their study, sometimes you can use verbatim responses to keep the feel of the
response. However, some researchers count how frequently a theme has occurred,
and then provide a sample of the responses. It entirely depends upon the way the
researcher wants to communicate the findings to the readers.

Quantitative data analysis: This method is most suitable for large well designed
and well administered surveys using properly constructed and worded
questionnaire. Data can be analysed either manually or with the help of a
computer.

Manual data analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is

reasonably small, and there are not many variables to analyse. However, this is
useful only for calculating frequencies and for simple cross tabulations. Manual
data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it
directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or
question numbers can be written on each column to code information about the
question. To manually analyse data (frequency distribution), count various codes
in a column and then decode them. In addition, if you want to carry out statistical
tests, they have to be calculated manually. However, the use of statistics depends

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on your expertise and the desire/need to communicate the findings in a certain

way.

Data analysis using a computer: If you want to analyse data using computer, you
should be familiar with the appropriate programme. In this area, knowledge
computer and statistics plays an important role. The most common software is
SPSS for windows. However, data input can be long and laborious process, and if
data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.

ITQ: Briefly discuss how qualitative data are analysed?

ITA: Identify the main themes, Assign codes to the main themes, Classify responses under the
main themes, Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report

3.0 Study Session Conclusion/Summary

Collection of data requires some ethical issues that relate to both the researcher and
the research participants. A qualitative analysis involved content analysis which
means, analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main themes
that emerge from the responses given by the respondents. However, a quantitative
analysis is most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys
using properly constructed and worded questionnaire. In this session you have
learnt some ethical issues that must be followed in data collection. You have also
studied the process of data collection. We further discussed qualitative and
quantitative method of data analysis.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the ethical issues in research that relates to the researcher.
2. Why does research with human participants require ethical approval?
3. Elucidate the guiding ethical principles underpinning research.
4. Discuss the ethical issues in research that relates to research participants.
5. How can a researcher adhere to ethics of the following term while
conducting a research: research design, sample, data collection, unforeseen
needs?
6. What is data processing? Discuss the operations involved in data processing.
7. Discuss the steps involved in analysing data.
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8. What do you understand by quantitative data analysis? How is it different

from qualitative data analysis?

5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/FxJL54 , https://goo.gl/diq3Jh. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2wfcsmf , https://bit.ly/2HUVdf8
and critique it in the discussion forum

6.0 Bibliography and Further Readings

B.S. Warrier (2004) The Hindu: Common errors made in research.
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm.
C.R. Kothari (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Delhi:
Wiley Eastern Limited.
Dawson, Catherine (2002) Practical Research Methods. New Delhi: UBS
Publishers‘ Distributors.
E.M. Phillips and D.S. Pugh (1993) How to get a Ph.D.? New Delhi :( UBSPD).
M.R. Beasley and L.W. Jones. Physics Today. June 1986 pp.36.
Kumar, Ranjit (2005)Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners.
(2nd Ed). Singapore: Pearson Education.
P. Saravanavel, Research (1987)Methodology.(Kitab Mahal, Allahabad).
Research methodology in Yenza, http://
www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm
R. Spangenburg and D.K. Moser(1999)The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad University Press.

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Study Session 3
The Research Hypothesis

Section and Subsection Headings

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Hypothesis and its Characteristics
2.2 - Three forms of Hypothesis
2.3 - Formulation of Hypothesis
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 4, this will be the last session we will discuss. It
guides the direction of your research study. After you have identified a problem,
you may formulate certain answers in the form of hypotheses. These guesses are
based on the past experiences or informal observation or information gained from
others. In this session, you will learn the basic characteristics of hypothesis,
importance of hypothesis, the types of hypothesis and how to formulate a good
hypothesis to guide the thought of research project.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the importance of hypothesis
2. Identify the characteristics of a good hypothesis
3. Explain the types of hypotheses
4. Formulate a research hypothesis

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2.0 Main Content

2.1 Hypothesis and its Characteristics
A hypothesis is defined as ―A tentative proposition suggested as a solution to a
problem or as an explanation of some
phenomenon (Ary et, al. 1985). It is an
agreed fact that, whenever possible, research
should proceed from a hypothesis.
Hypotheses are particularly necessary in
studies where the cause and effect
relationships are to be discovered. These,
however, may not be so important in research
studies in which the issue is of determining
the status of a given historical, social or
educational phenomenon.
Fig 3.4.1: Hypothesis and its Characteristics

It may be mentioned here that hypotheses are not essential to all researches,
particularly, in the early stages of exploration of a problem. And it should not be
assumed that failure to develop a hypothesis is necessarily a sign of lack of
scientific orientation. However, a hypothesis may be conceived as an assumption
which merits consideration and needs to be tested against the available empirical
evidence.

That is why it is suggested that a hypothesis is to be used as a pivot around which

the investigation resolves, limiting thereby the field of investigation to a definite
target and also determining the observations to be made and the ones to ignore.
A good hypothesis has several basic characteristics. Let us discuss some of them as
follows:
i) Providing direction: Hypotheses provide direction to research and prevent
review of irrelevant literature and collection of useless or excessive data. They
enable you to classify the information from the stand point of both ‗relevance‘ and
‗organisation‘. This is necessary because, a given fact may be relevant with respect
to one hypothesis and irrelevant with respect to another, or it may belong to one

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classification with regard to first hypothesis or to an entirely different classification

with regard to the second.

Thus, hypotheses ensure the collection of relevant data necessary, to answer

questions arising from the statement of the problem. For example, in a research
problem, ‗Study habits and achievement of Distance Education Learners‘, the
researcher may frame the hypothesis- learners putting in more study hours achieve
more in the examination. The researcher will collect data about the number of
hours being put in by learners for study and their achievement in the examination.

ii) Hypothesis should be testable: Hypotheses should be stated in such a way as

to indicate an expected difference or an expected relationship between the
measures used in the research. The researcher should not state any hypothesis that
she/he does not have reason to believe that it can be tested or evaluated by some
objective means. Hypotheses are the propositions about the relationship between
variables. These can be tested empirically. There is no relationship between
attendance to personal contact programmes in a distance education course and
achievement in examination. Such propositions can be tested by means of
empirical data.
iii) Hypothesis should be brief and clear: Hypothesis should be stated clearly
and briefly. It makes problems easier for the reader to understand and also for the
researcher to test. The statement should be a concise statement of the relationship
expected.
There are some important aspects to be looked into to judge the worth of a
hypothesis in research. A good hypothesis must be:
i) consistent with known facts and theories, and might even been expected to
predict or anticipate previously unknown data,
ii) able to explain the data in simpler terms, iii) stated in the simplest possible
terms, depending upon the complexity of the concepts involved in the research
problem, and
iii) stated in a way that it can be tested for its being probably true or probably
false, in order to arrive at conclusions in the form of empirical or operational
statements.

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ITQ: discuss any characteristics of hypothesis

ITA: Hypotheses provide direction to research and prevent review of irrelevant literature and
collection of useless or excessive data.
Hypotheses should be stated in such a way as to indicate an expected difference or an expected
relationship between the measures used in the research.
Hypothesis should be stated clearly and briefly.

2.2 Three Forms Of Hypothesis

To arrive at some conclusions pertaining
to a particular research problem, a
hypothesis is generally stated in testable
form for its proper testing. It may be stated
either in declarative form, the null form
or the question form. What do these three
forms mean?

Fig 3.4.2: Three forms of hypothesis

Declarative hypothesis
When a researcher makes a positive statement about the outcome of the study, we
get a declarative hypothesis. For example, the hypothesis „The performance of
the creative on problem solving tasks is significantly higher than the non-
creative” is stated in the declarative form. Here, the researcher makes an attempt
to predict the future outcome. This prediction is based on the theoretical
formulation of what should happen in a particular situation, if the explanations of
the behaviour (performance on problem solving tasks) which the researcher has
given in his/her theory are correct.

Null hypothesis
A null hypothesis is a non- directional hypothesis that proposes no difference or no
relationship. The usual form of such hypothesis is: ―There is no significant
difference between the performance of two groups of students, one following the

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conventional system of education and the second following distance- mode of

education. Since a null hypothesis can be statistically tested, it is also known as
―statistical hypothesis‖ or ―testing hypothesis‖.

The proponents of null hypothesis emphasise that the researcher must remain
unbiased throughout his/her research efforts. This view is defended on the basis of
the fact that in this case the researcher neither predicts a result nor indicates a
preconceived attitude that may influence his/her behaviour during the conduct of
the study. On the other hand, those who criticise the use of null hypothesis argue
that the researcher should indicate the direction of the outcome of the study,
wherever possible. It is further argued that predicting the results of a study is less
awkward in phrasing a relationship, than in using the ‗no difference‘ phrase that is
usual in the null form.

A null hypothesis challenges the assertion of a declarative hypothesis and also

denies it altogether. It says even where it seems to hold well, it is so due to mere
coincidence. It is for the researcher to reject the null hypothesis by showing that
the outcome mentioned in the declarative hypothesis does occur and the quantum
thereof is so significant that it cannot easily be said to have occurred by chance.
The reason for rejecting the null hypothesis may differ.

Sometimes the null hypothesis is rejected only when the probability of it having
occurred by a mere chance is 1 out of 100 or .01 out of 1. In such instances, we
consider the probability of its having occurred by change to be too little to be
considered and we reject the chance component of the null hypothesis and take the
occurrence to be due to a genuine tendency.

Hypothesis in question form

In the question form- hypothesis, instead of stating what outcome is expected, a
question is asked as to what the outcome will be e.g., if you are interested to find
out whether instructions through video programmes have any positive effect on the
learning of the students of Post Graduate Diploma in Distance Education. The
declarative form of the hypothesis will be: ‗Will instruction through video

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conferencing affect the learning of students of Distance Education?‘ This statement

shows that instructions through video programmes are not related to learning.
It is easier to state a hypothesis in question form because it appears to be quite
useful to write down all the questions that one wants to answer in a particular
research study. On the other hand, a researcher faces difficulties in predicting the
outcome of the study and stating the hypothesis in declarative form. But it is worth
noting that the question form is less powerful than the declarative or null form as a
tool for obtaining valid information, and it is generally advisable to state a
hypothesis in directional form?

ITQ: In what forms can hypotheses be raised?

ITA: Null, Alternate, hypothesis in question form.

2.3 Formulation of Hypothesis

Hypotheses are formulated to explain observed facts, conditions or behaviour and
to serve as a guide in the research process. The statements or tentative
generalisations which constitute hypotheses are partly based on facts and
explanations, and partly conceptual. Hence, there are certain necessary conditions
that are conducive to the formulation of hypothesis. There are:
i) Deducing a hypothesis inductively: You may deduce a hypothesis
inductively after making observations of behaviour, noticing trends or probably
relationships. For example, as a teacher you observe your learners behaviour in the
classroom. On the basis of your experience in the educational institution, you may
attempt to relate your behaviour with that of the learners, to various teaching-
learning methods as well as to the change in the institution itself and so on. On the
basis of these observations, you may be able to formulate a hypothesis that
attempts to explain these behavioural relationships in an educational setting.
ii) Limiting the problem: Here we need to state that the basic understanding of
the literature pertaining to the problem under investigation also becomes essential,
in view of the fact that the already existing corpus of knowledge on the particular
problem is too detailed to be incorporated in the process of hypothesis formulation.
Hence, the researcher must have the ability to comprehend the available evidence
in support or against the expected relationships, so as to remain within the limits of
the problem while formulating the hypothesis.
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iii) Deriving a hypothesis deductively: Hypotheses are also derived deductively

from the theory. Such types of hypothesis, called ―deductive hypothesis‖ are
formulated by studying a particular theory in the area of one‘s interest and
deducing a hypothesis from this theory through logic. This is possible when a
researcher has a versatile intellect and can make use of it for restructuring his/her
experiences in research. Creative approach to problem solving so badly needed by
a researcher, is the product of intellectual adventure, sound attitude and agile
intellect. This view is more relevant to descriptive and historical research in which
the abundance of literature with a number of contradictory/supplementary theories
may divert the researcher from the right path.

Therefore, you have to exercise great restraint and display considerable patience
to keep yourself on the right path. You have to develop certain habits and attitudes,
besides saturating yourself with all the possible information about the problem and
also think open- minded about it before proceeding further in the conduct of the
study.
iv) Hypothesis from analogies, conversations, etc.: Analogies also lead a
researcher to clues that may prove to be useful in the formulation of hypotheses
and for finding solutions to problems. For example, a new social situation
resembles an old one with respect to a particular set of factors. If the researcher
knows that the factors correlate in a particular fashion in the old situation, he/she
may hypothesise in terms of trends in the relationship to be expected in the new
social situation. However, it is to be mentioned here that use of analogies must be
made cautiously as they are not fool- proof tools for finding solutions to
problems.

Sometimes, especially the inter-disciplinary research conversations and

consolations with experts, are also found to be useful in the formulation of
hypotheses. To study the relationship of increasing literacy rate in the rural
population with the changing pattern of agricultural development requires
consultation with experts in agriculture, education, planning etc. while formulating
hypotheses. However, formulating hypothesis on the basis of analogies, anecdotes
and conversations should be done rarely, only as exceptions.

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ITQ: what conditions are necessary for the formulation of hypotheses?

ITA: i)You may deduce a hypothesis inductively after making observations of behaviour,
noticing trends or probably relationships, ii) Limiting the problem: Here we need to state that
the basic understanding of the literature pertaining to the problem under investigation also
becomes essential, in view of the fact that the already existing corpus of knowledge on the
particular problem is too detailed to be incorporated in the process of hypothesis formulation,
iii) Hypotheses are also derived deductively from the theory. Such types of hypothesis, called
“deductive hypothesis” are formulated by studying a particular theory in the area of one’s
interest and deducing a hypothesis from this theory through logic iv) Analogies also lead a
researcher to clues that may prove to be useful in the formulation of hypotheses and for
finding solutions to problems.

3.0 Study Session Conclusion/Summary

Hypotheses are particularly necessary in studies where the cause and effect
relationships are to be discovered. It is seen as a tentative proposition that suggest a
solution to a problem or as an explanation of some phenomenon. It is an agreed
fact that, whenever possible, research should proceed from a hypothesis. In this
session, you have learnt the basic characteristics of hypothesis, importance of
hypothesis, the types of hypothesis and how to formulate a good hypothesis to
guide the direction of a research.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Define hypothesis and explain its importance in scientific research study.
2. Discuss the characteristics of a good hypothesis.
3. Explain the three ways in which a researcher can formulate a research
hypothesis.
4. Identify and explain the necessary conditions that are conducive to the
formulation of hypothesis.
5. Explain the difference between confidence interval and level of significance.
6. State the levels of significance that are appropriate and acceptable in
scientific research study and relate how each affect the level of confidence
interval.
7. Relate hypothesis to research problem, research question and research
objective.

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5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/diAWzq , https://goo.gl/1azFzc. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/1tYwl9G and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References
Beasley, M.R. and Jones, L.W. Physics Today. June, 1986. pp.36.
Kothari, C.R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
Phillips, E.M and Pugh, D.S. (1993) How to get a Ph.D. New Delhi: UBSPD.
Saravanavel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad,).
Spangenburg, R. and Moser, D. K. (1999) The History of Science in the Eighteenth
Century. Hyderabad: University Press.
Warrier, B.S. (2006) The Hindu. 18 September, p.6; 30 October, p.6; 6 November,
p.6; 20 November, p.2; 27 November, p.4; 4 December, p.6 of Education
Plus.
Warrier, B.S. The Hindu: Common errors made in research in,
http://sociology.camden.rutgers.edu/jfm/tutorial/errors.htm, 11 May 2004.
Yenza Research methodology, in, http://
www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Study Session 4
Reporting Research Findings

Section and Subsection Headings

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content:
2.1 - Written Research Project Report Format
2.2 - Research Methods and Research Methodology
2.3 - Importance of Research Methodology in Research Study
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
6.0 References/Further Readings

Introduction
You are welcome to study session 3, in this session, you will learn how to write a
research report. When you have successfully formulated your research problem,
developed your study design, constructed your research instrument, selected your
sample, collect your data and analysed it, you then draw inferences and
conclusions for your study. After that, you now write your report. Writing the
report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process.

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After you have finished studying this session, you should be able to:
1. Write a report of your research
2. Offer useful recommendations from your findings
3. Write APA style of referencing

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Written Research Project Report Format
Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the following format.

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Title Page:
1. title of the Research Project,
2. name of the researcher,
3. purpose of the research project, e.g. ―A research project submitted in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of master in Business
Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria‖, -date of publication.

Table of Contents
In this part you list the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings
e.g.
Contents Page No
Introduction . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter I Theoretical Framework and Review of Related Literature . 3
Chapter II Research Design . . . . . . . 30
Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation . . . . 35
Chapter IV Summary and Conclusion . . . . . 70
Suggestions for Further Research . . . . . . 75
References/ Bibliography
Appendices
Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees
Appendix II Questionnaire for Managers

List of Tables
This section includes title and page number of all tables e.g.
Table No. Title Page No
1 Income levels of Respondents 31
2 Age distribution of Respondents 35

List of Figures
This part contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts etc. e.g. Figure
no. Title Page No
1. Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents 33
2. Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items 37

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Acknowledgements
Here the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide-research
guide and technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

Introduction
This section introduces the research, setting out aims and objectives.
It includes a rationale for the research.

Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

In this part, you include all your background research which may be obtained
from the literature review. You must indicate from where all the information has
come, so remember to keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do
not do this, you could be accused of plagiarism which is a form of intellectual
theft.
When you are referring to a particular book or journal article, use the Harvard
system.

Research Design:
This section includes all practical details followed for research. After reading this,
any interested party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods
used for data collection, how many people took part, how they were chosen, what
tool was used for data collection, how the data was analysed etc.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables,
graphs, pie charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative
piece of research this section may be descriptive prose.

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Summary and Conclusion:

In this section you sum up your
findings and draw conclusions from
them, perhaps in relation to other
research or literature.

Fig 3.3.1: Summary and Conclusion

Recommendations
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client
organisation, this section could be the most important part of the report. A list of
clear recommendations which you have developed from your research is included.

Suggestion for Further Research

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section
which shows how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are
inconclusive, or perhaps the research has thrown up many more research
questions which need to be addressed. It is useful to include this section because it
shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are not trying to cover
up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.

List of References /Bibliography

1. List of references contain details only of those works cited in the text.
2. A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are relevant
to the subject. (Larger dissertations or thesis)
3. Small research projects will need only a reference section. This includes all
the literatures to which you have referred in your report. The popular
referencing system Harvard System lists books and periodicals in the
following manner:

For Books
1. Authors surname (alphabetically), followed by their initials,
2. Date of publication
3. Title of book in italics

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4. Place of publication, Publisher. E.g. Philip, T.E. (1986) Modern Cookery for
Teaching and Trade. Mumbai: Orient Longman.

For Journal Article:

The title of the article appears in inverted commas and name of the journal comes
in italics, followed by volume number and pages of the article. e.g., Philip, T.E.
―Influence of British Raj on Nigeria Cuisine‖; Journal of Hospitality Education;
5:5-11

Appendices:
If you have constructed a questionnaire or interview schedule for your research, it
may be useful to include them in your report as
an appendix. Appendices do not count towards
your total number of pages/words. It is a useful
way of including relevant material so that the
examiner can gain a deeper understanding of
your work by reading it.

Fig 3.3.2: Appendices

ITQ: Why do we need appendixes in research?

ITA: It is a useful way of including relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper
understanding of your work by reading it.

2.2 Research Methods and Research Methodology

Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in
research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed
as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral.

They include theoretical Procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes,

statistical approaches, etc.

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Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem.
Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected
facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept
only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.

Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of

studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which
researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting
phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of
methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of
research. We cannot just stop here because knowing the importance of research
methodology in scientific research is imperative.

ITQ: what is research method?

ITA: Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms used in research.
Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem.

2.3 Importance of Research Methodology in Research Study

It is necessary for you as a researcher to design a methodology for the problem
chosen. You should note that even if the methods considered in two problems are
same the methodology may be different. It is also important for you as the
researcher to know not only the research methods necessary for the research under
taken but also the methodology.

For example, you do not only need to know how to calculate mean, variance and
distribution function for a set of data, how to find a solution of a physical system
described by mathematical model, how to determine the roots of algebraic
equations and how to apply a particular method but you also need to know which is
a suitable method for the chosen problem, what is the order of accuracy of the
result of a method?, what the efficiency of the method is, and so on. Considerations
of these aspects constitute a research methodology.
More precisely, research methods help us get a solution to a problem. On the other
hand, research methodology is concerned with the explanation of the following:
(1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?
(2) How did one formulate a research problem?
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(3) What type of data were collected?

(4) What particular method has been used?
(5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used?
The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The
study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing
methods, materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the
problem chosen.

ITQ: what is the difference between research method and research methodology?
ITA: Research method is the way data is collected to find a solution to a research problem
while research methodology encompasses all the decisions taken to solve a research problem,
including the research method.

4.0 Study Session Conclusion/Summary

Research report is the last and the most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what
conclusions you have drawn from your findings. In this session, we have discussed
how to write a research report. The sub- headings in writing a research report are:
Title page, table of contents, list of tables, acknowledgements, introduction,
theoretical framework and review of literature, research design, data analysis and
interpretation, summary and conclusion, recommendations, suggestion for further
research, list of references /bibliography and appendices.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Explain how a written research project report format should look like.
2. Distinguish between research methods and research techniques.
3. Distinguish between research methods and research methodology, with an
example of your own choice.
4. Discuss the relationship between research findings, conclusion and
recommendation.
5. Explain how summary id different from conclusion. Highlight their identical
features.

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5.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit U-tube add https://goo.gl/aV4awT , https://goo.gl/BJm97p. Watch the
video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on add/site https://bit.ly/2Wk7TWh and critique it in the
discussion forum

6.0 References/Further Readings

Beasley, M. R. and Jones, L. W., Physics Today. June 1986 p.36.
Dawson, Catherine (2002) Practical Research Methods. New Delhi: UBS
Publishers‘ Distributors.
Kothari, C. R. (1985) Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited.
Kumar, Ranjit (2005) Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners.
(2nd Ed). Singapore: Pearson Education.
Phillips, E. M. and D.S. Pugh (1993) How to get a Ph.D.? New Delhi :( UBSPD).
Sarava navel, P. (1987) Research Methodology. (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad).
Yenza, Research methodology in, http://
www.nrf.ac.za/yenza/research/internet.htm

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Glossary
Accuracy A term used in survey research to refer to the match
between the target population and the sample.
ANCOVA Same method as ANOVA, but analyzes differences
(Analysis of Co- between dependent variables.
Variance)
ANOVA (Analysis A method of statistical analysis broadly applicable
of Variance) to a number of research designs, used to determine
differences among the means of two or more groups
on a variable. The independent variables are usually
nominal, and the dependent variable is usual an
interval.
Apparency Clear, understandable representation of the data
Bell curve A frequency distribution statistics. Normal
distribution is shaped like a bell.
Case Study The collection and presentation of detailed
information about a particular participant or small
group, frequently including the accounts of subjects
themselves.
Causal Model A model which represents a causal relationship
between two variables.
Causal The relationship established that shows that an
Relationship independent variable, and nothing else, causes a
change in a dependent variable. Establishes, also,
how much of a change is shown in the dependent
variable.
Causality The relation between cause and effect.

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Central Tendency These measures indicate the middle or center of a

distribution.
Confirmability Objectivity; the findings of the study could be
confirmed by another person conducting the same
study
Confidence The range around a numeric statistical value
Interval obtained from a sample, within which the actual,
corresponding value for the population is likely to
fall, at a given level of probability (Alreck, 444).
Confidence Level The specific probability of obtaining some result
from a sample if it did not exist in the population as
a whole, at or below which the relationship will be
regarded as statistically significant (Alreck, 444).
Confidence Limits (Same as confidence interval, but is terminology
used by Lauer and Asher.) "The range of scores or
percentages within which a population percentage
is likely to be found on variables that describe that
population" (Lauer and Asher, 58). Confidence
limits are expressed in a "plus or minus" fashion
according to sample size, then corrected according
to formulas based on variables connected to
population size in relation to sample size and the
relationship of the variable to the population size--
the larger the sample, the smaller the variability or
confidence limits.
Confounding An unforeseen, and unaccounted-for variable that
Variable jeopardizes reliability and validity of an
experiment's outcome.
Construct Validity Seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept
and a specific measuring device, such as
observation.

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Content Validity The extent to which a measurement reflects the

specific intended domain of content (Carmines &
Zeller, 1991, p.20).
Context sensitivity Awareness by a qualitative researcher of factors
such as values and beliefs that influence cultural
behaviors
Continuous A variable that may have fractional values, e.g.,
Variable height, weight and time.
Control Group A group in an experiment that receives not
treatment in order to compare the treated group
against a norm.
Convergent The general agreement among ratings, gathered
Validity independently of one another, where measures
should be theoretically related.
Correlation 1) A common statistical analysis, usually
abbreviated asr, that measures the degree of
relationship between pairs of interval variables in a
sample. The range of correlation is from -1.00 to
zero to +1.00. 2) A non-cause and effect
relationship between two variables.
Covariate A product of the correlation of two related variables
times their standard deviations. Used in true
experiments to measure the difference of treatment
between them.
Credibility A researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object
of a study is accurately identified and described,
based on the way in which the study was conducted
Criterion Related Used to demonstrate the accuracy of a measuring
Validity procedure by comparing it with another procedure
which has been demonstrated to be valid; also

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referred to as instrumental validity.

Data Recorded observations, usually in numeric or
textual form
Deductive A form of reasoning in which conclusions are
formulated about particulars from general or
universal premises
Dependability Being able to account for changes in the design of
the study and the changing conditions surrounding
what was studied.
Dependent A variable that receives stimulus and measured for
Variable the effect the treatment has had upon it.
Design flexibility A quality of an observational study that allows
researchers to pursue inquiries on new topics or
questions that emerge from initial research
Deviation The distance between the mean and a particular data
point in a given distribution.
Discourse A community of scholars and researchers in a given
Community field who respond to and communicate to each
other through published articles in the community's
journals and presentations at conventions. All
members of the discourse community adhere to
certain conventions for the presentation of their
theories and research.
Discrete Variable A variable that is measured solely in whole units,
e.g., gender and siblings
Discriminate The lack of a relationship among measures which
Validity theoretically should not be related.
Distribution The range of values of a particular variable.
Dynamic systems Qualitative observational research is not concerned
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with having straight-forward, right or wrong

answers. Change in a study is common because the
researcher is not concerned with finding only one
answer.
Electronic Text A "paper" or linear text that has been essentially
"copied" into an electronic medium.
Empathic A quality of qualitative researchers who strive to be
neutrality non-judgmental when compiling findings
Empirical "…the process of developing systematized
Research knowledge gained from observations that are
formulated to support insights and generalizations
about the phenomena under study" (Lauer and
Asher, 1988, p. 7)
Equivalency The extent to which two items measure identical
Reliability concepts at an identical level of difficulty.
Ethnography Ethnographies study groups and/or cultures over a
period of time. The goal of this type of research is
to comprehend the particular group/culture through
observer immersion into the culture or group.
Research is completed through various methods,
which are similar to those of case studies, but since
the researcher is immersed within the group for an
extended period of time more detailed information
is usually collected during the research.
Ethnomethodology A form of ethnography that studies activities of
group members to see how they make sense of their
surroundings
Existence or This is a key question in the coding process. The
Frequency researcher must decide if he/she is going to count a
concept only once, for existence, no matter how
many times it appears, or if he/she will count it each
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time it occurs. For example, "damn" could be

counted once, even though it appears 50 times, or it
could be counted all 50 times. The latter
measurement may be interested in how many times
it occurs and what that indicates, whereas the
former may simply looking for existence, period.
Experiment Experimental Research A researcher working
within this methodology creates an environment in
which to observe and interpret the results of a
research question. A key element in experimental
research is that participants in a study are randomly
assigned to groups. In an attempt to create a causal
model (i.e., to discover the causal origin of a
particular phenomenon), groups are treated
differently and measurements are conducted to
determine if different treatments appear to lead to
different effects.
External Validity The extent to which the results of a study
aregeneralizable or transferable. See also validity
Face Validity How a measure or procedure appears.
Factor Analysis A statistical test that explores relationships among
data. The test explores which variables in a data set
are most related to each other. In a carefully
constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can
yield information on patterns of responses, not
simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies
may then be interpreted, indicating behavior trends
rather than simply responses to specific questions.
Generalizability The extent to which research findings and
conclusions from a study conducted on a sample
population can be applied to the population at large.

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Grounded theory Practice of developing other theories that emerge

from observing a group. Theories are grounded in
the group's observable experiences, but researchers
add their own insight into why those experiences
exist.
Holistic Taking almost every action or communication of
perspective the whole phenomenon of a certain community or
culture into account in research
Hypertext A nonsequential text composed of links and nodes
Hypothesis A tentative explanation based on theory to predict a
causal relationship between variables.
Independent A variable that is part of the situation that exist
Variable from which originates the stimulus given to a
dependent variable. Includes treatment, state of
variable, such as age, size, weight, etc.
Inductive A form of reasoning in which a generalized
conclusion is formulated from particular instances
Inductive analysis A form of analysis based on inductive reasoning; a
researcher using inductive analysis starts with
answers, but forms questions throughout the
research process.
Internal The extent to which all questions or items assess the
Consistency same characteristic, skill, or quality.
Internal Validity (1) The rigor with which the study was conducted
(e.g., the study's design, the care taken to conduct
measurements, and decisions concerning what was
and wasn't measured) and (2) the extent to which
the designers of a study have taken into account
alternative explanations for any causal relationships
they explore (Huitt, 1998). In studies that do not

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explore causal relationships, only the first of these

definitions should be considered when assessing
internal validity. See alsovalidity.
Interrater The extent to which two or more individuals agree.
Reliability It addresses the consistency of the implementation
of a rating system.
Interval Variable A variable in which both order of data points and
distance between data points can be determined,
e.g., percentage scores and distances
Interviews A research tool in which a researcher asks questions
of participants; interviews are often audio- or video-
taped for later transcription and analysis.
Irrelevant One must decide what to do with the information in
Information the text that is not coded. One's options include
either deleting or skipping over unwanted material,
or viewing all information as relevant and important
and using it to reexamine, reassess and perhaps
even alter the one's coding scheme.
Kinesics Kinesic analysis examines what is communicated
through body movement
Level of Analysis Chosen by determining which word, set of words,
or phrases will constitute a concept. According to
Carley, 100-500 concepts is generally sufficient
when coding for a specific topic, but this number of
course varies on a case by case basis.
Level of A researcher must decide whether concepts are to
Generalization be coded exactly as they appear, or if they can be
recorded in some altered or collapsed form. Using
Horton as an example again, she could code
profanity individually and code "damn" and
"dammit" as two separate concepts. Or, by
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generalizing their meaning, i.e. they both express

the same idea, she could group them together as one
item, i.e. "damn words."
Level of One must determine whether to code simply for
Implication explicit appearances of concepts, or for implied
concepts, as well. For example, consider a
hypothetical piece of text about skiing, written by
an expert. The expert might refer several times to
"???," as well as various other kinds of turns. One
must decide whether to code "???" as an entity in
and of itself, or, if coding for "turn" references in
general, to code "???" as implicitly meaning "turn."
Thus, by determining that the meaning "turn" is
implicit in the words "???," anytime the words
"???" or "turn" appear in the text, they will be
coded under the same category of "turn."
Link In hypertext, a pointer from one node to another
Matched T-Test A statistical test used to compare two sets of scores
for the same subject. A matched pairs T-test can be
used to determine if the scores of the same
participants in a study differ under different
conditions. For instance, this sort of t-test could be
used to determine if people write better essays after
taking a writing class than they did before taking
the writing class.
Matching Process of corresponding variables in experimental
groups equally feature for feature.
Mean The average score within a distribution.
Mean Deviation A measure of variation that indicates the average
deviation of scores in a distribution from themean:
It is determined by averaging the absolute values of

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thedeviations.
Median The center score in a distribution.
Mental Models A group or network of interrelated concepts that
reflect conscious or subconscious perceptions of
reality. These internal mental networks of meaning
are constructed as people draw inferences and
gather information about the world.
Mode The most frequent score in a distribution.
Multi-Modal A research approach that employs a variety of
Methods methods; see also triangulation
Narrative Inquiry A qualitative research approach based on a
researcher's narrative account of the investigation,
not to be confused with a narrative examined by the
researcher as data
Naturalistic Observational research of a group in its natural
Inquiry setting
Node In hypertext, each unit of information, connected by
links
Nominal Variable A variable determined by categories which cannot
be ordered, e.g., gender and color
Normal A normal frequency distribution representing the
distribution probability that a majority of randomly selected
members of a population will fall within the middle
of the distribution. Represented by the bell curve.
Ordinal Variable A variable in which the order of data points can be
determined but not the distance between data
points, e.g., letter grades
Parameter A coefficient or value for the population that
corresponds to a particular statistic from
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a sample and is often inferred from the sample.

Phenomenology A qualitative research approach concerned with
understanding certain group behaviors from that
group's point of view
Population The target group under investigation, as in all
students enrolled in first-year composition courses
taught in traditional classrooms. The population is
the entire set under consideration. Samples are
drawn from populations.
Precision In survey research, the tightness of the confidence
limits.
Pre-defined or One must determine whether to code only from a
Interactive pre-defined set of concepts and categories, or if one
Concept Choice will develop some or all of these during the coding
process. For example, using a predefined set,
Horton would code only for profane language. But,
if Horton coded interactively, she may have decided
to half-way through the process that the text
warranted coding for profane gestures, as well.
Probability The chance that a phenomenon has a of occurring
randomly. As a statistical measure, it shown
as p (the "p" factor).
Qualitative Empirical research in which the researcher explores
Research relationships using textual, rather than quantitative
data. Case study, observation, and ethnography are
considered forms of qualitative research. Results
are not usually considered generalizable, but are
often transferable.
Quantitative Empirical research in which the researcher explores
Research relationships using numeric data. Survey is
generally considered a form of quantitative
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research. Results can often be generalized, though

this is not always the case.
Quasi-experiment Similar to true experiments. Have subjects,
treatment, etc., but uses nonrandomized groups.
Incorporates interpretation and transferability in
order to compensate for lack of control of variables.
Quixotic Refers to the situation where a single manner of
Reliability observation consistently, yet erroneously, yields the
same result.
Random sampling Process used in research to draw a sample of a
population strictly by chance, yielding no
discernible pattern beyond chance. Random
sampling can be accomplished by first numbering
the population, then selecting the sample according
to a table of random numbers or using a random-
number computer generator. The sample is said to
be random because there is no regular or discernible
pattern or order. Random sample selection is used
under the assumption that sufficiently large samples
assigned randomly will exhibit a distribution
comparable to that of the population from which the
sample is drawn.
Randomization Used to allocate subjects to experimental and
control groups. The subjects are initially considered
not unequal because they were randomly selected.
Range The difference between the highest and lowest
scores in adistribution.
Reliability The extent to which a measure, procedure or
instrument yields the same result on repeated trials.
Response Rate In survey research, the actual percentage of
questionnaires completed and returned.
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Rhetorical Inquiry "entails…1) identifying a motivational concern, 2)

posing questions, 3) engaging in a heuristic search
(which in composition studies has often occurred by
probing other fields), 4) creating a new theory or
hypotheses, and 5) justifying the theory" (Lauer and
Asher, 1988, p. 5)
Rigor Degree to which research methods are scrupulously
and meticulously carried out in order to recognize
important influences occurring in a experiment.
Sampling Error The degree to which the results from the sample
deviate from those that would be obtained from the
entire population, because of random error in the
selection of respondent and the corresponding
reduction in reliability (Alreck, 454).
Sampling Frame A listing that should include all those in the
population to be sampled and exclude all those who
are not in the population (Alreck, 454).
Sample The population researched in a particular study.
Usually, attempts are made to select a "sample
population" that is considered representative of
groups of people to whom results will be
generalized or transferred. In studies that use
inferential statistics to analyze results or which are
designed to be generalizable, sample size is critical-
-generally the larger the number in the sample, the
higher the likelihood of a representative distribution
of thepopulation.
Selective The central idea of content analysis. Text is reduced
Reduction to categories consisting of a word, set of words or
phrases, on which the researcher can focus. Specific
words or patterns are indicative of the research
question and determine levels of analysis and
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generalization.
Serial Effect In survey research, a situation where questions may
"lead" participant responses through establishing a
certain tone early in the questionnaire. The serial
effect may accrue as several questions establish a
pattern of response in the participant, biasing
results.
Short-term Studies that list or present findings of short-term
observation qualitative study based on recorded observation
Skewed Any distribution which is not normal, that is not
Distribution symmetrical along the x-axis
Stability The agreement of measuring instruments over time.
Reliability
Standard A term used in statistical analysis. A measure of
Deviation variation that indicates the typical distance between
the scores of adistribution and the mean; it is
determined by taking the square root of the average
of the squared deviations in a given distribution.It
can be used to indicate the proportion of data within
certain ranges of scale values when the distribution
conforms closely to the normal curve.
Standard Error A term used in statistical analysis. A computed
(S.E.) of the Mean value based on the size of the sample and the
standard deviation of the distribution, indicating the
range within which the mean of the population is
likely to be from the mean of the sample at a given
level of probability (Alreck, 456).
Survey A research tool that includes at least one question
which is either open-ended or close-ended and
employs an oral or written method for asking these
questions. The goal of a survey is to gain specific
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information about either a specific group or a

representative sample of a particular group. Results
are typically used to understand the attitudes,
beliefs, or knowledge of a particular group.
Synchronic The similarity of observations within the same time
Reliability frame; it is not about the similarity of things
observed.
T-Test A statistical test. A t-test is used to determine if the
scores of two groups differ on a single variable. For
instance, to determine whether writing ability
differs among students in two classrooms, a t-test
could be used.
Thick Description A rich and extensive set of details concerning
methodology and context provided in a research
report.
Transferability The ability to apply the results of research in one
context to another similar context. Also, the extent
to which a study invites readers to make
connections between elements of the study and their
own experiences.
Translation Rules If one decides to generalize concepts during coding,
then one must develop a set of rules by which less
general concepts will be translated into more
general ones. This doesn't involve simple
generalization, for example, as with "damn" and
"dammit," but requires one to determine, from a
given set of concepts, what concepts are missing.
When dealing with the idea of profanity, one must
decide what to do with the concept "dang it," which
is generally thought to imply "damn it." The
researcher must make this distinction, i.e. make this
implicit concept explicit, and then code for the
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frequency of its occurrence. This decision results in

the construction of a translation rule, which
instructs the researcher to code for the concept
"dang it" in a certain way.
Treatment The stimulus given to a dependent variable.
Triangulation The use of a combination of research methods in a
study. An example of triangulation would be a
study that incorporated surveys, interviews, and
observations. See also multi-modal methods
Unique case A perspective adopted by many researchers
orientation conducting qualitative observational studies;
researchers adopting this orientation remember
every study is special and deserves in-depth
attention. This is especially necessary for doing
cultural comparisons.
Validity The degree to which a study accurately reflects or
assesses the specific concept that the researcher is
attempting to measure. A method can be reliable,
consistently measuring the same thing, but not
valid. See also internal validity and external validity
Variable Observable characteristics that vary among
individuals. See also ordinal variable, nominal
variable, interval variable, continuous
variable, discrete variable,dependent
variable, independent variable.
Variance A measure of variation within a distribution,
determined by averaging the squared deviations
from the mean of a distribution.
Variation The dispersion of data points around the mean of
adistribution.

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Verisimilitude Having the semblance of truth; in research, it refers

to the probability that the research findings are
consistent with occurrences in the "real world."

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