< POSTGRADUATE DIPLOMA IN TEACHING >

< SEMESTER 2/2022 >

< HPGD2103 >

< GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING >

MATRICULATION NO : < CGS02461326 >

IDENTITY CARD NO. : < 970628-02-5826 >
TELEPHONE NO. : < 018-2897166 >
E-MAIL : < [email protected] >
LEARNING CENTRE : < BANGI LEARNING CENTER >
INSTRUCTIONS
 Do not copy the assignment question and instructions to your answer.
 Prepare your assignment answer following the layout of the ASSESSMENT
CRITERIA shown in the RUBRICS provided for the course. Where RUBRICS are
not provided, follow the instructions/guidelines specified by the Open University
Malaysia (OUM) for the assignment concerned.
 Your assignment should be written according to the number of words outlined in
the assignment instruction EXCLUDING references.
 Type your answer using 12 point Times New Roman font and 1.5 line spacing.
 Show the number of words at the end of your assignment.
 Tables and figures where provided, should be appropriately titled.
 List your references separately in the APPENDIX page.

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 ATTACHMENT

REFERENCES

Sajjad Kabir, S. M. (2018, June 25). INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING.

RESEARCH GATE.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325844365_INTRODUCTION_TO_COUNSE

LING

M.M. (2018, April 13). TOKEN ECONOMY. RESEARCH GATE.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311611740_Token_Economy

S.M.L.P.D. (2021, November 22). CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.

SIMPLYPSYCHOLOGY. https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-

conditioning.html#:~:text=In%20simple%20terms%2C%20two%20stimuli,all

%20aspects%20of%20human%20psychology.

FIVE COUNSELLING THEORIES AND APPROACHES. (n.d.). NORTHWESTERN.

https://counseling.northwestern.edu/blog/five-counseling-theories-and-approaches/

S.M.S.K. (208–06-25). COUNSELLING APPROACHES. RESEARCH GATE.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325844296_COUNSELING_APPROACHES

S.M.L. (2018b). WHAT IS OPERANT CONDITIONING AND HOW DOES IT WORK.

SIMPLYPSYCHOLOGY. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-

conditioning.html#:~:text=Skinner%20(1948)%20studied%20operant%20conditioning,in

%20a%20compressed%20time%20frame.

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

The focus of behavioural counselling is to eliminate undesirable or maladaptive

behaviour by focusing on human behaviour. According to behavioural counselling
theories, people exhibit negative thinking and behaviour when their surroundings
encourage it. These issues will persist if the environment supports or encourages them.
Also, the goal of behavioural counselling is to assist clients in identifying the
reinforcements that are fostering unfavourable thought and behaviour patterns and to
swap them out for reinforcements that support more appropriate patterns. One
behavioural therapy that evolved from the work of early theorist Pavlov is called classic
conditioning. Pavlov conducted a well-known experiment on dogs that examined the
consequences of a conditioned reaction to a stimulus. This experiment demonstrates that
the learning principle can be used to teach and modify someone's emotions. Another
behavioural therapy approach, known as operant conditioning was created by B. F.
Skinner. In this theory, he believed in the act of increasing a desired behaviour through
reinforcement. In addition, cognitive theory was created in the 1960s by psychologist
Aaron Beck. The core idea of this counselling approach is that thoughts have the ability
to modify feelings and actions. These three components of behaviourism counselling
theory have different perceptions and approaches.

Behaviourism is the second most powerful factor in psychology, following

psychodynamics and humanism. According to behaviourism, behaviour is a result of
what a person has learned from their environment, socialisation, and culture. In addition,
behaviourism holds that everyone is born with a blank slate. The first behavioural
philosophy is Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). In order to explain learning by association,
Pavlov created the classical conditioning principal. Pavlov experimented with dogs and
was able to make them salivate at the sound of a bell through the process of conditioning.

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

Saliva is produced by dogs as a reflex reaction to eating food. The dog's food in its mouth
is an unconditioned response. When the dogs were given food, Pavlov made a bell ring so
that the dogs would learn to salivate when they heard the bell sound since the dogs now
connected the bell with food. The bell developed into a conditioned stimulus that made
the dogs salivate even in the absence of food. JB Watson (1878–1958) later refined this in
his experiments with Little Albert. In one experiment, Watson trained Little Albert, a 9-
month-old baby, to be scared of white mice, white cotton, as well as Watson's white hair
using Pavlov's classical conditioning principle (1920, as cited in Elford, 2014). Also,
Watson and Rayner observed the boy's reactions to a variety of stimuli, including a white
rat, a rabbit, a monkey, masks, and burning newspapers. At first, none of the objects that
Albert was shown frightened him. When Watson exposed Albert to the rat again, he beat
a hammer against a metal pipe, making a loud noise. The loud noise naturally made the
child start to cry. Albert started to fear a terrifying noise whenever he saw the white rat
after constantly associating it with the loud noise. Then, just from seeing the rat, Albert
started to cry.

From this Watson’s experiment, it demonstrated how the learning principle can be
used to teach and change a person's emotional state. The existence of the mind or
consciousness was flatly rejected by Watson. According to Watson, each individual's
behavioural variations are the result of unique learning experiences. For example, in
classroom learning there is still a need for teachers to make an effort to ensure that
students associate learning with positive emotional experiences, even though the
implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less significant than those of
operant conditioning. It is clear that horrible things can happen if a student associates
unpleasant emotional events with school, such as developing a phobia of it. For instance,
if a student is tormented at school, they could come to connect fear with the school. It
may also help to understand why some students exhibit a persistent aversion for a certain

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

subject throughout their academic career. This might occur if a teacher humiliates or
punishes a student in front of the class. One of the technique and strategy that is used in
this approach in therapy is systematic desensitization. Systematic desensitisation is a
behaviourist strategy used to treat phobias. With this method, individuals create a list of
their concerns and then practise relaxing while focusing on them. People progressively
tackle these concerns with the help of a therapist, starting with the object that causes them
the least anxiety and moving up to the item that causes them the most anxiety. For
instance, those who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) frequently exhibit
classically conditioned reactions to stimuli that were present at the time of the terrible
event (Charney et al., 1993).

A behavioural psychologist by the name of BF Skinner (1902–1990) created the

operant conditioning principle which is the second component in behaviourism
counselling theory. According to Skinner's theory, our decisions' results teach us how to
behave. We will repeat a behaviour if it is reinforced or rewarded. When our actions are
not rewarded, we are less likely to repeat them. As per Skinner, the best method to stop a
behaviour was to stop rewarding it. There is no cognitive process involved in Skinner's
hypothesis instead behaviour is regulated by stimulus-response linkages that are beyond
our control. Animals were used in tests that Skinner conducted in his "Skinner Box,"
which was similar to Thorndike's puzzle box, to study operant training in 1948. For
exhibiting particular actions, an animal may receive rewards or penalties. In this
experiment, Skinner identified three sorts of operant reactions that can occur as a result of
behaviour. The responses can be neutral, positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement. A response or behaviour is strengthened by rewards in positive
reinforcement, which encourages repetition of the desired behaviour. The reward acts as a
motivating factor.

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

By imposing a consequence that a person finds rewarding, positive reinforcement

enhances a behaviour. For instance, if your teacher rewards you with RM 5 each time you
turn in your homework which is reinforces the behaviour, you will be more inclined to
carry out this action in the future. The fundamental idea behind Skinner's operant
conditioning, which focuses on how humans and animals learn by witnessing the results
of their own behaviours, is negative reinforcement (Dozier, Foley, Goddard, & Jess,
2019). In order to improve the possibility that the desired behaviour will be repeated,
negative reinforcement is the process of removing an unpleasant stimulus after the
behaviour has been demonstrated. As an example, you might give your teacher RM 5
because you don't finish your homework. To avoid paying RM 5, you will finish your
homework that is reinforcing the habit of doing your homework.

Aaron Beck, a psychotherapist, created cognitive theory in the 1960s. The main
idea behind this counselling theory is that thoughts have the power to alter feelings and
actions. Therapy based on cognitive theory is minimal and problem-focused, in contrast
to psychodynamic theory. Cognitive therapists place less emphasis on their patients'
background and more on their current circumstances and distorted thinking. Counsellors
and therapists frequently mix cognitive and behavioural treatment into one paradigm.
Research has shown that cognitive behavioural therapy is effective in treating a variety of
mental illnesses, such as anxiety, behavioural, nutrition, and drug addiction problems.
The Social Learning Theory was developed by Albert Bandura (1925–present). Skinner's
work on reinforcement was improved upon by Bandura to take this into consideration
cognitive processes. Children's socialisation and how they copied and adopted behaviours
from their observations of peers and role models were the main subjects of Bandura's
research. Children will follow the actions of people they perceive to be important.
Children will absorb the attitudes and values of their role models. According to cognitive
behaviour therapy beliefs, when a person's thinking is out of line with reality, they can

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have psychological and emotional problems. It makes sense that flawed solutions are
produced when this warped or "faulty" thinking is used to resolve issues. In addition,
PART 1 - QUESTION 1

cognitive counsellors strive to correct their clients' flawed thought processes so they can
come up with solutions that truly solve their issues. This entails recognising unfavourable
beliefs or misconceptions that are influencing behaviour. For example, a person suffering
from dental phobia avoids going to the dentist because they worry that having a dental
procedure will cause them extreme pain or perhaps death. This phobia might have its
roots in a traumatic event, perhaps from childhood. From this issue, the client and
therapist work together to create a strategy for changing how the client perceives future
dental procedures. In order to overcome their phobia, they also devise a strategy for
approaching dentist check-ups in a series of tiny, achievable steps. This strategy can lead
to another way of thinking of the client and help the client to make the differences
between actual facts and negative thoughts.

As a conclusion, the first component in behavioural approach shows that the

emotions of an individual can be learnt and also can be altered according to classical
conditioning principle. The stimulus come first before the response in this first
component. In classical conditioning, nurture is preferred to nature and that learning
should come from the environment. Apart from that, in operant conditioning principle the
behaviour already developed and it depends on how the reinforcement can make the
behaviour repeated. Positive reinforcement by giving a reward and negative
reinforcement by making a punishment. Also, by using operant conditioning principle it
can modify an individual’s behaviour that is called behaviour modification technique.
The third component in behavioural approach is cognitive behaviour therapy. In this
component, there is the combination of cognitive approaches and also behavioural
approaches. Furthermore, for cognitive approaches it focuses on the way of thinking that
lead to our behaviour. It believes that an individual behaviour depends on their thoughts
and their thinking process to react to the areas.

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

CASE STUDY

Aathif is a 14 years old high school student and he is a smart boy that always get
good results in every exam. His classroom teacher brought him to the counselling room
because he got caught due to imitate during exam in class. While being arrested by the
teacher during the exam, in fact the friend next to him had confiscated his question paper
and had threatened to tear the paper if he reported to the teacher about this. When
questioned by the class teacher, he just kept quiet for fear of being scolded by his friend.
During the counselling session he informed that his classmates always bullied him. Since
he was always bullied by them, he became silent and did not dare to fight. He also doesn't
like to go to school because he has no passion for learning and no friends who want to be
friends with him because he is often bullied for having a fat body shape. Due to these
issues, he feels that he hates himself and become lack of confidence about himself.

Aathif feels that he is uncomfortable to do a role play and he doesn’t know what to
speak during a role play. As a counsellor, I guide him how to communicate well. For
example, I discussed with him the problems he was facing and asked him to list the
problems. After listing the problems, I discussed together with him the ways to overcome
them. In this way, it will help him to come up with ideas when to do a role play. Also can
assist him in broadening his perspective and improving his comprehension of how to
respond to a circumstance. In addition, I created a safe environment so that he will feel
comfortable while conducting a role play session. In this session as well, I show an
example on how to do role play. For example, I acted as Aathif and Aathif played the role
of a counsellor. Various issues were discussed during the session. To understand how to
manage circumstances more successfully, customers should role-play scenarios utilising
various ways. Therefore, Aathif can understand in more depth how to do role play and
find out why role play is important in this counselling session. Besides, I also advise him

8
to practice speaking in front of a mirror. By this way, he can build his self -confidence
and learn to speak more clearly and systematically. In addition, he is also able to train
PART 1 - QUESTION 1

himself when talking to people. Therefore, it can facilitate the role play session to be
conducted as he does self -training. I will also make sure he makes this self -training
session by asking him to record the video and send it to me for improvement.

In conclusion, these steps will help to convince client to do a role play. Also these
steps will create stimulus to client and it will make easy for them to response to the
situation. In Pavlov classical conditioning, it shows that the emotions and behaviour of an
individual can be learnt and modified by using the learning principle. For example, we
ask client to do a role play. At first, we don’t explain to them what is role play is about
and we also don’t show them the example on how to do that. Client will not do that
because they do not clear what need to do. Then we ask again them to do role play and
show them how to do that. Also discuss the problems and find the ways to overcome
them together. Then client can understand and will try to do it. After many of role-play
exercises, they can do it well when the client eager and willing to modify their behaviour.

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

The concepts of operant conditioning are the foundation of the behaviour

modification strategy known as the token economy. Token economy is a technique for
changing behaviour that is based on operant conditioning and uses repeated
reinforcement of the desired behaviour. When the desired behaviour is demonstrated,
"tokens" are awarded and these tokens can then be changed for reinforcers in a
predefined economy system. Systems of behaviour reinforcement and rewards have been
used for ages. Thorndike's work with puzzle boxes in the late 1890s, however marked the
beginning of the formal scientific and theoretical foundation for understanding the impact
of consequences on behaviour. Pavlov's studies and Watson and Skinner's later in the
1930s were built upon his findings (Kazdin 1977). The ideas of operant conditioning with
which the token economy is today known were further developed by Skinner's
behaviourism work (Skinner 1938).

Early token economy systems were studied in laboratories as early as the 1930s,
with a focus on how they could be used to change both animal and human behaviour and
the reinforcement value of tokens (Kazdin 1977). The 1950s and 1960s saw the
beginning of the token economy's application as a clinical intervention, however it is
debatable when it was first applied in a therapeutic setting (Matson and Boisjoli 2009).
Ayllon and Azrin's (1968) study on the use of the token economy in psychiatric hospitals
with patients who had significant developmental problems and Becker's (1973) study on
the use of the token economy in educational settings were two seminal studies.
Furthermore, the token economy has developed over time to encompass a variety of
methods and variations. The domain of applied behaviour analysis is where modern
implementation and analysis are situated. Specific goal behaviour, tokens or points that
the person earns for displaying the target behaviour, and reinforcers that the person can
access by exchanging tokens that they have earned are the three main elements of a token
economy (Kazdin 1977).

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PART 1 - QUESTION 1

In contrast, in a school setting, a counsellor may offer a token economic system to

utilise as reinforcement to students who exhibit positive behaviours and specify the kinds
of consequences in the event of rule-breaking or failing to fulfil particular tasks.
Counsellors can use this method, for instance, by giving token rewards to students who
attend class consistently throughout the week to help students overcome the symptoms of
skipping school. Depending on how many tokens are collected, they can be exchanged
for benefits like access to internet services at school for a set length of time. But there are
some issues that some of the students doesn’t care if they earn any tokens or not.
Probably they are not eager to collect the rewards and they think that tokens are not
valuable as money. Because of this they will be unmotivated and they are not willing to
modify their behaviour by using a token economic system.

I agree that by using token economic system it can modify an individual’s

behaviour. Based on the positive side of token economic system, it shows that to
overcome bad behaviour like skipping school it is important to implement it. Because the
students will eager to collect the tokens because they will get the rewards or benefit
throughout this activity. They also willing to modify their behaviour because they know
that they will get benefit if they do it in a correct way. So that the symptoms of skipping
school will be remove when applying token economic activities in the school. The token
economy reinforces specific target behaviours through an exchange mechanism based on
the concepts of operant conditioning. It has been demonstrated to be helpful at boosting
desired behaviours and reducing undesirable ones.

As a conclusion, based on behaviourist theory counselling which is classical

conditioning, operant conditioning and cognitive behaviour therapy, it can be concluded

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that operant conditioning is a good theory. Reinforcement, punishment, shaping,
modelling, and other similar strategies are used in behavioural therapy procedures to

PART 1 - QUESTION 1

change behaviour. These techniques have the advantage of being extremely targeted,
which enables them to deliver results quickly and effectively. Because an individual’s
behaviour already in them and it can be modify using the behaviour modification
technique. This method supports profound positive change while helping a person get rid
of undesirable behaviour. In this theory, it aims to alter a person's behaviour by altering
their environment.

(2989 words)

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PART 1 - QUESTION 2 – NO. 1

A planned, organised interaction between a counsellor and a client is the

counselling process. It is a collaborative procedure in which a qualified professional
assists a person known as the client in finding the root of any problems or worries that
they may be facing. Together, they come up with solutions to these issues, giving the
individual new abilities and a deeper awareness of both themselves and surroundings.
According to Hackney and Cormier (1987), the counselling process consists of a number
of processes that the counsellor and client go through.

Stage 1 : Building Relationship

Building a relationship with clients and asking them to discuss issues that directly
touch them are the initial steps in the process. First of all, I will introduce myself to
Ahmad and I invite him to sit down. This initial step is to make sure that Ahmad feels
comfortable to stay in the counselling room. After that, I communicate with Ahmad and
ask him what title that I can called him so that he will feel secure to talk to me. When he
is talking to me, I have to see his nonverbal behaviour that show his emotional state. Due
to this, I can examine his behaviour whether he is pleasant to respond to me or still do not
want to give respond to the conversations. Apart from that, I tell him about my role as a
counsellor that I will help him to find a solution about his problem and I will be a good
listener to him. Maybe sometimes he is confused with his own problem and felt unsure of
the reasons for his feelings, so that I tell him, I am here to help him on his problems. I
discuss with him the aim that need to achieve in the end of the counselling session. I
explain all the aims that has been discussed to ensure he is clear about the objectives. In
addition, I must pay attention to his issue, assist him in understanding how he sees
himself so that he may learn more about himself, and assist him in understanding the

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purpose of counselling. Last but not least, I explain the schedule for the counselling
session which is what date, time and venue for another session and also approximate
times this session will take place. I also tell him that all of his stories are confidential
during counselling session.

PART 1 - QUESTION 2 – NO. 1

Stage 2 : Exploration
I start to ask about his background where he lives, how many siblings does he have
and what his parents is doing. I also ask about his hobby on what activity that he likes to
do at home or at outside. In order to understand his emotions, I ask him what are the
things that he likes to do and what are the things that he does not like to do. This is
because I want to build trust to him so that he can tell me more about his problems. Then,
I start to explore his problems by asking him what make he comes to the counselling
room. I consult him to tell me his story why he is here talking to me. To make sure he
feels safe, I give him space and time to respond on my questions in order to make sure he
feels ready to tell the story and doesn’t feel compelled to express what he feels. I also ask
him what made him think to cheat in the exam. It is because of his parents put high
expectations on him or he has another reason why he cheats during chemistry paper. I
give him choice for the answers so that he can show behaviour to tell me more stories. By
exploring about his problems, I ask him does the issue affect his day-to-day activities and
how often this occur to him. All these questions being asked to him in order to assess the
problems presented by Ahmad and to investigate the root of the problem to find
solutions.

Stage 3 : Decision making

At this stage, I need to restructuring aims that already agreed with Ahmad. The
achievement of goals is crucial to the effectiveness of therapy. It entails committing to a
set of guidelines, a path of action, or a result. At the conclusion of counselling, Ahmad’s
goals are the outcomes or achievements we want to attain. Goal setting involves how

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Ahmad identifying, with the counsellor's assistance, the methods he desires to resolve the
difficulties and what steps should be done to resolve the problem. I give an explanation to
him the purpose of selecting the goals and defining the goals clearly to him to make him
more understand about it. Setting goals enables the Ahmad and I to decide what can and
cannot be achieved via counselling. Both Ahmad and I have a better idea of what has to
be done when goals are communicated explicitly. Clarity of purpose enables me to deal

PART 1 - QUESTION 2 – NO. 1

with the Ahmad’s issues or difficulties more directly. Goals expressed in behavioural
terms help Ahmad better comprehend what has to be done. By setting goals can inspire
Ahmad to make the changes he wants to and assist counsellors in monitoring his
progress. And he also has guidelines on what to do in order to think solution of his
problems with my assistance. As a result, Ahmad might experience success, which boosts
his confidence and determination.

Stage 4 : Implementation
For this stage, Ahmad can apply suitable counselling approach that I subscribe
what counselling strategies should focus on. By emphasising the connection, the person-
centered approach, for instance, advises that the counsellor get engaged rather than
intervene. The behavioural approach makes an effort to start processes that assist Ahmad
in changing their behaviour. Ahmad can act his behaviour upon plans that already apply
during counselling sessions. So that Ahmad can manage this behaviour and copying it to
apply with his daily life. It is important to have strong support system from his family,
friends and counsellor. During this stage in order to maintain this behaviour, I need to
identify what strategies can be taken to maintain his behaviour. For example, he needs to
note his activities and his good behaviour every day and give me a report daily. If he
shows good behaviour, I give him rewards to motivate him to maintain this behaviour.

Stage 5 : Termination

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 The final step is critical because the focus of the next three aspects must be met.
First, a summary and evaluation of Ahmad's development must be made during the
counselling sessions. This wrap-up session also aids in the counselling goal's
enhancement. Ahmad uses the word "evaluating" to convey what he has experienced.
indicate the new behavioural changes that have occurred, the current behavioural changes
he is experiencing, or the extent to which he has been able to regulate himself. Before the
sessions are over, Ahmad's sentiments and actions that show an excessive leaning toward
the counsellor must be handled. He has to be reminded that if his reliance persists, he
PART 1 - QUESTION 2 – NO. 1

would struggle to live his life to the fullest potential. However, the process of ending the
counselling procedure may start if all the goals for the counselling that Ahmad and I
agreed upon have been met. I will have post-counselling session with Ahmad in order to
observe his new behaviour.

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PART 1 - QUESTION 2 – NO. 2

In my opinion, I agree that it is ethical to promise Ahmad a reward if he is willing

to come to the counselling session. By giving a reward, it can reinforce Ahmad to behave
positively and feel motivated for the sessions. For example, after one session he come
and we give him a reward, surely he will be happy and feel excited to come again for
next session because he eager to get more rewards. We can use this reward to reinforce
new behaviour on him. When he feels motivated with the rewards, we can build
relationship with him because he feels safe in the counselling session. Systems using
token economies or rewarding gifts have often been shown to be successful at changing
behaviour (Doll et al. 2013; Kazdin 1977). Along with teaching academic skills like
reading, mathematics, penmanship, etc., individual token reinforcement programmes are
utilised to change disruptive behaviour and inattentiveness (Kazdin 2012).

As a conclusion, counselling aids in bringing about change in the three spheres of

life which is thinking, emotion, and conduct. Counselling helps the client in having a
clearer understanding of something, potentially from a new perspective. approach may
allow the client to concentrate on their thoughts, feelings, or actions with the intention of
bringing about good change. In a helpful relationship, the counsellor and client work
together to solve a problem, alter behaviour, or promote personal development and
awareness during counselling. Its goal is to address situational and developmental issues.

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