Material Playbook

for community resourced insulation

materials in emerging economies
A research collaboration with TAMassociati and Arup

1
This Publication is a result from a close and playful research collaboration between Arup
and TAMassociati with the generous support by the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
(UPM), MUSOCO and the community of Keur Bakar in Senegal.

Arup is an independent firm of designers, planners, engineers, consultants and techni-

cal specialists, working across every aspect of today’s built environment. Together we
help our clients solve their most complex challenges – turning exciting ideas into tangible
reality as we strive to find a better way and shape a better world.

TAMassociati is an Italian professional design practice active in the fields of sustainable

architecture, urban planning, landscape design, participatory processes, graphic design
and social communication.

Arup Community Engagement: We partner with organisations who share our values
and whose resources best complement our potential contribution. These partnerships
enable us to provide an on-going programme of support and are formed with the medium
to long-term in mind, maximising the impact of what we can achieve together.

Arup Research: Arup invests in research that leads to better, more sustainable solutions
to the issues our clients face. Our remit is wide, tackling everything from city
masterplanning and transport strategy, to circular economy initiatives and innovative
responses to climate change. Research is fundamental to our pursuit of technical
excellence and integral to the way we do business. It helps us to respond to the changing
needs of our clients and the communities we serve. Our researchers work in partnerships
with academia and other businesses to bring together the most valuable combinations of
disciplines. We believe that open-minded collaboration builds legitimacy, ownership and
accountability as we turn problems into potential solutions.

For more information, please visit arupcommunity.org and research.arup.com

Revision May 2019

www.arup.com
© Arup 2019

2
Contents

Preface 04

Background 14
Climatic needs 16
Building requirements 22
Building Scale 22
Building Physics 24
Build Up of Insulation 27

Approach 30

Exploring sustainable resources 30

Categorising the resources 35
Processing methods 40
Testing of potential solutions 42

Potential insulation solutions 44

Case Study - Senegal 58

Thermal insulation 64
Acoustic insulation 68
Conclusion 72

Outlook 74

3
Foreword
Dr. Jan Wurm
Foresight + Research + Innovation
Director, Arup

The idea for this Research and the desire to alternative solutions represents a major
collaborate with TAM was born when Raul field of collaborative and inter-disciplinary
and I met at the Award Ceremony of the research. With the built environment of
Zumtobel Group Award in 2014. Since then industrialised countries like Germany
this collaboration has unfolded along with the or Italy largely complete, the challenge
friendship to Raul and the deep respect for for resourcing building construction is
the work of TAM. The Arup team benefits most urgent to resolve in the southern
tremendously from the rich experience of hemisphere, where dynamic population
Raul while bringing our interdisciplinary growth puts pressure on local communities
skills, expertise and global reach to the table. to have access to affordable, sustainable
I am hoping that this research collaboration and high-quality building systems.
will inspire others to seek collaborations
no matter how unmatched the partners In many cases circular solutions have not
may look at first glance - what matters is been developed from scratch but adapted
the common purpose and the insights of from our past. Communities previously
the collaboration will change the world. flourished as local agricultural economies,
where all parts of the plants were used
While the principles of Circular for different purposes and products.
Economy gain increasing traction in our If emerging economies will develop
industrialised world, we as designers solutions fully based on local resourcing
are challenging current business models and manufacturing, I believe it will be up
that turn non-renewable resources into to us in our industrialised economies to
building materials that consequently learn from this approach and adapt these to
become waste at the end of the building’s our climate that will connect practitioners
lifecycle. The use of natural and renewable around the world in a shared learning cycle.
resources of our biosphere for engineering

4 Guidance report | Preface

The aim of this project is to lay the
foundation for a playful open source
guidance for locally resourced and processed
insulation materials for emerging economies
– referred to LORAPIM as the acronym
for this collaborative project. We hope that
the approach and framework developed and
presented in this publication will inspire
designers and builders around our planet to
establish and share design solutions specific
to the location and climate, combining their
technical knowledge with the skills and
insights of the communities. Further research
on the fire safety and durability of these
materials is required to turn this playbook
into a guidance document. I would like to
thank Verónica Rodrigues, Nathalie Swords
and Nicole Pérez for leading the subsequent
stages of this collaboration – without their
personal efforts and commitment this project
would not have been possible to realise.

Preface | Guidance report 5

Executive summary

This study looks both at the general offer the potential for low desity insulation
conditions to develop a framework materials. Based on the categorisation of
to apply across different regions and these materials, we have outlined a range
climate zones as well as a specific case of principal processes that in our view
study to apply and test the approach. can be employed to turn these materials
in insulation materials, whether these
The emerging countries that we have are bricks, boards or mats, deemed half-
studied refer mainly to the African and products. For each category a suite of
West-Asian countries. Extremely different material characterisation tests can help to
climate conditions and local resources can specify the material properties off- or on-site.
be found across this vast territory, with Also, each half-product has the potential
differing needs and availability of tools for application in specific buildings systems
and raw materials. While each geographic and as components for walls and roofs.
area will lend itself to a specific palette
of material solutions, we believe that the In short, our approach starts with the
general approach for identifying, processing investigation of climate zones to identify
and testing materials and the integration of material palettes and subsequently to
these in buildings systems can be transferred suggest different processes and tests to
across different geographic zones. turn these materials into components
that can be applied for various building
Based on the general study on the different systems. While our objective is to use
climate regions, we could identify the locally available natural resources such
predominant species for local cultivation as agricultural waste as much as possible,
and agriculture and deduce potentially a pragmatic approach was taken to add
available agricultural waste materials such small quantities of established, industrially
as plant fibres, shells and husks. These processed materials such as cement if
this was fundamental to the performance,
reliability and robustness of the solutions.

6 Guidance report | Preface

As natural materials are often combustible Furthermore, two light panels are proposed
and the fire safety of community buildings which could be applied either on the wall as
is potentially a critical issue, a number a finish or on ceiling as an insulting element
of solutions investigate embedding and and a mat which could also be applied as
encapsulating natural materials in a mineral an insulating layer on ceiling or on a wall.
matrix to limit their combustibility. Finally, we have investigated two options
Nevertheless, additional research to the in further detail. For the brick and panel
fire performance of this encapsulated solutions, we carried out sample and
natural materials is required. benchmarking tests at the Labs of the
Materials Science Department of the School
To demonstrate the applicability of this of Civil Engineering at the Universidad
approach, we have focused on a specific case Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) as part of
study for a community building in Keur the Master Thesis of Veronica Rodriguez.
Bakar, Senegal. For this location we have We built and tested the applicability of
applied the framework and through close the solutions through full scale prototypes
engagement with the community were able together with the community of Keur
to understand their requirements and study Bakar. No fire performance and durability
the availability of raw materials. Following tests were carried out at this stage.
our approach, we identified and sketched five
potential solutions. Each of the five solutions The specific solutions proposed should be
proposed are based on different processes adaptable easily to other regions around the
to turn the locally available resources into globe within the same climate conditions
half-products. The process driven approach by substituting non-available materials with
is based on the objective to allow for local some similar locally disposable ones. We
production that can be up-scaled to foster hope that this work will initiate others to
the local economy. Two of the proposals capture specific locally resourced solutions to
are bricks or blocks with good thermal grow to an extensive open guidance library
performance to be used for wall construction. to have a positive impact on a global scale.

Preface | Guidance report 7

 Partner

TAMassociati

TAM are well known and highly respected

for their healthcare works carried out in
emerging economies, mainly in the African
continent. TAMassociati have worked in
emerging economies in all climate zones
and have identified the lack of thermal
and acoustic insulation materials with a
reliable performance, that are (re)sourced
locally. This need has led to this Research
that systematically reviews resources and
processes options for each climate zone,
developing an approach for using available
materials available locally to enable com-
munities to build better buildings without
relying on imported and expensive insula-
tion materials.

8 © TAMassociati
Foreword
Raul Pantaleo
TAMassociati

The LORAPIM project - locally resourced LORAPIM instead highlights how

and processed insulation materials for limited resources can be a stimulus to
emerging economies - is part of the broad rethinking a technology that stems from
debate about modernity and the role that restraints imposed, so helping us imag-
technology plays in processes that are ine a form of “low resolution modernity.”
transforming the natural environment. Our decade of experience in building archi-
tecture in areas of instability and war, or in
In this historical phase, when the West- the most extreme poverty, has been placed
ern world is shaken by an unprecedented at the service of LORAPIM for a proj-
ecological and cultural crisis, there is a ect based on simplicity and sustainabil-
pressing need for alternative develop- ity. We have identified technologies and
ment models to creatively unite technol- insulating materials embodying common
ogy with respect for the environment, sense, durability and restraint, in a strat-
measuring itself against not only economic egy of cost reduction that favors its ecolog-
but also environmental globalisation. ical and social content. An effort to achieve
a synthesis between modernity and tradi-
The climatic and ecological crisis, the tion, innovation and nature, and a prag-
energy crisis, and the struggles for social matic way of imagining a soft technology.
justice, may well become a great opportu- Seen in these terms, LORAPIM represents
nity to embark on a path of conversion and a different philosophy for creating “value”
transformation of the social compact, and from an ecological and ethical content. It
to invest in new development models. means thinking in terms of natural resources,
In recent years we have instead seen the efficiency, and reduction of the superflu-
gradual adoption of increasingly sophis- ous to benefit the end user. It is an approach
ticated and complex construction and that stresses the ethical nature of the prod-
technological systems, as well as forms uct and reflects the real value of things and
of waste that have dramatically increased our action in favor of the community.
the costs of development and the social/ This is a decisive approach that
environmental impact caused by it. solves many of the problems afflict-
ing the contemporary world.

Preface | Guidance report 9

Existing problem
It is our goal to provide architects and builders with an open
source guidance for safe, healthy and performing insulation
materials that are sourced and processed locally.

Acoustic insulation materials are needed This project investigates a new way:
to attenuate the noise of drumming rain on developing insulation products that can
the corrugated metal roofs of community be produced locally, in large quanti-
and school buildings, or to protect inte- ties, with local resources and provide
rior spaces from the heat during the day reliable and robust performance.
or cold during the night. Currently, solu-
tions derived from natural resources being It aims to develop solutions that meet local
used by communities have limited tech- construction needs and are mainly based
nical performance and low life expec- on local resources. A base for local indus-
tancy. At the same time insulation products try and value chains is created to bene-
such as polystyrene boards and blocks are fit local communities, improving living
being imported. While these materials are and economic conditions also in non-for-
produced cost efficiently at high quantities mal settlements. Processing local natural
in countries such as China, the products resources ensures environmental sustainabil-
come at a large cost for local communities ity as the material can be fed back into the
and the environment. As their robustness biological cycle at the end of the lifecycle.
does not stand up to the local conditions, the By cultivating and harvesting a variety of
combustible materials deteriorate quickly local plant species to strengthen bio-di-
and the debris that is difficult to contain versity, there is no contribution to pollu-
end up contaminating natural ecosystems. tion and waste, unlike foamed polymers.

10 Guidance report | Preface

 This project addresses a broad
range of the sustainable develop-
ment goals identified by the UN:

As the suite of materials aims to improve

indoor quality and comfort, it contributes
to Health and Well-Being. By substitut-
ing petrochemical materials made from
non-renewable resources it also relates to
Climate Action and fosters responsible
production and consumption. Strength-
ening local economies by combining and
building on the insights and collective
knowledge of communities to produce
new and better materials, helps to build
sustainable communities by strengthening
local Industry, Innovation and Infrastruc-
ture. Substituting polystyrene materials
to avoid the risk of pollution from plas-
tic it addresses (Life below Water) and
by strengthening the cultivation of local
plants and species it also contributes posi-
tively to Life on Land. Finally, this project
is an exemplar for Partnerships bringing
together local and global deign experts,
NGOs, academia with local communities.

© TAMassociati 11
Approach
Our approach to an open source guidance for locally produced insulation
products builds on two pillars and considers the possibility of up-scaling
the production of insulation products.

Pillar 1: Pillar 2:
Focus on materials Focus on construction
The first pillar is focused on material systems The second pillar focuses on the construction
that are based on crops and plants naturally systems for the envelope of buildings in the
growing in the respective country. Depending emerging countries. For low-rise buildings
on the climate zones and temperature profiles these are mainly related to the walls and the
of the regions, the raw materials with the po- roof. Walls and roof are subdivided in different
tential to perform as insulating materials have construction systems.
to be identified. Classified in different catego- A wall can be monolithic, a twin construction
ries such as fibres, sticks, husks, or shells their with a cavity, or a wall featuring a ventilated
potential for being employed for insulation screen. A pitched roof is usually a framed
can be investigated. For transforming loose construction that can be ventilated or not. A
materials and aggregates into the shape of flat roof is usually monolithic that can feature
panels and building blocks, a binding mineral several different outer layers. In each of these
matrix (Agent X) of ashes, clays, lime, etc. is typologies of wall and roof insulating material
needed to constitute and stabilise the materials. can be implemented in different ways.
The binding matrix should ideally also be
sourced locally, be affordable and not impede Fundamentally the insulating properties of
the sustainability of the solution. However, the envelope can be improved through the
as these materials and the related processing construction typology and the materials used
technologies are usually not available on site, within.
the use of small quantities of cement procured
from regional suppliers in our view presents a
pragmatic and acceptable solution to initiate This diagram visualises the principal influencing factors for
the design locally resourced insulation materials.
a fast adoption of this approach. The base
materials and the matrix have then to be pro-
cessed by weaving, pressing, moulding, etc.
to manufacture insulation products in from of
blocks, panels or mats.

MATERIAL PROCESSING TYPOLOGY SYSTEM

(ROOF/WALL) (BUILDING)

LOCALLY SOURCED
INSULATION PRODUCT

12 Guidance report | Preface

Up-scaling of insulation products

The insulation solutions presented in this

guidance aim to be suitable for up-scal- Overall, our approach of an
ing of local production. We anticipate open source guidance for locally
that the approach will be first trialled and produced insulation products can
dispersed across rural regions and commu- be summarised as follows:
nities for small houses in villages and
buildings of social infrastructure such as 1. Identifying the needs and
schools or hospitals, before they will be local building requirements
mature enough to be applied for larger • climatic conditions
scale developments in an urban context. • noise exposure
Before the local production can be scaled-up, • building scales
different tests should be done to under- • build-up of insulation
stand the performance of the materials, • fire safety
such as fire tests and more detailed struc-
tural tests. The results should be analyzed 2. Finding a sustainable and
in relation to the different (local) require- performing solution
ments for various building typologies.
• Exploring and categoris-
ing local resources
When applied at scale the three
• Processing of resources
main principles of a circular mate-
• Testing of potential mate-
rial systems should be employed:
rial solutions and application
on-site and off-site in lab
• Designing out waste and pollution
• Keeping products and materials in use
• Regenerating natural system

With a wider adoption of these solutions,

half-products based on agricultural waste
materials need to be brought in from rural
areas into the city. The transportation of
these materials should be integrated with
established transportation routes associ-
ated with the distribution of agricultural
products to limit additional pollution.

13
 Background
Climate Needs
Building Requirements
Building Scale
Building Physics
Build-up of Insulation

14
Before developing insulation solutions for a project, the
needs and building requirements in the targeted country
with an emerging economy have to be clarified. This
chapter describes insulation needs due to climatic con-
ditions and their impact on communities, based on the
examples of Uganda, Senegal, Afghanistan and Sudan.
General build-ups for the integration of insulation mate-
rials based on typologies and the requirements of build-
ing physics are also outlined.

15
Background
Climate needs
Over the last decades human activities – in particular the burn-
ing of fossil fuels - have released significant quantities of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to trap additional
heat in the atmosphere affecting the global climate.

Whether it is the rising temperature, extreme ity, summer/winter and night/day differ-
wind speeds or intense rainfalls, coun- ences in terms of temperature as well as
tries in tropical or desert areas will be hit the average temperature. But one should
the hardest. The climatic change makes the look beyond the country and investigate the
already hard living conditions even harder. specific conditions of each region, city or
village to identify factors such as location,
The climate typologies found in the countries orientation and environmental conditions
with emerging economies shows a wide vari- that can make an impact on the micro-cli-
ety of temperatures, humidity, amounts of mate and, therefore, on the insulation needs.
rainfall and dry/wet periods among the area.
Wellbeing and comfort in interior spaces
decline even more due the extreme weather. The Köppen or Köppen - Geiger
Building components with insulating prop- climate classification is one of the
erties can be the key in providing sufficient most widely used climate classification
protection and improve occupant wellbeing. systems. Climate zone boundaries
have been selected with vegetation
As the climate conditions vary, it is key to distribution in mind. It combines
identify the insulation needs of each specific average annual and monthly
emerging country. It is important to interpret temperatures and precipitation, and
factors as rain days, rain periods, humid- the seasonality of precipitation.

16 Guidance report | Climate Needs

 Af BWh Csa Cwa Cfa Dsa Dwa Dfa ET
Am BWk Csb Cwb Cfb Dsb Dwb Dfb EF
Aw BSh Cwc Cwc Dsc Dwc Dfc
BSk Dsd Dwd Dfd

Main Climate
A - equatorial, B - arid, C - warm temperature, D - snow, E - polar

Precipitation
W - desert, S - steppe, F - fully humid, s - summer dry, w - winter dry, m - monsoonal
Temperature
H - hot, k - cool arid, a - hot summer, b - warm summer, c - cool summer,
d - extremely contintental, F - polar frost, T - polar tundra

17
Climatic needs in Uganda, Senegal, Afghanistan, and Sudan
In the following four emerging countries are described as examples for
different climate conditions and needs. The target countries selected
were Afghanistan, Senegal, Uganda, Sudan reflecting countries where
TAMassociati have worked in the past or have ongoing projects.

Afghanistan
Big Cities: Kabul, Kandahar, Herat,
Mazar -i-Sharif

• Large differences in weather and

climate because of high altitudes
Winter Summer
and absence of sea. Summers
Extreme T a < - 25 C
0 > 380C are hot and winters cold.
Critical region Mountains Southwest
• South western: warm steppe
Rainfall 1200 mm climate and warm desert climate.
• North eastern: cold steppe climate.

Afghanistan, Sudan and Senegal • Climate types: BWh, BWk, BSh, Bsk
share the BWh climate. Any insu- • Altitude has a dramatic effect
lation solutions developed for this on temperatures: tempera-
climate region will most likely also be tures decrease about 6.50C per
suitable for the BSh climate regions, 1,000 metres of elevation.
which is a similar but softer climate.
• Hindu Kush Mountains - Peaks are
min. 5,000 metres - temperatures
may vary by 100C to 200C over rela-
tively short horizontal distances.

18 Guidance report | Climate Needs

 Senegal

Big Cities: Dakar, Thies

• The climate in Senegal is tropical, with

Winter Summer along dry season and a rainy season.
Extreme Ta 400C
140C • The annual rainfall is more abundant
Critical region North, Sahel North, South in the south, while in the north and
centre the rainfall is below 600mm.
Rainfall 400 - 1500mm
annually • The landscape varies consider-
arably: semi-desert in the north,
south is occupied by the savanna
Senegal and Uganda also share the climate with forests and rivers.
type Aw. Any solutions developed for this
climate should be useful for the Am region
as it is also a similar and softer climate.

Legend
BWh Aw BWh and Aw climates have been iden-
Main climate: B for arid climate Main climate: A for equatorial tified as the most relevant climates
Precipitation: W for desert Precipitation: W for desert at this stage. Solutions developed for
Temperature: H for Hot these could be in principle applied
also to Bsh and Am respectively.

19
Sudan Uganda
Big Cities: Khartoum, Omdurman, Big Cities: Kampala, Gulu, Lira,Mbarara
Nyala, Port Sudan

Winter Summer
Winter Summer
Extreme Ta 15 C
0 < 300C
Extreme Ta 5 0C 480C

Critical region Mountains South Critical region Mountains North

Rainfall 250 mm annually Rainfall 50 - 380 mm annually

• Climate ranges from arid in the north to • Uganda´s climate is tropical: Aver-
tropical we and dry in the far southwest. age temperatures increase in the
south as the elevation decreases.
• Far south: Short dry season with
uniform temperatures around 400C.
• Average temperatures in the cool-
• Northern Sudan: Short rainy season est regions are max. 200C and min.
and hot daytime temperatures. 250C in the warmest ones (North).

• Highland areas: Average

• Two distinct wet periods: `short´
decreases to 150C in January.
rains in October to December and
• Rainfall from March to August. `long´ rains in March to May.

20 Guidance report | Climate Needs

Conclusion

This study identifies a variety of climate Climate zones

typologies in each of the targeted coun- Although similar or equal solutions can
tries that indicate the relevance and answer the need for insulation in differ-
need for providing building enve- ent counties and potentially enlarge the
lopes with insulating properties. market for possible insulation solutions, it
should be noted that some countries e.g.
To maximise the positive impact of provid- Afghanistan have several climate zones.
ing insulation, regions that are more densely
populated should be the starting point Precipitation
for the process of developing and imple- Precipitation can have an impact on insu-
menting insulating products. The solu- lation products as well. E.g. in Uganda,
tions developed in these areas could be the rains occur in the form of downpour or
then tailored to meet the requirements thunderstorm in the afternoon or evening.
for some more dispersed communities. Similarly in Senegal, rain comes in show-
ers. Whether there are intense wet peri-
In spite of the continued growth of towns ods, longer drought periods, or a steady
and cities, Afghanistan, Senegal, Sudan precipitation: insulation solutions need to
and Uganda are still predominantly rural. be adaptable to these circumstances.
Another starting point to develop insu-
lating products from local resources is to Natural environment amplitudes
focus on climate zones with the largest Some countries, e.g. Afghanistan, are
geographic extent regardless the popula- exposed to amplitude peaks and extreme
tion in the zone. The results can provide temperature differences from summer to
guidance for similar solutions for regions winter as well as day to night and need to
and countries that share similar climates. be considered when planning and devel-
This enlarges the geographic reach for oping insulating products. Natural ampli-
possible insulation products, one might tudes can be a crucial factor when new
create. In any case the specific climatic insulation solutions are being incor-
conditions must be carefully addressed. porated into the building design.

Climate Needs | Guidance report 21

Building requirements
The typologies of buildings and the associated requirements will deter-
mine the type of insulation needed and possible solutions to integrate.

Building Scale
People in countries with emerging econo- advantage of the prevailing winds of the area.
mies have always been forced to regulate the Making use of this can reduce solar gains e.g.
climate of their houses with passive measures through cross ventilation. Well-chosen orien-
and the renewable resources at hand. In fact, tation of spaces can achieve higher levels
the main feature of vernacular residential of daylight, which is crucial when working
architecture in most geographical areas has inside the house during colder seasons.
always been measures to protect the inhab-
itants from the heat of the sun. This led to This playbook explores how a wide range
houses being built with thick walls for ther- of materials could be utilized for building
mal mass and insulation, with few windows construction, exploring key properties such
and with passive devices designed to take as thermal and mechanical performance.
advantage of any potentially cooling breeze. Another key performance driver is fire safety
which must also be central to the process
These traditional typologies of houses deter- of identifying suitable building materials.
mine the possible integration of insula- The building use, height and location will
tion materials with respect to orientation, have significant influence on the acceptable
build-up and required shape and stiffness. use of building materials with regards to
achieving reasonable fire safety standards.
In tropical climates, for example Uganda, the Local building regulations and guidance
architecture seeks to achieve thermal comfort should be referenced where applicable and
by creating clusters of buildings structures fire safety should be considered through-
and vegetation that provide shadow for the out the design, construction and use of a
inhabited spaces. The use of additional building with particular attention paid to
shading elements such as screen or over- the fire performance of building materials.
hanging roofs can further reduce solar gains.
These measures can also provide shading
and thermal comfort for external spaces,
such as terraces, courtyards and accessible
roofs. Another aspect to take into consider-
ation is the orientation of the building to take

22 Guidance report | Building Requirements

 © Juan Carlos Munoz

23
Building physics
Understanding that building physics is such as concrete, bricks and tiles and
the connection between the local climate therefore have a high thermal mass. Light-
and the building envelope is necessary to weight materials such as straw or most
implement insulation products. In emerg- grown materials have a low thermal mass.
ing economy countries, the key issue is the A purposeful use of thermal mass enhances
reduction of heat gains due to both solar passive measures for managing the heat in
radiation and the temperature difference, enclosed spaces, especially in places with
across the envelope. In equatorial and arid large temperature fluctuations from day
climate, heat is transmitted through windows to night. Even if the thermal mass does
and transparent elements such as walls or not prevent heat energy from flowing into
roofs and by air infiltration. Heat reduction or out of inhabited spaces, as insulation
can be achieved by acting on the thermal would, it can slow down the flow of heat
insulation, thermal mass, building form, to such an extent that it serves the comfort
ventilation strategy and solar control. of people instead of causing discomfort.

Thermal insulation Thermal lag

Thermal insulation reduces the ther- Thermal lag is the delay of heat transmit-
mal conductivity of the component when ted through a part of the enclosure such as
exposed to a temperature difference and a wall. It’s a key indicator for the ability of
reduces the heat flow from the warmer to walling materials to slowly absorb and release
the colder surface. The advantages of ther- thermal energy. In general, the higher the
mal insulation are numerous: it increases thermal mass, the higher the thermal lag.
comfort and reduces the need for active Thermal lag can greatly reduce the need for
heating or cooling, saving fuel and conse- insulation in the building envelope, espe-
quently reducing CO2 emissions. cially in climates with large temperature
swings from day to night such as Afghan-
Thermal mass istan. Combining thermal mass with
Thermal mass is the ability of a material insulation can avoid unwanted tempera-
to absorb and store thermal energy. A lot ture swings indoors, while still allow-
of thermal energy is needed to change the ing solar heat gain or radiative cooling.
temperature of materials of high density

24 Guidance report | Building Requirements

Building form and solar heat gains • To achieve the best levels of daylight-
The design of the building’s shape and ing and simultaneously reduce glare
volume can significantly affect the internal effects, windows should preferably be
comfort. Also, the interrelationships between located on the south or possibly the
the building and its direct surroundings north façade (for the southern hemi-
need be taken into account when develop- sphere). Windows on east and west
ing effective, passive design solutions. orientation should be very carefully
designed, considering the low sun angle
Some general aspects to be considered: of the first and last hours of the day.

• The orientation of rooms accord- • Another advantage that can be taken

ing to their function and usage from the right shape and orientation of
patterns over the day, to align buildings is taking prevailing wind of
user requirements for daylight and the area to cool indoor rooms without
solar gains with the solar path. the need of active air conditioning.

• The cross section of facades includ- Acoustic insulation and noise attenuation
ing overhangs and pultruding areas Next to improving the thermal comfort,
can reduce solar gains, especially insulation materials can positively contrib-
when the sun is high up in the sky. ute to the acoustic comfort in buildings.

• External shading elements or neigh- In rural areas it is mainly the structure-borne

bouring buildings or vegetation sound such as the drumming noise of rain on
can further reduce solar gains. light-weight roof constructions that impact
on the acoustic comfort inside buildings.
• Ideally photovoltaic panels or solar ther- This can be critical inside buildings of social
mal panels that can be operated off-grid infrastructure such as schools and churches.
are installed as shading systems. In more urban areas additionally the struc-

Building Requirements | Guidance report 25

ture-borne noise between residential units Acoustic absorbers are used to influ-
inside apartment buildings and the air-borne ence the acoustic parameters of rooms by
noise of traffic can be additionally disturbing.1 increasing the equivalent sound absorp-
The differentiation between air-borne tion area. Usually, certain ceiling or wall
sound and structure-borne noise is essen- surfaces are covered with sound-absorb-
tial for making effective use of insulation ing materials, alternatively the enclosures
materials. Structure-borne noise is trans- of spaces can be acoustically de-coupled
mitted through solid components of the by cavities between solid constructions.
enclosure and adjacent (flanking) compo-
nents that not only radiates into the respec- Most of the sound absorbers used in practice
tive rooms but also be heard as air-borne can be assigned to two absorber types or are
noise in adjacent rooms. Adequate sound combinations of both. The more common
insulation (appropriate in terms of techni- type of absorbers are the porous sound
cal feasibility and affordability) is of great absorbers. These are in general mineral and
importance for the wellbeing of residents. organic fibres, foam plastics, textile curtains,
etc. The second type of absorbers are resona-
Certain rooms require more protec- tors, mainly in the form of plate resonators,
tion such as bedrooms and living rooms perforated plate resonators and Helmholtz
and must be arranged in the floor plan resonators. Porous absorbers made of organic
in such a way that they are affected as waste materials from agricultural plants hold
little as possible by outside noise. great potential for locally resourced insu-
lation materials in emerging economies.

26 Guidance report | Building Requirements

Build-up and insulation layers
Insulation solutions are integrated in the roof The outer enclosure of pitched roofs can
and the walls of a building. The following be made of dense packings of straw, that
gives you an overview over build-ups and drains water by gravity along the vectors
insulation layers of common roofs and walls. of the fibres. In addition, this lightweight
It is important to be aware of the build-up and roofing material also integrates thermal,
insulation layers. Depending on the region, and to a degree, acoustic insulation.
build-up and layers are adapted to differ-
ent needs. This must be taken into account In other cases, the roof can consist of several
when developing insulation solutions. layers. For example, the outer layer is made
of a waterproof or water repellent layer that
Roofs
shields the following layers from the ingress
Pitched roofs are essential in certain regions of water. Corrugated metal sheets are widely
with high precipitation and heavy periodi- used for roof coverings. If insulation layers
cal rainfalls, for example in tropical regions, are integrated, these are separated by a
to quickly and effectively drain rainwater. ventilated air gap to prevent condensation.

Building Requirements | Guidance report 27

Flat roofs are typically found in arid climates are light coloured or painted white (e.g. lime
with little rainfall. The roofs are accessible wash) to reflect the sunlight. In contempo-
and can be used too. It is usually cheaper rary architecture flat roofs are generally
and easier to build. It needs less care and is constructed as reinforced concrete slabs.
quicker to reach. It also is more space effi-
cient: floors could be added easily or the Flat roofs in areas of little rainfall could also
space could be made use of e.g. for solar cells. be composed of different layers, similar to
pitched roofs. A structural layer of timber
Flat roofs are traditionally made of the same joists supports a layer of insulation mate-
heavy solid building materials than the walls, rial that is covered by a waterproof sheeting
in general bricks or stones that either are material. Alternatively, the insulation mate-
supported by timber beams or are supported rial can be suspended from the structural
by vaulted or arched construction. The ther- frames, eg in form of soffit or ceiling panels.
mal mass of the roofs helps to mitigate the
heat gains, especially when the outer surfaces

TYPOLOGIES ROOFS

Insulation Steel Waterproofing Waterproofing

in structure Ventilation Insulation Ventilation
Insulation in structure Insulation
Structure Structure

Thatched roof can be This roof consists of The insulation struc- The insulation layer
made of straw which is several layers. The insu- ture can be a mixture potentially func-
waterproof and serves lation layer can be made of cement and husks. tions as thermal and
as insulation as well. out of panels of mortar acoustic insulation.
and fibres and potentially
functions as thermal and
acoustic insulation.

28 Guidance report | Building Requirements

Walls TYPOLOGIES WALLS
Insulation materials can also be applied to
the walls of the building envelope. In the each brick is a
following, four principal wall constructions lightweight
including insulation materials are outlined: insulating element

Monolithic wall: Made of lightweight

bricks or building blocks that has sufficient
strength for low-rise construction of 1 to
the cavity between the
2 storey buildings mainly in rural areas. outside & inner wall
can be an insulat-
Cavity wall: The insulation layer is between ing element e.g. with
the outer wall, which shields the water and porous volcanic stone
the inner structural wall that carries the
loads from the floors above. The insulation
layer can be an air gap or is filled with a
light weight mineral material such as porous
volcanic stone. This construction doubles the the insulation element
amount of material required and is therefore e.g. a woven mat is
covered with plaster
not a cost effective solution if made from
(facing outside)
bricks or building blocks. However, in moun-
tain regions with availability of natural stones
this may be a feasible and affordable build-up.

Insulated plaster layer: The solid wall is fitted

with a layer of insulation material such as a the insulation element
fibre mat and is then plastered over to protect next to the ventila-
from rain and to keep the insulation in place. tion has thermal &
acoustic properties
Ventilated wall: The ventilated wall
construction consists of several layers. A
watertight light-weight material such as
metal sheeting is installed facing outwards.
Separated by an air gap, the insulation mate-
rials that follows is attached to the struc-
tural wall on the inside of the build-up.

Building Requirements | Guidance report 29

 Approach
Exploring resources
Categorising resources
Processing methods
Potential solutions

30
Based on the identified needs and building requirements,
this chapter focuses on developing insulation solutions
that can be sourced locally in countries with emerging
economies. Locally available and sustainable resources
are explored as alternative building materials using the
examples of Uganda, Senegal, Afghanistan and Sudan.
Furthermore, the different processing steps of the re-
sources are outlined as well as the means of testing the
physical properties.

31
Approach
Exploring sustainable resources
As it is the aim of this guidance to turn local and sustainable
resources into insulation materials, the specific availability of
raw materials such as agricultural waste has to be examined
for each country or even region individually, before exploring
related processes to transform these into insulation products.

Exploring sustainable resources in Sengal,

Sudan, Afghanistan, and Uganda
The following summarises the exploration Senegal
of local and sustainable resources in the The agricultural land in Senegal is 8.8
selected target countries Uganda, Senegal, million hectares (45% of the land area)
Afghanistan, and Sudan. A similar and 8.9 million of forest area (46%).
process could be applied to any country
with an emerging economy and a need Sudan
for insulation materials to identify local 34 - 42% of land in Sudan is cultivable (7.2
and sustainable base resources. Some million hectares), only 20% of the cultivated
countries share the same climate zones, land is farmed using modern technology, most
vegetation, available plant-based resources of which comes from foreign investment of
southern Sudan.
and therefore potential solutions.

Uganda
Afghanistan In Uganda, the agricultural land is 12.5
The land area consists of about 64.5 million million hectares (63% of the land area) and
hectares in total, of which only 3.3 million 10.5% of the land is under permanent crop.
hectares (5.1%) is irrigated and intensively
farmed; 4.5 million hectares (7%) is under
rain fed cultivation and 29.2 million hectares
(45%) is rangeland. The remaining 41% of the
country consists of urban areas, barren land
and the rocky regions of the mountains, and is
of no use for farming.

32 Guidance report | Approach

Senegalese agriculture is dominated by Afghanistan is a land that is rich in natural
small family farms that are almost all village resources. The main crops produced are
agricultural activities. They occupy about wheat, barley, legumes, maize, fodder crops
95% of agricultural land. We can distinguish (alfalfa, Persian clover or hay), chickpea,
pastoral systems and mixed farming systems millet, cotton, potatoes, tree crops such
in rain fed and irrigated crop area. The main as apricots, mulberries, plums, nuts and
agricultural products are peanuts, millet, corn, other fruits such as grapes, pomegranates,
sorghum, rice, cotton, tomatoes, banana, watermelons and grain (rain fed).
papaya, herbs, green vegetables such as
peppers and green beans.

Sudan - The land that is not being cultivated Uganda - Uganda’s key agricultural products
with modern technology is used in an can be divided into cash crops, food crops,
unsustainable way for traditional farmers and horticultural produce. But 70% of the area
to ensure a short-term food supply: burn under cultivation is used to produce locally
and clear forests and produce a few crops consumed food crops. The main ones are
of low-intensity maize. Most of the fertile coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, bananas,
land is in the south and the main products cereals such as maize and rice, root crops,
are wheat, sorghum, fodder, millet, maize, pulses, pill seeds, vegetables and fruits,
barley, groundnuts, gum Arabic, sesame, fruits vanilla, sugar cane, flowers, sweet potatoes,
(mango), acacia, mesquite, vegetables, corn, millet and sorghum.
sugarcane, dates, sunflower, pulses, forage
crops and even high-quality lumber.

Approach | Guidance report 33

34 © Arup
Categorising of resources
The following illustrations provide classification overview of plant-based
materials that can be found in countries with emerging economies. The
selection of materials is an example and contains fibres, sticks, husks and
ashes.

Fibres Husks Sticks Ashes

Agent X
Loose fibres and sticks can be woven or
felted to mats, but in general fibres and
husks need to be embedded in a matrix
that bind them together in the desired
shape. This matrix in general is mineral
based such as clay, lime or as a last option
cement. This additional material that
potentially cannot be sourced locally is
referred to as “Agent X.”

Approach | Guidance report 35

 Categorising
of resources

Agent X

36 Guidance report | Approach

 Wheat Barley Sorghum Coco Rice

Rice Coffee Wheat Peanut Millet

Maize Cotton Sorghum Peanut Banana

Rice Husk Ash

Clay Lime Cement

Approach | Guidance report 37

Evaluation of sustainable resources examples
The following illustration evaluates the mechanical and thermal
performance with most being waste products from agriculture and
food harvesting. The classification and evaluation of materials can be
helpful as it provides performance data and helps to select the right
base materials before processing them into insulation products.

Performance

Wheat Mechanical Thermal

Straw bales have demonstrated that

they can be used as building blocks
for load bearing, highly insulat-
ing walls of low-rise construction.

Coconut fibre
Consists of cellulose (35-60%) lignin
(about 20-30%) and hemicellulose.
They provide excellent thermal and
acoustic insulation, springs back to
shape even after constant use, totally
static free and easy to clean.

Sorghum sticks
Is approximately 48% cellulose (similar to
the 50% cellulose content of wood), giving
sorghum straw a good strength-to-weight
ratio. The sorghum stalk has a soft centre
surrounded by a strong, hard outer ring, being
far thicker and more substantial than wheat
or rice straw which can absorb additives.

38 Guidance report | Approach

Banana leaves Mechanical Thermal

The banana plant contains long and

strong fibres in its sturdy stems. The
outermost layers of the stalk contain the
coarsest fibres, while the inner layers
contain fine fibres that can be spun
into luxurious fabrics such as silks.

Rice husk
They contain approximately 20% opal-
ine silica in combination with lignin.
Due to the presence of lignin within
the rice hull, this hardness is tempered
with flexibility and elasticity.

Peanut husk
Peanut husks are composed of low cellulose
in comparison to other natural fibres (about
37%) and higher lignin content (30%).
The lignin content of groundnut shell fibre
is much greater than that of coconut coir,
bamboo, hemp, kenaf and sisal fibre.

Rice Husk Ashes

Rice husk ashes (RHA) contain 92 to 95%
silica, are highly porous and lightweight,
with a very high external surface area.

Approach | Guidance report 39

Possible processing methods
After having explored and evaluated a range of base materials, processes
need to be identified and established to turn these into insulating products.
The following illustration shows three examples of manufacturing
processes: Pressing, Moulding and Weaving of raw materials as well
as the insulating products that results from these processes.

Pressing
Several processes are considered in this study
to develop potential insulating products.
The first one is compressing the mixture of
compounds and aggregates to make compact
building blocks and bricks. The end products
can be fired bricks, stabilised bricks or rammed
earth blocks with proven fire performance.
Insulation properties can be achieved by either
including voids or using porous aggregates
that reduce the density of the blocks and
therefore increase the insulation capacity.

Fired Bricks Stabilised Brick Rammed Earth

Bricks
Some resulting typologies of the
manufactured insulating product
shaped with compression.

40 Guidance report | Approach

 Moulding
Another way of processing materials
into half-products with reduced
density is using a moulding technique.
The liquid or semi-liquid mixture is
poured into a mould with a desired Boards
shape, released from the mould and
generally air-dried afterwards. The The resulting insulating
material is self-compacting and in products shaped with the
general less dense than pressed bricks moulding technique can
or blocks. The density and therefore be panels and boards of
the insulation properties can be different cross section and
varied by low-density aggregates size consisting of various
such as fibres, husks and shells. materials such as fibres,
husks or a mixture of both.

Fibres Husks + Agent X Fibres + Husks + Agent X

Weaving
Long and strong fibres that can be
weaved or tangled up to obtain a
fabric or a mat. Smaller fibres can be
felted. Loose fibres can be stringed
tightly together to form bundles
Bale & Mat
or bales and used as insulating The resulting typologies
and waterproofing materials. of the insulation products
made with a type of weaving
can be felts, non-woven or
woven mats and bales.

Straw Bale Non-woven mat Woven mat

Approach | Guidance report 41

Testing of potential solutions
When planning the production of insulation products, it is important to
assess the resources available and the tools to manufacture them to inform
the selection of materials and the processing steps on site.

© TAMassociati / H2O House

Once available materials are identified The performance data permits to select the
and the shape and function of the insulat- most suitable resources for the intended
ing element established, principal small- use and shape. Based on that informa-
scale tests with representative material tion a prototype of the insulation prod-
samples regarding the mechanical strength uct can be made on site to test it with real
and the thermal or acoustic performance live conditions and assess its final suit-
should be carried out to optimise the ability. Finally, an insulation solution can
material composition and processes. be produced in bigger amounts after the
It is important to establish reliable infor- prototype has proven its performance value,
mation about the mechanical, moisture and however samples should be tested during
thermal performance as well as acous- the production to safeguard quality and
tic performance in interdependence to the performance of the materials, especially
chosen materials, tools and processes. This when they have a structural function.
data provides the necessary insights about An additional line of research is required
the applicability of the material to assure to test the combustibility and fire perfor-
a safe and healthy insulating product. mance on building systems incorporat-
ing locally resourced natural materials.

42 Guidance report | Approach

On site

In the lab

Integrate
Prototype

Insulating
Products

43
 This chapter applies the approach
outlined in the previous chapters
to the conceptual exploration of
a range of potential insulating
half-products including two types
of brick, two types of panels and
one type of mat insulation materi-
als.

44
Potential
Solutions

45
46 © Mogu
Potential insulation solutions
Depending on the country in which a potential project is
taking place, designers, builders and communities can use
these potential solutions as a base to develop these further
and apply them to the specific context of the project.

Rice husks Coconut fibres

Rice husks have proven insulating proper- Thanks to their chemical composition coco-
ties as well as good moisture performance nut fibres are resistant and durable and have
and resistance. The cultivation of rice crops a good thermal and acoustic performance.
is widely distributed across the world, and They can be mechanically processed in
husk presents an available resource in most different ways to obtain various kind of fibres
countries with emerging economies. Because that can be woven to a range of different
of their shape, husks are easy to pack and textiles and fabrics. The use for insulation
bag or to integrate as aggregates in wet products is versatile as they can be added
mixes, where structural integrity is needed as reinforcement to the wet mix to create
in from of panels, boards, blocks, etc. composite panels, used as loose filling within
bags or woven into flexible insulation mats.

Husks and Coconut fibres are two

agricultural resources that due to
their known insulating properties
have special relevance to compose
and develop insulating materials.

Potential solutions | Guidance report 47

Filled hollow brick
In many communities supported by NGOs, tant such as husks, the insulating proper-
mechanical presses for production of clay ties of the wall can be further improved.
or stabilises bricks can be made available This approach has the advantage that the
and accessible. Being the status quo, this load bearing capacity of the material is not
option explores how to improve the insu- affected and that thermal mass is main-
lating properties of pressed bricks, espe- tained to buffer and regulate large tempera-
cially by integrating cavities inside the ture differences between day and night.
blocks or bricks that can be filled with
insulating materials from a local source. Processing
As the objective of this solution is to maintain
Non-fired stabilised bricks – clay bricks with established processes of local brick manufac-
improved mechanical properties through turing using propriety mechanical presses,
adding small quantities of cement – are metal inserts to the mould would need to be
well established materials for new develop- added to create cavities of the desired size and
ments in rural areas. Assuming the mate- shape. Some manufacturers of the manually
rials for making stabilised bricks such as operated presses offer these inserts or standard
clay, sand, cement and water are available hollow brick formats. In this way, when the
on site, and that the local communities have inserts are added to the press bed, cavities in-
experience in making these bricks, the side the brick will be created, which also leads
material composition is maintained for this to the reduction and saving of base materials
approach, which significantly reduces risks such as cement, sand and water.
associated with introducing new materials. The manufacturing process would be altered
only slightly, the main differences are illus-
The suggested change in relation to the trated in the sketches on the next page. The
established process is to change the inner required strength and load-bearing capacity of
geometry of the brick and to include cavi- the brick walls has to be established to deduct
ties to reduce the density of the bricks or the maximum size of cavities. Using different
blocks. If the cavities are filled with a porous inserts, the cavities could be smaller towards
organic material that are moisture resis- the base of the wall, where higher load-bearing

48 Guidance report | Potential solutions

capacities are needed, and bigger in the central initial design
areas of the wall most exposed to the climate.
While a range of shapes and sizes can be
considered, for the easiest application of loose
insulation materials single, large sized cavities
are best suited.

Insulating Product
new
Finally, these cavities would be filled with
the insulating material. Loose husks or
fibres could have a good performance due
to their porous and low density character-
istics and the good associated insulating
properties. Looking at Senegal, for example,
peanut husks and rice husks are available and
would be suitable choices. Several combi-
nations of fillings and geometries should
be studied and tested in order to choose
the best option for the specific location.
The fire performance of the filled bricks
is expected to be improved, compared to
the non-encapsulated insulating mate-
rial since the encapsulation material
is of limited combustibility. Further
fire tests should be done to understand
the real properties in case of a fire.

New design with insulation filled cavity

Potential solutions | Guidance report 49

Gradient light
weight brick
The second potential solution presented, the porosity of the material can be composed
follows similar principles to the first one. according to the need and the application. In
However, for a better performance and insu- hot climates, it generally makes sense to have
lating properties, the base mix of the material the porosity decreasing from outside to the
for the bricks is altered to create an insulating inside of the external wall.
brick or block with a low density. The more Processing
porous the material the higher the insulat- The objective for developing a process that
ing effect. However, this results in a lower can be implemented on site is to control size
mechanical strength. Therefore, this solution and quantity of air inclusions in the mix.
is more complex and challenging technically
to implement as the insulating properties have There are several principal approaches to
to be balanced with the required strength of achieve this. For pressed and fired clay bricks,
the material. For low-rise construction of one any organic compounds can be added to the
or two storeys, as it is widely the case across wet mix, such as husks and shells. During
rural areas, this approach presents a feasible the firing process decomposition temperature
solution. of the organic aggregates will be exceeded,
leaving the imprint of voids in the cured
Porous materials consist of small enclosed material. As fired bricks are energy intensive
cavities in air. The distribution of these and fuel for firing is valuable and scarce to
enclosures, or air “bubbles” determines the most communities, this approach is limited in
thermal conductivity of the material in section. its potential for being scaled-up and dispersed
If a higher thermal mass is needed to buffer across rural communities.
temperature change inside the building, the
cavities should be limited to the externally With respect to non-fired mineral materials, it
facing part of the brick. is known that adding materials such as bread
dough or yeast into the mix can release gas
With the aim to make bricks with an optimised
due to the chemical process of fermentation.
thermal performance for a specific climate;

50 Guidance report | Potential solutions

These materials are based on microscopic
unicellular fungi organisms that are able to
convert carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and
alcohols. Manure can also be fermented and
presents another potential option to initiate the
generation of air bubbles in a mix to increase initial design
the insulation properties of the cured material.

The simplest way to generate air inclusions

in non-pressed, cast materials is based on the
assumption that any shape of a shell, husk or
straw will enclose small volumes of air. When
added into a wet mix, these inclusions would
be maintained during the curing process of the
material. Only low pressures for condensing
the mix should therefore be applied.

Insulating Product new

Depending on the process chosen and the
quantity of organic materials added to the
mix, the porosity of the final materials can be
controlled and therefore its thermal conduc-
tivity. If the proportion of these materials can
be varied, gradient materials can be achieved
that could result in a better overall perfor-
mance, taking into account thermal capacity
and mechanical strength.

Potential solutions | Guidance report 51

Mycelium insulating
boards
Aside from increasing the thermal and through exposing the panel to temperatures
acoustic properties of load-bearing materi- greater than 60°C. These temperature levels
als such a bricks and blocks, non-structural could be achieved by exposing the material
cladding materials such as boards and panels to the sun or the heat from open fire places.
are needed to improve the performance of Mycelium materials for acoustic panels
light weight, timber-framed constructions. are already on the market in industrialised
countries as design products. As the knowl-
Chopped fibre materials represent a well edge for selecting and cultivating suitable,
suited base material for boards as they non-harmful strains becomes open knowl-
provide a degree of structural integrity edge, these materials could become a very
albeit being lightweight. Ideally these interesting option for providing inexpen-
materials would be bound together by a sive insulation boards for rural economies.
natural binding matrix - mycelium mate- Processing
rials hold a great potential in this respect The principal process would be to culti-
as they are widely available and are poten- vate the mycelium first in contained bags
tially inexpensive. Specific fungi strains on a substrate with high lignin content
in a controlled warm and humid environ- After this pre-cultivation stage this living
ment would populate the fibrous substrate material would be added to a mould and a
and while consuming the lignin of the mix of agricultural fibrous waste materi-
organic substrate and producing mycelium als. The mould would need to be kept in a
that would grow between the fibres to from controlled, dark and humid environment,
a naturally grown bio-composite. Materi- covered by sheets to control the moisture
als with high lignin content such as coco- levels, before exposing to heat to stop the
nut fibres are well suited for the substrate. growth process and stabilise the material.
Once the substrate is fully populated, the
growth process would need to be terminated

52 Guidance report | Potential solutions

Insulating Product
Once the mycelium has grown through-
out the substrate into the entire shape of the
mould, the planes can be used as insula-
tion panels to improve both the acoustic and
thermal performance of enclosures. Based
on the selected substrate materials and the
duration of the growth process, materials
with different level of porosity and insulating
properties can be achieved. The boards have
a required stiffness to be self-supporting and
therefore can be used as cladding panels.

Potential solutions | Guidance report 53

Mineral insulation
board
A more conventional approach is to bind a Insulating Product
packed volume of fibres, shells and husks The result is medium weight panel with
with a conventional mineral based binder good thermal or acoustic performance that
such as clay, lime or cement. These mate- could be added to clad solid or framed wall
rials will be heavier than a mycelium foam constructions and be used for soffits and
board, but due to the high volume fraction of internal cladding of light weight roofs featur-
organic materials of 70-80% will still provide ing corrugated sheet metal on the outside.
good thermal and acoustic insulation and
are expected to have a limited combustibil-
ity, depending on the material and mixture.

Processing
The fibrous and porous organic material
would be mixed together with the binder,
limiting the content of water and binder. The
organic materials should be added continu-
ously at a low rate while constantly mixing
the components to avoid “pockets” of dry
plant-based materials not wetted by the
mineral binder. This mix is poured into a
mould to from panels of desired shape and
size. Some compacting might be required to
achieve structural integrity between fibres,
manually applied pressure should be suffi-
cient. The curing and drying of the panels
should take place in a controlled environment
and direct exposure to sun should be avoided.

54 Guidance report | Potential solutions

Potential solutions | Guidance report 55
Natural insulation mat
Fibres from coconut husks have been found Subsequently the retted pulp is beaten with
to be a promising raw material for flexible mallets to separate the fibres from the pith
insulating materials because of its strong and the outer skin. Separation of desired
mechanical, water absorption capabil- fibres from the pith is completed by washing
ity and auto-adhesive properties derived away the residue and combing through by
from the intrinsic high lignin content. hand. At the end the clean fibres are dried in
As coconut husks are treated as waste, the sun. These strong fibres can be felted to
the processing of coconut fibres hold the form mats that require no additional binder.
potential to create a local economy. Insu- They can also be wound into bundles.
lation mats made of coconut fibres are
branded as eco-friendly products in indus-
Insulating Product
trialised countries; most of them produced
in automated industrialised processes. The result is a flexible, lightweight insu-
lating mat that can be used to stuff cavities
Processing between framing members for example of
timber roof construction or used as suspended
After harvesting the coconuts, the husks are
insulation materials fixed below roofing
being retted. This is a curing process during
members to form an absorbing ceiling.
which the husks are kept in an environment
that encourages the natural occurrence of
microbes. This action partially decomposes
the husk’s pulp, allowing it to be separated
into coir fibres and a residue called coir pith.

56 Guidance report | Potential solutions

Potential solutions | Guidance report 57
 Case Study
Thermal insulation
Acoustic insulation

58
The following chapter investigates and demonstrates the
practicability of the approach and concepts described
in the previous chapters. Locally available agricultural
waste materials and resources were identified and pro-
cessed on site. Prototypes of insulating bricks and panels
were developed and tested, both on sample scale the
Materials Science Department from the School of Civil
Engineers at Madrid University and full-scale with the
community on-site in Senegal.

59
60 © Arup
A Case Study
in Senegal
To inform the practicability of the proposed
solutions, some of the concepts were trialled
and prototyped on site of the community project
“H2OS - Open-Source Prototype House for
Eco-Villages in Senegal” in the village of Keur
Bakar in Senegal. The testing and prototyp-
ing of insulating products was conducted
for the community house. The project was
developed and designed by TAMassociati,
SUNGUAL, MUSOCOngo and USE ngo.

Aim of the study

The community house features load-bear-
ing walls with bricks produced by the
community on site. The lightweight steel
construction is resting on the perimeter
walls, cantilevering on the north and
south elevation to provide shadow. The
roof is clad with conventional corru-
gated sheet metal. For the load-bearing
walls bricks with enhanced thermal
performance were trialled as well as
insulation boards to attenuate the noise
of the drumming rain on the roof.

61
Background
Climatic conditions of the
village in Keur Bakar
The region of Keur Bakar is very hot and of the ecovillages in Senegal to explore,
dry from November to May, and hot with build and share the knowledge on how to
little precipitation from June to October. use local resources in the most efficient
way to enhance wellbeing and comfort in
Building requirements in Keur Bakar community houses. Complementary lab tests
Most community buildings in Keur Bakar provided important guidance to achieve a
are constructed with solid masonry walls balanced property set with respect to insu-
made from non-fired stabilised bricks. The lating a damping properties on one hand
roofs overhang the south and north facing and strength, durability and robustness on
facades to reduce the solar gain on the walls. the other side. The prototyping process of
In addition, screens on the outside further options helps to optimise material composi-
reduce direct exposure of walls and windows tion and manufacturing process of final solu-
to the sun. Openings cut into the volume of tion with respect to quality, time and cost.
the building allow for additional window
openings for enhanced ventilation and better The solutions, which were identified and
daylight. Direct solar gains are blocked by selected are based on traditional build-
the continuous roof. Windows feature metal ing methods and materials. Geometrical
shutters to allow for ventilation but shield- modifications and additives in the mixture
ing the interior from sand during storms. enhance the thermal and acoustic perfor-
mance. The materials and half-products
Approach proposed maintain mechanical properties,
while making them lighter and reducing
Material and production amount of materials needed. The results
All materials such as husks and peanut shells are materials with enhanced insulat-
needed for the production of the prototypes ing properties that are potentially cheaper
are sourced within a few kilometres from than the traditionally used materials.
the project site and are commonly used
by the community so no specific training For the brick, the inclusion of different kinds
on materials and building techniques was of cavities and holes were investigated while
required. Clay was used as main binder; remaining the overall size and proportion of
approx. 10% of cement was added as Agent the brick, so that the existing equipment for
X to further stabilise bricks and panels. manual brick manufacturing could be used.
Two different material options based on
Design Outcome husks, shells and fibres with varying volu-
metric content were tested for the bricks.
The prototypes showcase and support the
The materials have then been tested on
implementation of open source knowledge
their respective mechanical and ther-
for the prototyping and building activities

62 Guidance report | Case Study

 Material tests on site

Material availability
As a first step to investigate potential mate-
mal behavior in lab and with respect
rial compositions for brick and ceiling
of handling and processing on site.
components, the locally available knowl-
Also two different options for plant-
edge on materials such as soils and agri-
based lightweight aggregates were tested
cultural waste materials and building
for the suspended ceiling panel.
techniques was captured through conver-
The tests show that a significant increase of
sations with the villagers. Locally avail-
thermal and acoustic performance can be
able materials were identified to be mainly
achieved by adding locally resourced agricul-
wicker, maize, straw, peanut husks, millet.
tural waste materials to the mixture of bricks
and ceiling panels, while ensuring suffi-
Soil testing
cient mechanical performance for low-rise
building structures such as the community The soil and clays available on site and
houses of the H2OS project in Senegal. which have been used to make the bricks of
the other houses in the village was anal-
ysed. A series of basic tests with medium
accuracy where conducted as well as a
sedimentation test with a higher accu-
material mix ratio racy. Due to time constraints a shrink-
age mold test, could not be conducted.

The basic tests consist of 5 individual tests,

which are all aimed at getting a feeling
for the material with different methods.
shape design The tests are touch test, scratch & polish
test, tongue test, rolling test and drop test.
The test and the results will be described
in further detail. It must be noted, that the
tests were done by the tester for the first
mechanial and thermal time and that misinterpretations cannot be
performance eliminated. To learn more about this please
find relevant guidance in the Appendix.

acoustic performance

Case Study | Guidance report 63

64 © Arup
Bricks for thermal insulation
Processing the resources

Step 1 - Making the mixture Step 3 - Pressing and releasing

The mixture used on site is based on a mix of The bricks or blocks are pressed using the
8 units of “white soil” (directly from site), 5 mechanical block press, which is operated
units of red soil (delivered to site, but avail- by two people. After reversing the pressing
able in the region and fairly cheap) and 10% mechanism, the brick will be automatically
(volume) of cement. The mixture is always lifted out of the hole and can be transported
made freshly on site for the exact amount to the drying area, which should be in the
needed to produce one batch of bricks. shade not to expose the bricks to direct sun.

Step 2 - Inserting into the press for Additives

stabilised soil blocks (SSB) Two different types of locally available plant
The mixture was then inserted into the based additives - millet husks and peanut
respective opening of the manually oper- husks - are used. in both cases, the amount
ated brick press. The mount inserted must added to the mix was 15% in volume. Both
be checked carefully and should not vary types of husks were added without break-
to control constant density and therefore ing them down into smaller pieces before-
mechanical and thermal performance of the hand.the material was. For both additive
bricks. Especially too little amount leads to test, the amount added was 15% in volume.
a brick which will not be pressed properly Both husks were added without breaking
and therefore might not perform at its best. them down into smaller pieces beforehand.

Resources
Senegal belongs to the top ten millet producers worldwide, as it is an important
crop in the Asian and African semiarid regions. Millet is a very common food
resource, and therefore, the husks, a waste product of the processing of the millet,
is largely available. A large quantity of millet husks for example was found at one
of the streets leading into the village, approximately 20m from the construction
site. The size of the husks lies by around 5 - 6mm in length and 3 - 5mm in width.

Peanuts are typically grown in tropical and subtropical regions. In West

Africa the leading country for peanut production is Mali, however Senegal
also produces a big amount of peanuts in the eastern part of the country. In
Keur Bakar Peanut Husks were easily available, due to the proximity to the
plantations and the local processing of peanuts. The size of husks ranges
from 15 - 30mm in length, 8 - 13mm in width and 6 - 10mm in height.

Case Study | Guidance report 65

Material tests in Lab Prototyping and
(Madrid) for bricks testing the bricks
In this section an overview of the different The agricultural waste sources of rice husks
parameters that were tested in the labo- and coconut fibres were considered to have
ratory provide guidance to understand the best mechanical, thermal and acoustic
important elements that need to be consid- performances amongst the materials investi-
ered when developing insulating products. gated and were chosen to be tested in the lab.
To simulate a part of the resources of the
Whether it is the material composite, the construction site in the village of Keur Bakar,
design, the manufacturing, or the set up a similar Senegalese soil composition was
for testing, all aspects need to be consid- created to mix into the bricks and panels.
ered to generate a broad spectrum of test The final mortar composition including
data to optimise potential solutions for cement consists of: Clay 15% + Silt 9.1 %
insulating products. These areas provide + Fine sand (0.3 ÷ 0.7 mm) 35% + Coarse
additional information to learn about sand (0.8 ÷1.5 mm) 31.8% + Cement 9.1%
locally resourced and processed insula-
tion materials for emerging economies. Several mixtures of mortar and waste
resources (rice husks and coconut fibres)
The materials that were selected for were created to test and decide on the
sampling and testing the insulating prod- optimal mixture considering important
ucts in the laboratory in Madrid were aspects such as reduced time of curing and
chosen based on their availability and the weight. The mechanical performance of
information on their performance avail- the samples was tested by a mechanical
able in literature. Although the husks used press collecting and comparing the differ-
were not identical to the ones used on site ent data generated from the various mixes.
in Sengal, basic findings on mechanical Other than the material composition, the
and thermal performance are comparable. workshop allowed to produce and test
geometric modifications for the bricks
Resources used in the Laboratory such as adding holes along the centre line
• Reference mortar: Replication of Sene- of the brick to investigate further optimal
galese soil & Ordinary Portland Cement design solutions that are lighter, potentially
(OPC) cheaper and reduce thermal conductivity.
• Insulating materials: rice husks, coconut The thermal conductivity is defined as
fibres the capacity of the material to transmit
heat. This conduction is an energy trans-
• Structural stability: wicker and a fabric
mission process based on direct contact
from natural fibres
between two bodies, without an inter-
Specific moulds had to be manufactured change. Accordingly, an experimental
to create and test the design proposals. device based on the standard UNI-EN
Finally, for the test set up, some experi- 12667 was designed and developed to test
mental devices had to be developed and the thermal conductivity of the samples.
manufactured to allow flexibility and
increase the spectrum of the tests.

66 Guidance report | Case Study

Case Study | Guidance report 67
68 © Arup
Ceiling panels for acoustic insulation
Processing the resources

The ceiling panel aims to integrate both Step 2 - Making the cast
thermal and acoustic insulation. A build- The mould to cast the panel in was made of
ing product like this is currently not widely scrap timber, which could be found on the
considered in buildings, as it means an addi- construction site. It was coated with some
tional amount of materials, costs and efforts. sort of paint, which made it very likely
Within the Keur Bakar construction site the to be able to separate the finished panel
ceiling panel was discussed and explained after hardening. First a base plate was cut,
to the participants and was well received then four strips of each 4cm height were
as a positive impact to the building perfor- added along the perimeter. The length of
mance. However it was not applied to the the strips were based on the desired size
current building, the testing on site was a of the panel, which was 50 x 65cm, which
first step to explore to test the production again was based on the typical length of
capabilities and for capability building. a wicker stick with a suitable diameter.

Step 1 - making the reinforcement grid Step 3 - Inserting the mixture

The grid which will be used for reinforce- and the reinforcement
ment purposes is made of wicker, which is Finally, the mixture was filled into the
one of the main products for making fences cast up to ~ 15mm, the grid was pressed
with visibility protection. It was found in the into the wet mix and covered by ~ 25mm
village and it is cheap. The wicker used for of material. Afterwards the panel was
the grid is made of sticks of a maximum of let to dry and harden in the shadow.
12mm in diameter, however many sticks were
not perfectly straight varied in diameters. The
grid was made by crossing wicker sticks and
tying them together with pieces of string. The
grid is based on 100 x 100mm squares, based
on the sticks there is a tolerance of +/ - 10mm.

Case Study | Guidance report 69

Material tests in lab
for ceiling panels
The second product, a ceiling panel, designed to be installed below the
metal roofing focuses on reducing the heat gain radiated off the under-
side of the metal as well as reducing the drumming during rainfall.

The panel was produced in should not be too thick (max. 12 mm). The
the following steps: wicker was tied together at the crossing
to prevent the sticks from moving while
Step 1. Mould from corrugated metal the mixture is poured into the mould.
Corrugated metal was used as a mould to
cut the panels, as this is a material that is Step 4. The mix - natural fibre + binder
available on site The ends of the tin sheet The mix contains mineral and organic
are bend upwards define the height of the materials. 80% Clay and 20% silt
panel (16 - 34mm). Two wooden boards are was used as a binding matrix. Rice
used to limit the length to 750mm represent- husks were chosen as additives.
ing the width between spanning beams.
The ceiling insulation boards were tested
Step 2. Fabric Inlay for its acoustic damping properties. The
To prevent the material from sticking to test setup consists out of two chambers,
the mould and for increasing the robust- with a slot in between. In one room, the
ness of the panel in case of breakage a source room, two speakers are used to
natural woven fabric was inserted into create defined sound levels. The other
the mould, before adding the other mate- room, the receiver room, is equipped with
rials. This way also the freshly cast a microphone, which will measure how
panel can be carefully released from the much of the created sound is received.
mould, so it can be immediately reused.
The other test conducted was the bend-
Step 3. Reinforcement ing capacity for its mechanical perfor-
mance. For this the compression
To improve the mechanic properties for
machine is used to conduct a three
bending forces, a wicker grid was intro-
point bending test to the specimen.
duced into the mould before adding the
wet mix. The diameter of the armour

70 Guidance report | Case Study

Case Study | Guidance report 71
72 © Arup
What we have learned

The use of agricultural waste provides a need to be made available locally. Mobile
very cost-effective and sustainable source labs would be a useful option to explore.
of insulation materials. This concept
combined with traditional local manu- With respect to the technical aspects of the
facturing methods results in many ways work, further research is needed with respect
to improve living conditions with acous- to the specification and mix of the mineral
tic and thermal insulation solutions. based matrix and the impact on strength of
the plant-based aggregates. The size and
A wealth of locally produced resources texture of the aggregates is believed to have
materials and agricultural waste materials a considerable influence ion the mechani-
are available on site in rural areas of emerg- cal strength, which could not be tested.
ing economies. The climate and vegeta-
tion chart is helping to create awareness From all applications trialled and discussed,
of material types but the dialogue with the the ceiling panels received the most interest
community to learn from the insights and and reflected the desire and need of the local
knowledge is key to understand the mate- community to improve the roof construc-
rial options on site and their availability. tion with respect to thermal and acoustic
comfort. This application should be a focus
The plan of testing samples in a lab and real for further work as it has significant posi-
scale prototypes on site proved to be the right tive impact on the improving the quality of
approach as very different learnings can education in school buildings by increas-
be taken away from both tests that comple- ing the wellbeing of students and teachers.
ment each other. In the case of Senegal, this
approach however turned out to be a big Another aspect of the building is the
logistic challenge as the testing lab and the social integration of the building into the
site were completely detached from each village community and into the regional
other with respect to location and program. network of communities. This commu-
This resulted in materials and processes that nity house considers space for the men and
could not be replicated which limited the the women cooperative of Keur Bakar,
value of the findings. For a wider imple- so both men and women have the abil-
mentation of this approach and for enabling ity to meet and form ideas and to have a
local communities to produce and deal their voice within community decisions. This is
own materials, material testing labs or kits an important step for the women towards
equality within politics and education.

Case Study | Guidance report 73

74
Outlook

75
Outlook

This publication is intended to be play- Our wish is that this playbook can
ful guidance to initiate the exploration of contribute to the capacity building in
material and processing options and collab- the community by developing specific
orative models to increase the value gener- solutions to their specific needs.
ation within communities based on locally The general approach therefore is:
available resources. This playbook does
not present a list of ready-made and proven • Identify the specific needs and
solutions that can be instantly applied in building requirements according
different contexts. It aims to provide a struc- to climate, building scale, build-
tured approach and methodology to develop ing typology and community
solutions specific to the context in a collabo-
rative way between the design team, NGOs • Develop a solution by exploring
involved and the people of the community. locally available materials, iden-
Further research especially on durability tifying knowledge and capabili-
and fire performance will be required to ties and to identify suitable way of
turn this playbook into a guidance docu- processing and testing materials
ment. We hope this approach is helpful to
build open domain knowledge on materi- This approach has been illustrated on the
als, compositions and processes which over subject of insulation materials, which we
time can grow and present a valuable asset to believe is an important category in increas-
enable am empower communities to estab- ing demand and therefore presents a great
lish local manufacturing of quality materials opportunity to increase awareness of a more
and components, reducing the dependency sustainable approach of resourcing materials.
on imported and purchased materials
proposed by multi-national companies.

76 Guidance report | Outlook

However, this approach can be applied to any
other building material class. At the core of
this approach is the desire to strengthen and
re-discover traditional approaches to develop
sustainable materials and solutions within
the biosphere of our natural systems. The
nature is rich in materials and demonstrates
that there is no waste, but that all materials
have a transformative value. This approach
is currently also re-discovered in developed
countries as part of a circular economy. In
that way the close collaboration with rural
communities where everything has a value
can be a powerful source of inspiration
reflecting on the wasteful processes of our
own industry and a first step towards change.

Outlook | Guidance report 77

78 Guidance report | Appendix
Appendix
(refers to chapter 2)

Other considerations

The previous sections have outlined how commu- Seismic

nity sourced natural materials have huge potential Construction materials incorporating mud and ce-
as sustainable construction materials. However ment create heavy components, and the force that
when one selects materials, there are many other a structure has to resist in an earthquake is propor-
key characteristics that one needs to consider at tional to its mass. Therefore, these materials are
the same time, to ensure that the material is appro- much better suited to non-seismic areas. In highly
priate for all issues. seismic areas, it’s strongly advisable to avoid
heavy materials, however if they are required for
Fire whatever reason, the elements should be properly
Fire is obviously a significant risk in construction, secured to the structure, and the structure designed
and the aforementioned organic materials are all accordingly.
very flammable in their raw form. Consideration
should be made as to the protecting these elements Hygiene and health
from fire risk. Methods include plastering the A final consideration when using organic con-
materials with a lime or cement-based render, struction materials is hygiene. These materials can
or fire resistant plasterboard. Embedding these become harbours for insects and rodents which can
into materials such as mud or concrete will also spread disease. The best example of this is in Latin
certainly provide some protection, however further America, where there exists a biting insect known
testing is required to determine how effective this as “chinche” which spreads the deadly Chagas
is. Local and international codes of practice should disease. Chinche live in small cracks in buildings
always be followed, as these often have strict regu- and organic materials, which has forced the local
lations on the use of flammable materials, and for population to choose specific materials which don’t
good reason. allow this animal to live in their houses (i.e. NGOS
avoid materials containing mud).
Durability
All organic materials experience decay due to
insect (termite and borer beetle) and fungi (rot)
attack. These risks are widely underestimated in
construction, and can destroy these materials in the
worst case in as little as a year. Methods of pro-
tecting against fungi attack include: elevating the
base of the structure to protect it from water, using
a damp-proof membrane, designing in good drip
details, having a good roof overhang and creating
a waterproof outside wall. Methods of protecting
against insect attack include using treatments such
as boron.

79
Appendix
(refers to chapter 4)

Basic soil test

The basic tests consist of 5 individual tests, which Tongue test:

are all aimed at getting a feeling for the material If you put your tongue onto the surface of the lump
with different methods. The tests are: Touch test, that you have smoothened, you might notice that it
scratch & polish test, tongue test, rolling test and sticks. The more your tongue sticks, the more clay
drop test. They will all be respectively described there is in the soil. The soil needed for making Sta-
on how to do them and what the results for the bilised Soil Blocks with Ordinary Portland Cement
specific soil was. It must be noted, that the tests (OPC) requires only a small amount of clay.
were done by the tester for the first time, misinter- Result: The tongue test can only be conducted on
pretations cannot be eliminated. the hard bits of lumps, that have been found on the
edge of the mixture pile as described before.
Touch Test:
Take some dry soil that is not in lumps and feel it Rolling Test:
between your thumb and fingers. If it is very gritty Take a little of the powdered soil in the palm of
and sharp this mean that there is a lot of sand. If it one hand. Wet it a little so that it sticks together.
is smooth and powdery (like white flour or talcum If it sticks together well, and you can shape it and
powder) then there is a lot of clay and silt. Make a roll it into a thin thread, then there is clay in the
note of the colour of the soil, any lumps, stones or soil. Take your wetted soil and try to roll a thread
different coloured deposits. on some flat clean surface. If you can roll a thread
Result: The mixture feels more soft than sandy less than 3mm in diameter, then there is probably
with some small gritty parts in between. The col- too much clay in the soil to make SSB well and
our is light red/orange/yellow with white particles. cheaply.
Result: The soil is malleable and quite sticky. The
Scratch & polish test: soil can be rolled down to ~ 8mm, then it breaks.
If it possible, take a small lump of the soil and
scratch it with your thumb nail. If it is fine soft Drop Test:
powder that comes off, then the soil is high in Take a wetted lump of the soil and mould it in your
clay. If the lump crumbles easily and gritty pieces hands, the soil should not be so wet that water can
come off, this means high sand content. Now try to be squeezed out. Drop a lump that just fits into
polish the lump with the back of your thumbnail. your one hand onto a hard surface from shoulder
It may help if you wet your nail a little. If you can height. If the lump stays in one piece, there is
polish the surface to a nice shine this means that probably a lot of clay in the soil. If, on the other
there is a lot of clay in the soil. hand, the lump beaks up into a few smaller pieces
Result: No loose lumps can be found in the there is probably quite a lot of sand.
mixture; however, some very hard lumps can be Result: The soil lump did break, when it hit the
distinguished at the edge of the mixture pile. These metal sheet. It cracked and smaller pieces came
are very hard, 15 - 100 mm in size. They cannot off, however the main piece could still be picked
be scratched with the thumb nail, only with tools. up without fully breaking.
When polishing by using the wet thumb nail, a
shiny surface can be identified for a couple of
seconds.

80 Guidance report | Appendix

 Results testing of bricks in the
laboratory and on site
The picture shows the different heights of the lay- The bricks as part of a load bearing wall will be
ers. It is visible that a gravel layer is not existent loaded predominantly in compression, and any ag-
- the sand was sieved previous to doing this test gregates to increase thermal performance need to
as described in the instruction and therefore, not be balances with the need of sufficient compressive
bigger particles were in the mixture anymore. strength.
Soil imitation
The total height of the material filling is 95mm. When making the clay, it was observed that clay
The first and bottom layer consists of 80 mm sand, and cement do not interact well. Clay blocks the
topped by 15mm of clay/silt material. cohesive action of the cement. This means that
less content of clay will make stronger bricks. This
In percentage this makes: requirement needs to be understood when sourcing
80/95mm = 84 % sand the soils on site. A sedimentation test should be
15/95mm = 16 % clay/silt done and if a high proportion of fine aggregates is
noted then coarse sand need to be added to reduce
Sedimentation Jar Test the clay content in proportion or soil needs be
obtained and tested from another site.
The sedimentation test is done to separate
the single components of the mixture into
For this project a 15% clay content in weight has
layers, which show the different amounts of
been used to reproduce the Senegalese bricks and
each material. For this test, a jar with straight
soil, and literature indicates this clay content.
sides is filled half with sieved mixture, the
However, a lower amount of clay would result in
rest is filled up with water. It is well mixed,
a better mechanical performance. This problem
and then let to rest - after half an hour it is
could also be solved by adding more cement,
mixed again and then let for settling for several
which will impact on the environmental credentials
hours. Salt can be added, which promotes the
and increase the cost, so should be avoided.
separation. For this test it was not done, as it
was reported that salt is contained in the local
The minimum amount of cement necessary to
sand and the separation worked out well.
ensure its stability was 10% in weight, taking into
Result: The test was simple to conduct and
account the relatively high clay content of 15%.
worked out well. At first it was hard to mix
it properly, as the mixture felt very thick and
Taking into account the references of this play-
heavy, but after a while it was easy to mix and
book, available reference guides and the variations
the separation of the particle took place.
in the process to make the bricks in the lab and on
site, a minimum compressive strength of 1 MPa
should be required to comply with the require-
ments.

Appendix | Guidance report 81

Mixtures mechanical performance is bricks with no
The mixes reaching more than 1 MPa of cavities containing 30% of rice husks leading
compressive strength are the samples containing to a thermal conductivity of 0.86 W/mK.
15% of rice husks (A15), 30% of rice husks
(A30), 50% rice husks (A50), 15% of coconut Materials including fibres 75% and more
fibres (C15) and 30% of coconut fibres (C30). in volume are not suitable for bricks, but
could be used as insulating plaster because
Thermal tests results of its low thermal conductivity.
It can be concluded that the experimental device
as well as the tests designed are accurate enough, Testing on site
repetitive and reproducible to obtain the thermal The prototypes of the bricks were produced by
conductivity coefficient of the studied samples the local communities and participants of the
as the results match with the expected according project. After the first day of drying it was obvious
to references, theoretical and empirical models. that the bricks with millet husk were performing
better, several cracks were apparent on the peanut
Thermal tests results show an improvement of the husk bricks. Further tests were planned to be
thermal performance of the bricks when adding conducted but could not be completed on site.
fibres, by having a lower thermal conductivity
than the reference mortar. The coconut fibres
lead to a better thermal performance as
they lead to a stronger decrease the thermal
conductivity coefficient than rice husks.

In the same way, the proposed geometric

modification of including cavities enhances
the insulating capacity of the brick. The
decrease of the thermal conductivity
coefficient by including holes in the samples
is in all the cases between 10-15%.

From all samples reaching more than 1 MPa

of compressive stress, the lowest thermal
conductivity is achieved by brick samples
including cavities made from a mix containing
50% of rice husks (A50-H, 0.66 W/mK) and
by brick samples including cavities made
from a mix containing 30% of coconut fibres
(C30-H, 0.70 W/mK). However, C30-H
and A50-H both show strong variations in
compressive strength. Therefore, the option
with a high insulating capacity and reliable

82 Guidance report | Appendix

Results testing ceiling panels
in the laboratory and on site
Three point bending test
The panels are non-structural and present a Bamboo reinforced panels show a better
cladding to be fixed eg. as a soffit below the structural performance than wicker reinforced
roof. The panels heed to have sufficient strength ones. The factor of improvement in load capacity
to support their own weight and if they crack between wicker and bamboo reinforced products
or brake the fragments should be retained not ranges from 2.4 (with added Straw 200%) to
to present a hazard. To evaluate structural of 3.4 (Rice 200%). Further, straw additive
performance, bending tests have to be carried out. mixtures perform better than rice additive
mixture, due to the better load distribution and
The panels are designed to reduce the noise strengthening mechanisms of the longer fibres.
from drumming effect on the roof by creating
an insulating and damping layer below the Testing on site
roof, creating a sort of suspended ceiling. The development and making of the ceiling
Additional insulating material placed on top panel led to high participation and interest of
of the panels can have additional benefits with the community due to the awareness that the
respect to the acoustic damping effect. metal roof decking leads to uncomfortable
thermal and acoustic conditions inside with
Thermal Test results no solutions to improve the situation at hand.
Adding agricultural waste to the panel mixture Due to time constraints the manufactured
greatly reduces the thermal conductivity of the prototypes could not be tested on site. Further
product. The addition of 200% rice husks in test are required to determine the positive
volume brings an improvement of 42%, reducing
the thermal conductivity from 0.75 W/mK to effect on acoustics when installed.
0.43 W/mK. Straw as an additive is slightly
better than rice husks, and the more is added
the better. The integration of re-enforcement
by strong fibres eg. wicker or bamboo should
reduce further thermal conductivity.

Acoustic test
The results of the acoustic testing suggest that
the addition of 200% straw in volume leads to
the greatest noise damping effect. Using rice
husk additives also leads to an improvement of
sound attenuating properties . The initial testing
showed no clear results with respect of the
influence of the wicker or bamboo reinforcement.

Appendix | Guidance report 83

References
Background
Climate Needs
Köppen - Geiger climate classification system
[http//:koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Building Requirements
Acoustic insulation and noise attenuation
[https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/82227031.pdf] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Exploring sustainable resources

Afghanistan
Sarah Lister and Zainiddin Karaev 2004. UNDERSTANDING MARKETS IN AFGHANISTAN: A
case study of the market in construction materials, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit.[https://
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Ali Forouhar, Kiril D. Hristovski 2012. Characterization of the municipal solid waste stream in Kabul, Afghani-
stan, Environmental Technology Management, College of Technology and Innovation, Arizona State University
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HANS P.M. VAN DEN BREEMER, RICE R. BERGH AND GERTI HESSELiNG. Towards Local Management of Natural Resources
in Senegal

Cheikh Oumar BA, Joshua BISHOP, Moustapha DEME, Hamet Diaw DIADHIOU, Alioune B. DIENG, Omar DIOP,
Pedro Andres GARZON, Bara GUEYE, Moustapha KEBE, Oumou K. LY, Vaque NDIAYE, Cheikh Mbacké NDIONE,
Astou SENE, Djiby THIAM and Ibrahima A. WADE The Economic Value of Wild Resources in Senegal, IUCN, the
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United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. From Conflict to Peacebuilding The Role of Natural Resources and the Envi-
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Paul J. Sullivan and Natalie Nasrallah. Improving Natural resource Management in Sudan, United
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Michael J. Cowing 2013. Municipal Solid Waste Composition Analysis (Wet Season) Juba, South Sudan, United
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Uganda
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E. N. sabiiti, C.B. Katongole. Evaluation of the Urban Solid Waste Management System in
Kampala, Uganda., faculty of agriculture, Makere University.[https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/
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Eric Achankeng, Globalization, Urbanization and Municipal Solid Waste Management in Africa, African Stud-
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Rosemarie Yevich and Jennifer A. Logan, An assessment of biofuel use and burning of agricultural [https://
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Categorising resources
Evaluation of sustainable resources examples

CANTOR (ANDREŞ) Dana Maria, Daniela Lucia MANEA. Using Wheat Straw in Construc-
tion, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca.[ https://search.proquest.com/openview/42e5ba6d8efacae-
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Majid Ali. Coconut Fibre – A Versatile Material and its Applications in Engineering, National Engi-
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G. U. Raju, S. Kumarappa, V. N. Gaitonde. Mechanical and physical characterization of agricultural waste reinforced poly-
mer composites, BVB College of Engineering and Technology and Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology.
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Jan E.G. van Dam, Martien J.A. van den Oever, Edwin R.P. Keijsers,Jacintha C. van der Putten, Cristina Anayron,Fi-
del Josol, Aurora Peralta. Process for production of high density/high performance binderless boards from whole coconut
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References | Guidance report 85

Abolghasem Khazaeian, Alireza Ashori, Mostafa Yahyavi Dizaj. Suitability of sorghum stalk fibers for production of particle-
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John A. Youngquist, Andrzej M. Krzysik, Brent W. English, Henry N. Spelter, Poo Chow. Agricultural Fibers
for Use in Building Components, The use of recycled wood and paper in building applications.
[https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/pdf1996/young96a.pdf] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Narendra Reddy, Yiqi Yang. Biofibers from agricultural byproducts for industrial applications, Department of Textiles,
Clothing and Design and Department of Biological Systems Engineering,University of Nebraska.[https://digital-
commons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1027&context=textiles_facpub] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Marie-Ange Arsène, Ketty Bilba, Holmer Savastano Junior, Khosrow Ghavami. Treatments of Non-wood Plant
Fibres Used as Reinforcement in Composite Materials, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane.[http://www.
scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-14392013000400030] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Marius Twite, Elena Kovaleva, Janvier Munyaneza, Valens Habimana. Assessment of Natural Adhe-
sives in Banana Leaf Composite Materials for Architectural Applications, Kigali Institute of Science and
Technology (KIST). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280157145_Assessment_of_Natural_Adhe-
sives_in_Banana_Leaf_Composite_Materials_for_Architectural_Applications] Accessed Marco 24, 2019.

Maries Idicula, Abderrahim Boudenne, L. Umadevi, Laurent Ibos, Yves Candau , Sabu Thomas. Thermophysical proper-
ties of natural fibre reinforced polyester composites, Mar Thoma College, St.Thomas College, Universite Paris and Mahatma
Gandhi University [https://www.scribd.com/document/380676669/1-72-idicula2006] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Ketty Bilba, Marie-Ange Arsene, Alex Ouensanga. Study of banana and coconut Fibers Botanical composition, ther-
mal degradation and textural observations, Université des Antilles et de la Guyane.[https://www.researchgate.net/
profile/Ketty_Bilba/publication/7331941_Study_of_banana_and_coconut_fibers_-_Botanical_composition_ther-
mal_degradation_and_textural_observations/links/5767eaa808aedbc345f77a18/Study-of-banana-and-coconut-fibers-Bo-
tanical-composition-thermal-degradation-and-textural-observations.pdf] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Paul A. Olivier. The Rice Hull House, Engineering, Separation & Recycling LLC [http://
naturalhomes.org/img/ricehullhouse.pdf] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Kung-Yuh Chianga, Ping-Huai Chou, Ching-Rou Hua, Kuang-Li Chien, Chris Cheeseman. Lightweight
bricks manufactured from water treatment sludge and rice husks, Department of Environmental Engineer-
ing and Science, Feng-Chia University. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26665224_Lightweight_bricks_
manufactured_from_water_treatment_sludge_and_rice_husks] Accessed March 24, 2019.

J. Sutas, A. Mana, L. Pitak. Effect of Rice Husk and Rice Husk Ash to Properties of Bricks, Faculty of Science and Tech-
nology, Suandusit Rajaphat University and Metal and Materials Technology Center.[ https://www.researchgate.net/publi-
cation/271396320_Effect_of_Rice_Husk_and_Rice_Husk_Ash_to_Properties_of_Bricks] Accessed March 24, 2019.

86 Guidance report | References

N.Vamsi Mohan, Prof.P.V.V.Satyanarayana, Dr.K.Srinivasa Rao. Performance Of Rice Husk Ash,
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Ghassan Abood Habeeb, Hilmi Bin Mahmud. Study on Properties of Rice Husk Ash and Its Use as
Cement Replacement Material, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.
php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-14392010000200011] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Taj Easton (2014). Reducing Cement Content in Masonry with Rice Husk Ash, a Promising Supplemen-
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J. Kreiker, C. Andrada, M. Positieri, M. Gatani, E. Q. Crespo. Study of peanut husk ashes properties to promote
its use as supplementary material in cement mortars, IBRACON Structures and Materials Journal.
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Potential Solutions
Mycelium insulating boards
[https://www.mogu.bio/project/mogu-home/] Accessed March 24, 2019.

A case Study
in Senegal
Open-source prototype house for ecovillages in Senegal
[http://h2os-project.org/] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Understanding Stabilized Earth Construction by Alfred Bush, Volunteers in Technical

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Teach a man to fish Guide, Stabilised Soil Brick (SSB) Brick making, Income Generating Activity Informa-
tion Sheet [https://www.slideshare.net/jos42002/brick-makingbusinessguide] Accessed March 24, 2019.

Compresses earth blocks: Manual of design and construction by Hubert Guillaud, Thierry Joffroy, Pascal Odul, CRAT-
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Interlocking Stabilised Soil Blocks, Appropriate Earth Technologies in Uganda,

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Going Green: A Handbook of sustainable housing practices, UN Human Settlement Programme

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References | Guidance report 87

Structural Guidance Note, 2013 SGN 03, Unfired Earth blocks: an introduction by Tim White,
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Tim-White-Structural-Guidance-Notes.pdf] Accessed March 24, 2019

[http://arkitrek.com/http:/arkitrek.com/wonders-bio-crete/] Accessed March 24, 2019.

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88 Guidance report | References

Image Credits
p01 © TAMassociati,H2O House in Senegal
p04 © Arup
p08 © TAMassociati, H2O House in Senegal
p09 © TAMassociati, Keur Bakar
p11 © TAMassociati, Keur Bakar
p23 © Juan Carlos Munoz, Tropical House
p34 © Arup
p37 top row from left to right
Tobias R. Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 2.5
Mark Robinson, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY 2.0
© Shutterstock
© Arup
© Mogu
second row from left to right
© Mogu
Erinamukuta, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
© Superbass/Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
© Arup
© Arup
third row from left to right
© Arup
Trisha Downing, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
Evelyn Simak, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 2.0
uacescomm, Flickr, CC BY 2.0
Blueshade, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 2.0
fourth row
Taifur Azam, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
fifth row from left to right
© Arup
Leiem, Wikipedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0
© Arup
p42 © TAMassociati, Keur Bakar
p46 © Mogu, Mogu HOME - Mycelium material panels
p60 © Arup
p64 © Arup
p68 © Arup
p72 © Arup

References | Guidance report 89

Acknowledgements
Contributors Thanks to

Arup
Claudia Canepa, Nicolò Guariento, Isabel Heinemann,
www.arup.com
Kubilây Hicyilmaz, Santo Leung, Joseph Stables, Tim
Jan Wurm
White
Verónica Rodríguez
Nathalie J. Swords
Nicole Pérez

TAMassociati
Francesco Steffinlongo, K&G, Annamaria Draghetti,
www.tamassociati.org
Milena D’Acunto
Raul Pantaleo
Laura Candelpergher
Massimo Lepore

MUSOCO
Sergio Pergher
www.musoco.org
Giovanni Spaliviero
Françoise Bertinchamps

EMERGENCY
www.emergency.it
Pietro Parrino

SUNUGAL
Babacar Diop, Mbaye Niang Thiam, Abdoul Ndoye
www.sunugal.it

USE ngo Senegal

Landing Sane’ ,Cheikh Lamine Fall, Ibou Sane’ ,
Thierno Aliou Ba, Mamadou Diop

UPM, Polytechnic University of Madrid

A special thanks to Polytechnic University of Madrid
www.upm.es/internacional
(UPM) and the Materials Science Department from the
www.materiales.upm.es
School of Civil Engineers (ETSI CCP) specifically for their
José Miguel Martinez Palacio
support of the Master thesis of Verónica Rodríguez and the
Gustavo Morales
possibility to use laboratory facilities and equipment.
Alvaro Ridruejo

AUTODESK FOUNDATION
for supporting the design of the "Community house" in
Keur Bakar

The Village of Keur Bakar Finally, we would like to thank all people from the commu-
h2os-project.org nity of Keur Bakar for their hospitality, trust and support.

90