CHAPTER 1

Introduction
to Blockchain
The entirety of this chapter is comprised of an excerpt from
Introducing Blockchain with Lisp: Implement and Extend
Blockchains with the Racket Language by Boro Sitnikovski,
and it is reused here with the author’s permission.

“Chained” by Filip Rizov

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 1
S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_1
Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

In this chapter, we will see some definitions and examples for

blockchain. We will see what properties a blockchain has, what it allows us
to do, and what it is good for.

Definition 1-1  Blockchain is a system in which a record of

transactions is maintained across several computers that are linked
in a peer-to-peer network.1

We will give an example that will serve as motivation, as well as define

what encryption and hashing techniques are and how they will help us
with our system.
Note that we will skip some of the technical bits in this chapter, as it is
only supposed to serve as introductory material. The technical bits will be
covered later when we start building the blockchain.

1.1  Motivation and Basic Definitions

Let’s assume that you and your friends exchange money often, for
example, paying for dinner or drinks. It can be inconvenient to exchange
cash all the time.
One possible solution is to keep records of all the bills that you and
your friends have. This is called a ledger and is depicted in Figure 1-1.

1
 We will use this definition throughout the book, but note that there are many
different definitions on the Internet. By the end of this book, you should be able to
distinguish the slight nuances and similarities in each definition.

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Figure 1-1.  A ledger and a set of connected friends (peers)

Definition 1-2 A ledger is a book that contains a record of

transactions.

Further, at the end of every day, you all sit together and refer to the
ledger to do the calculations to settle up. Let’s imagine that there is a pot
that is the place where all of the money is kept. If you spent more than
you received, you put that money in the pot; otherwise, you take that
money out.
We want to design the system such that it functions similarly to a
regular bank account. A holder of a wallet (bank account) should be
able to only send money from their wallet to other wallets. Thus, every
person in the system will have a wallet of a kind, which can also be used
to determine the balance for them. Note that with the current setup using
a ledger, we have to go through all the existing records to determine the
balance of a specific wallet.
If we want to avoid going through all the existing records, there is a way
we can optimize this with unspent transaction outputs (UTXOs), as we will
see later in Chapter 3.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

A problem that may arise is the double-spending problem, where Bob

can try to send all of his money to Alice and you at the same time, thus
effectively doubling the money he sends in relation to what he owned.
There are several ways this can be resolved, and the solution that we will
provide will be a simple check of the sum of the inputs and the sum of the
outputs.
A problem that might appear with this kind of system is that anyone
can add a transaction. For example, Bob can add a transaction where Alice
pays him a few dollars without Alice’s approval. We need to re-think our
system such that each transaction will have a way to be verified/signed.

Definition 1-3 A digital signature is a way to verify the

authenticity of digital messages or documents.

For signing and verifying transactions we will rely on digital signatures

(Figure 1-2). For now, let’s assume that anyone who adds information to
the ledger also adds a signature with each record, and others have no way
to modify the signature, but only to verify it. We will cover the technical
details in the “Encryption” section.

Figure 1-2.  Our ledger now contains signatures

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

However, let’s assume that Bob is keeping the ledger to himself, and
everybody agrees to this. The ledger is now stored in what is a centralized
place. But in this case, if Bob is unavailable at the end of the day when
everybody gathers to settle up, nobody will be able to refer to the ledger.
We need a way to decentralize the ledger, such that at any given time
any of the people can do a transaction. For this, every person involved will
keep a copy of the ledger to themselves, and when they meet at the end of
the day, they will sync their ledgers.
You are connected to your friends, and so are they to you. Informally,
this makes a peer-to-peer network.

Definition 1-4 A peer-to-peer network is formed when two or

more computers are connected to each other.

For example, when you are accessing a web page on the Internet using
a browser, your browser is the client, and the web page you’re accessing is
hosted by a server. This represents a centralized system since every user is
getting the information from a single place—the server.
In contrast, in a peer-to-peer network, which represents a
decentralized system, the distinction between a client and a server is
blurred. Every peer is both a client and a server at the same time.
With the system (Figure 1-3), as the list of peers (people) grows, we
might run into a problem of trust. When everybody meets at the end of
the day to sync their ledgers, how can they believe the others that the
transactions listed in their ledgers are true? Even if everybody trusts
everybody else for their ledger, what if a new person wants to join this
network? It’s natural for existing users to ask this newcomer to prove that
they can be trusted. We need to modify our system to support this kind of
trust. One way to achieve that is through so-called proof of work, which we
introduce next.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Figure 1-3.  A decentralized ledger

Definition 1-5 A proof of work is data that is time-consuming to

calculate and easy for others to verify.

For each record we will also include a special number (or a hash)
that will represent proof of work, in that it will provide proof that the
transaction is valid. We will cover the technical details in the “Hashing”
section.
At the end of the day, we agree that we will trust the ledger of the
person who has put most of the work in it. If Bob has some errands to
run, he can catch up the next day by trusting the rest of the peers in the
network.
In addition to all this, we want the transactions to have an order, so
every record will also contain a link to the previous record. This represents
the actual blockchain, depicted in Figure 1-4.

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Figure 1-4.  A chain of blocks: blockchain

If everybody agreed to use this ledger as a source of truth, there would

be no need to exchange physical money at all. Everybody can just use the
ledger to put in or retrieve money from it.
To understand the technical bits of digital signatures and proof
of work, we will be looking at encryption and hashing, respectively.
Fortunately for us, the programming language that we will be using has
built-in functionalities for encryption and hashing. We don’t have to dig
too deep into how hashing and encryption and decryption work, but a
basic understanding of them will be sufficient.
Observe how we started with a simple definition of a ledger and
gradually built up to a complex system. We will use the same approach in
programming.

1.2  Encryption
We will start with the following definition.

Definition 1-6  Encryption is a method of encoding values such

that only authorized people can view the original content. Decryption
is a method of decoding encrypted values.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Note that in this section we will mostly talk about numbers, but
characters and letters can also be encrypted/decrypted with the same
methods, by using the ASCII2 values for the characters.
Before we talk about encryption, we first have to recall what functions are,
since the encoding/decoding values are achieved with the usage of them.

1.2.1  Functions

Figure 1-5.  A function

Definition 1-7  Functions are mathematical entities that assign

unique outputs to given inputs.

For example, you might have a function that accepts as input a person and
as output returns the person’s age or name. Another example is the function
f (x) = x + 1. There are many inputs this function can accept: 1, 2, 3.14. For
example, when we input 2, it gives us an output of 3, since f (2) = 2 + 1 = 3.

2
 An ASCII table is a table that assigns a unique number to each character
(such as !, @, a, Z, etc.).

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

One simple way to think of functions is in the form of tables. For a

function f (x) accepting a single argument x, we have a two-column table
where the first column is the input, and the second column is the output.
For a function f (x, y) accepting two arguments x and y, we have a three-­
column table where the first and second columns represent the input, and
the third column is the output. Thus, to display the function discussed
earlier in the form of a table, it would look like this:
x f (x)
1 2
2 3
… …

1.2.2  Symmetric-Key Algorithm

We can assume that there exist functions E(x) and D(x) for encryption and
decryption, respectively. We want these functions to have the following
properties:

• E(x) ≠ x, meaning that the encrypted value should

not be the same as the original value

• E(x) ≠ D(x), meaning that the encryption and

decryption functions produce different values

• D(E(x)) = x, meaning that the decryption of an

encrypted value should return the original value

For example, let’s assume there’s some kind of an encryption scheme,

say E("Boro") = 426f726f. We can “safely” communicate the value 426f726f
without actually exposing our original value, and only those who know the
decryption scheme D(x) will be able to see that D(426f726f) = "Boro".

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Another example of encryption scheme is for E(x) to shift every

character in x forward, and for D(x) to shift every character in x backward.
This scheme is known as the Caesar cipher. To encrypt the text “abc” we
have E("abc") = "bcd", and to decrypt it we have D("bcd") = "abc".
However, the scheme described makes a symmetric algorithm
(Figure 1-6), meaning that we have to share the functions E and D with the
parties involved, and as such, they may be open to attacks.

Figure 1-6.  Symmetric-key algorithm

1.2.3  Asymmetric-Key Algorithm

To solve the problems that arise with symmetric-key algorithms, we will
use what is called an asymmetric algorithm or public-key cryptography
(Figure 1-7). In this scheme, we have two kinds of keys: public and private.
We share the public key with the world and keep the private one to ourselves.

Figure 1-7.  Asymmetric-key algorithm

This algorithm scheme has a neat property where only the private key
can decode a message, and the public key can encode a message.

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

We have two functions that should have the same properties as those
for the symmetric-key algorithm.

• E(x, p), which encrypts a message x given a

public key p

• D(x′ , s), which decrypts an encrypted message

x′ given a private (secret) key s

In our example, we will rely on the modulo operation. Recall that

a mod b represents the remainder when a is divided by b. For example,
4 mod 2 = 0 because there is no remainder when dividing 4 by 2; however,
5 mod 2 = 1.
Here’s one example of a basic encryption algorithm based on addition
and modulo operations:

1. Pick one random number, for example 100. This will

represent a common, publicly available key.

2. Pick another random number in the range (1, 100),

for example 97. This will represent the private key s.

3. The public key p is obtained by subtracting the

common key from the private: 100 − 97 = 3.

4. To encrypt data, add it to the public key and take

modulo 100: E(x, p) = (x + p) mod 100.

5. To decrypt data, we use the same logic but with our

private key, so D(x′ , s) = (x′ + s) mod 100.

For example, suppose we want to encrypt 5. Then E(5, 3) = (5 + 3)

mod 100 = 8. To decrypt 8, we have D(8, 97) = (8 + 97) mod 100 =
105 mod 100 = 5.
This example uses a very simple generation pair of (x + y) mod c.
But, in practice, the pair generation algorithm is much more complex and
harder to break by attackers. After all, the complexity of the algorithm’s
computation is what makes it hard to break it.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

We can use a similar algorithm for digital signatures:

• S(x, s), which signs a message x given a private key

s (encryption)

• V (x′ , sig, p), which verifies a signed message

x′ , given signature sig and public key p (decryption)

As we said earlier, each record will also include a special number (or a
hash). This hash will be what is produced by S(x, s) (encryption). A hash
can be verified by using the verify function to confirm a record’s ownership
(decryption).
The wallet will contain a pair of public and a private key. These keys
will be used to receive or send money. With the private key, it is possible
to write new blocks (or transactions) to the blockchain, effectively
spending money. With the public key, others can send currency and verify
signatures.

EXERCISE 1-1

Come up with a table of functions such that:

1. The input is a number, and the output is a number

2. The input is a number, and the output is the name of an

employee in a company given that number

EXERCISE 1-2

Check the three properties for a symmetric-key algorithm to ensure the Caesar
cipher is compatible with them.

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

EXERCISE 1-3

Come up with an encryption scheme, based on mathematical substitution.

EXERCISE 1-4

Use the asymmetric-key algorithm we defined to sign a message and verify it.

Hint This is similar to the encryption/decryption example shown

earlier.

1.3  Hashing
Definition 1-8 Hashing is a one-way function in that it encodes
text without a way to retrieve the original value.

Hashing is simpler than the previously described encryption schemes. One

example of a hashing function is to return the length of characters as in H
("abc") = 3, but also H ("bcd") = 3. This means we don’t have a way to
retrieve the original value just by using the return value 3.
As we mentioned earlier, the reason to use such a technique is that
it has some interesting properties, such as providing us with the proof
of work.

Definition 1-9  Mining is the process of validating transactions.

For this effort, successful miners obtain money as a reward.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Hashcash is one kind of a proof-of-work system.3 We will use it to

implement mining. We will see how this algorithm works in detail in the
later chapters where we will implement it.
Hashing functions have another useful property that allows connecting
two or more distinct blocks by having the information about the current
block’s hash (current hash) and previous block’s hash (previous hash) in
each block. For example, block-1 may have a hash such as 123456, and
block-2 may have a hash such as 345678. Now, block-2’s previous-hash will
be block-1’s current hash, that is, 123456. Here, we linked these two blocks,
thus effectively creating a linked list of blocks containing ledgers with
transactions. Figure 1-4 depicts this linking.
The hash of the block is based on the block’s data itself, so to verify a
hash we can just hash the block’s data and compare it to current hash.
Two or more blocks (or transactions) that are connected form a
blockchain. The validity of the blockchain will depend on the validity of
each transaction.

EXERCISE 1-5

Come up with your own hashing function.

EXERCISE 1-6

In which way can the linked list depicted in Figure 1-4 be traversed? What are
the implications of this property?

3
 Hashcash was initially targeted for limiting email spam and other attacks.
However, recently it’s also become known for its usage in blockchains as part of
the mining process. Hashcash was proposed in 1997 by Adam Backa.

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

1.4  Smart Contracts

Definition 1-10 A smart contract is a self-executing contract

with the conditions of an agreement between a buyer and a seller
being directly written into lines of code.

A blockchain is programmable if the transactions themselves can be

programmed by users. For example, users (not necessarily programmers)
can write a script to add additional requirements that must be satisfied
before sending money. It could look something like this:

1     if (user has   more  than 10  money)

2            then  approve transaction
3            else reject transaction

Smart contracts are implemented as a computation that takes place on

the blockchain.

1.5  Bitcoin
Bitcoin was the world’s first implementation of a blockchain. In November
2008, a link to a paper authored by Satoshi Nakamoto titled “Bitcoin:
A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System” was published on a cryptography
mailing list. Bitcoin’s white paper consists of nine pages; however, it is
a mostly theoretical explanation of the design and as such may be a bit
overwhelming to newcomers.
The Bitcoin software is open source code and was released in January
2009 on SourceForge. The design of a Bitcoin includes a decentralized
network (peer-to-peer network), block (mining), blockchain, transactions,
and wallets, each of which we will look at in detail in this book.

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Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Although there are many blockchain models and each one of them
differs in implementation details, the blockchain we will be building upon
in this book will look pretty similar to Bitcoin, with some parts simplified.

1.6  Example Workflows

We will list a few important workflows that our system will use,
among others.
Mining a block creates a new block, using Hashcash to calculate the
current hash of the block. It also contains the previous hash that is a link to
the previous block in the blockchain.
Checking a wallet balance for person A will first filter all blocks in the
blockchain (sender = A or receiver = A) and then sum them to calculate
the balance. The more our blockchain grows, the longer this operation
will take. For that purpose, we will use unspent transaction outputs or the
UTXO model. This model is a list of transactions containing information
about the owner and the amount of money. Thus, every transaction will
consume elements from this list.
Adding a block to a blockchain consists of sending money from A to
B. One prerequisite is that A has enough money; we check this using the
wallet balance workflow. We proceed by creating a transaction (sender =
A, receiver = B) and signing it. Then we mine a block using this transaction
and update the UTXO with the rewards.

1.7  Summary
The point of this chapter is to get a vague idea of how the system that we
will implement looks. Things will become much clearer in the next chapter
where we will be explicit about the definitions of every entity.

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 Chapter 1 Introduction to Blockchain

Here’s what we learned in this chapter, briefly:

• The core entity of the system is a block.

• A block contains (among other data) transactions.

• We have a ledger that is an ordered list of all valid

blocks (blockchain.)

• Every peer involved with the ledger has a wallet.

• Every record in the ledger is signed by the owner and

can be verified by the public (digital signatures).

• The ledger is in a decentralized location; that is,

everybody has a copy of it.

• Trust is based upon proof of work (mining).

17
CHAPTER 2

Model: Blockchain
Core

“Block” by Filip Rizov

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 19
S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_2
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

Now that we have explained in theory what a blockchain is and how it is

useful, the next obvious step is to start implementing it in Java. In this chapter,
we will start by creating the model classes that represent the most elementary
building blocks for our application. You can either look at the code snippets
provided or download the complete repository from https://github.com/
5pir3x/e-­coin. The exercises included will offer insight and give you ideas
for you to modify my code to create alternative implementations of various
aspects of the application. I urge you to try to complete as many of them
as possible; my hope is that at the end you will have not only a greater and
deeper understanding of blockchain technology but also with a great project
for your portfolio that’s an alternative to my implementation instead of
a mere copy. I have chosen to create a folder named Model inside my
src.com.company folder structure in my repository and keep my model
classes there. It is recommended that you choose the same folder structure
for your project to avoid any pathing or import problems.

2.1  Block.java
We will start first by listing the imports in the following code snippet:

1  package com.company.Model;
2
3  import sun.security.provider.DSAPublicKeyImpl;
4
5  import java.io.Serializable;
6  import java.security.InvalidKeyException;
7  import java.security.Signature;
8  import java.security.SignatureException;
9  import java.util.ArrayList;
10 import java.util.Arrays;
11 import java.util.LinkedList;
12

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 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

Next we move on to our class declaration and fields, as shown in our

next code snippet:

13 public class Block implements Serializable {

14
15     private byte[] prevHash;
16     private byte[] currHash;
17     private String timeStamp;
18     private byte[] minedBy;
19     private Integer ledgerId = 1;
20     private Integer miningPoints = 0;
21     private Double luck = 0.0;
22
23     private ArrayList<Transaction> transactionLedger = new
ArrayList<>();

The first thing we recognize on line 13 is that this class implements

the interface Serializable. Since all the blocks for our blockchain will
be created using this class, we need them to be serializable so that we can
share our blockchain through our network.
The field prevHash will contain the signature or, in other words, the
encrypted data from the previous block. The currHash will contain the
signature or, in other words, the encrypted data from this block, which
will be encrypted with the private key of the miner that will get to mine
this block. The timeStamp obviously will contain a timestamp of when
this block was mined/finalized. The field minedBy will contain the public
key, which also doubles as the public address of the miner that managed
to mine this block. In the process of blockchain verification, this public
address/public key will be used to verify that the currHash/signature of
this block is the same as the hash of the data presented by this block and
secondary that this block was indeed mined by this particular miner.

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Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

We will touch on this topic a bit later in this section when we explain the
isVerified method of this class. Next is our ledgerId field. Since we
intend to implement a database with separate Block and Transaction
tables, this field will help us retrieve the correct corresponding ledger for
this block. You can also look at this field as the block number. Our next
fields, miningPoints and luck, will be used to form the network consensus
in regard to choosing this block’s miner.
We will get into the details of how these fields are used in Chapter 6.
The field transactionLedger is simply an arraylist of all the transactions
contained in this block. We will explain the Transaction class in the
section “Transaction.java.”
In the following snippet, we can see the three constructors starting on
line 26, line 38, and line 45:

25     //This constructor is used when we retrieve it

from the db
26     public Block(byte[] prevHash, byte[] currHash,
        String timeStamp, byte[] minedBy,Integer ledgerId,
27           Integer miningPoints, Double luck,
              ArrayList<Transaction> transactionLedger) {
28         this.prevHash = prevHash;
29         this.currHash = currHash;
30         this.timeStamp = timeStamp;
31         this.minedBy = minedBy;
32         this.ledgerId = ledgerId;
33         this.transactionLedger = transactionLedger;
34         this.miningPoints = miningPoints;
35         this.luck = luck;
36     }
37     //This constructor is used when we initiate it after
       retrieve.
38     public Block(LinkedList<Block> currentBlockChain) {

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 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

39         Block lastBlock = currentBlockChain.getLast();

40         prevHash = lastBlock.getCurrHash();
41         ledgerId = lastBlock.getLedgerId() + 1;
42         luck = Math.random() * 1000000;
43     }
44     //This constructor is used only for creating the first
block in the blockchain.
45     public Block() {
46         prevHash = new byte[]{0};
47     }
48

The first constructor is used when we retrieve our blockchain from

the database. Here we retrieve all the blocks completely finalized, and this
constructor helps us instantiate the block with all of the fields properly
set up. The second constructor is used while the application is running
and is used to create a completely new block (in other words, the head of
the blockchain) for us to work on. We will go over the details of how this is
achieved in Chapter 6. Our third constructor on line 45 will be used only
once by our init() method to create our first block.
Our next snippet showcases the isVerified method:

48
49     public Boolean isVerified(Signature signing)
50             throws InvalidKeyException, SignatureException {
51         signing.initVerify(new DSAPublicKeyImpl(this.minedBy));
52         signing.update(this.toString().getBytes());
53         return signing.verify(this.currHash);
54     }
55

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We accept an object from the Signature class as a parameter. The

Signature class is actually a class from the java security package java.
security.Signature. It is a helper singleton class that allows us to
encrypt/decrypt data using different algorithms. On line 51 we initiate
the signing parameter by using the public key from the minedBy field of
this class. We will use this key to verify the data in this class against the
signature stored in the currHash. On line 52 we insert the data that we
want to verify, which in our case is the contents of the toString method.
On line 53 we return the Boolean result after verifying the data contained
in this class against its currHash.
What’s left, as shown in our next snippet, are the equals and hash
methods, the generic getters and setters, and the toString() method,
which concludes our Block.java class:

55
56     @Override
57     public boolean equals(Object o) {
58         if (this == o) return true;
59         if (!(o instanceof Block)) return false;
60         Block block = (Block) o;
61         return Arrays.equals(getPrevHash(),
block.getPrevHash());
62     }
63
64     @Override
65     public int hashCode() {
66         return Arrays.hashCode(getPrevHash());
67     }
68
69     public byte[] getPrevHash() { return prevHash; }
70     public byte[] getCurrHash() { return currHash; }
71

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 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

public void setPrevHash(byte[] prevHash) { this.prevHash =

72     
prevHash; }
public void setCurrHash(byte[] currHash) { this.currHash =
73     
currHash; }
74
75     public ArrayList<Transaction> getTransactionLedger() {
       return transactionLedger; }
76     public void setTransactionLedger(
            ArrayList<Transaction> transactionLedger) {
77             this.transactionLedger = transactionLedger;
78     }
79
80     public String getTimeStamp() { return timeStamp; }
81     public void setMinedBy(byte[] minedBy) {
               this.minedBy = minedBy; }
82
83     public void setTimeStamp(String timeStamp) {
               this.timeStamp = timeStamp; }
84
85     public byte[] getMinedBy() { return minedBy; }
86
public Integer getMiningPoints() { return miningPoints; }
87     
88     public void setMiningPoints(Integer miningPoints) {
                 this.miningPoints = miningPoints; }
89     public Double getLuck() { return luck; }
90     public void setLuck(Double luck) { this.luck = luck; }
91
92     public Integer getLedgerId() { return ledgerId; }
93     public void setLedgerId(Integer ledgerId) {
                this.ledgerId = ledgerId; }
94

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Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

95     @Override
96     public String toString() {
97         return "Block{" +
98                 "prevHash=" + Arrays.toString(prevHash) +
99                 ", timeStamp='" + timeStamp + '\'' +
100                ", minedBy=" + Arrays.toString(minedBy) +
101                ", ledgerId=" + ledgerId +
102                ", miningPoints=" + miningPoints +
103                ", luck=" + luck +
104                '}';
105    }
106}
107

The first thing to note here is that the equals method compares the
previous hash of the block class. We’ll use this later in Chapter 6 when we
explain the consensus algorithm further. The other thing of note is the
fields contained in the toString method. We include everything that goes
into verifying the block against the current hash.

Important! 
• Remember that a wallet’s public key is also the wallet’s
public address/account number.
• The current hash/signature of the block is just the encrypted
version of the data contained in the block.
• The miner’s private key is used to encrypt the block’s data,
which creates the signature.

26
 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

• The miner’s public key is used for other peers to verify the
block by comparing the signature’s hash against the hash of
the block’s data.
• Note how we use the toString() method throughout this
class to prep our data conveniently for comparison.
• Note how all of the essential fields that make certain the
block is unique are included in the toString() method.

2.2  Transaction.java
We briefly mentioned that we keep an array list of transactions in our
Block class in the previous section, and now it’s time to explain in detail
what our Transaction.java class contains. First we’ll start with the
imports found in the following code snippet:

1  package com.company.Model;
2
3  import sun.security.provider.DSAPublicKeyImpl;
4
5  import java.io.Serializable;
6  import java.security.InvalidKeyException;
7  import java.security.Signature;
8  import java.security.SignatureException;
9  import java.time.LocalDateTime;
10 import java.util.Arrays;
11 import java.util.Base64;
12

27
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

Next let’s go over the class declaration and its fields, as shown in the
next code snippet:

13 public class Transaction implements Serializable {

14
15    private byte[] from;
16    private String fromFX;
17    private byte[] to;
18    private String toFX;
19    private Integer value;
20    private String timestamp;
21    private byte[] signature;
22    private String signatureFX;
23    private Integer ledgerId;
24

Since this class also creates objects from which we are building
our blockchain, it will implement the interface serializable so that it’s
shareable through the network.
The fields from and to will contain the public keys/addresses of the
account that sends and the account that receives the coins, respectively.
The value is the amount of coins that will be sent, and timeStamp is the
time at which the transaction has occurred. Signature will contain the
encrypted information of all the fields, and it will be used to verify the
validity of the transaction (it will be used the same way the field currHash
was used in the previous class).The ledgerId serves the same purpose as
in the previous class. The fields with the FX suffix are simple duplicates
formatted to String instead of byte[]. We do this so that we can easily
display them on our front end.
In this class we also have two constructors; the first one is used when
we retrieve a transaction from the database, and the second one is used
when we want to create a new transaction within our application. Let’s
observe them in the following code snippet:

28
 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

26    //Constructor for loading with existing signature

27    public Transaction(byte[] from, byte[] to, Integer value,
      byte[] signature, Integer ledgerId,
28                       String timeStamp) {
29       Base64.Encoder encoder = Base64.getEncoder();
30       this.from = from;
31       this.fromFX = encoder.encodeToString(from);
32       this.to = to;
33       this.toFX = encoder.encodeToString(to);
34       this.value = value;
35       this.signature = signature;
36       this.signatureFX = encoder.encodeToString(signature);
37       this.ledgerId = ledgerId;
38       this.timestamp = timeStamp;
39    }
40    //Constructor for creating a new transaction and
signing it.
41    public Transaction (Wallet fromWallet, byte[] toAddress,
      Integer value, Integer ledgerId,
42                        Signature signing) throws
                  InvalidKeyException, SignatureException {
43       Base64.Encoder encoder = Base64.getEncoder();
44       this.from = fromWallet.getPublicKey().getEncoded();
45       this.fromFX = encoder.encodeToString(
         fromWallet.getPublicKey().getEncoded());
46       this.to = toAddress;
47       this.toFX = encoder.encodeToString(toAddress);
48       this.value = value;
49       this.ledgerId = ledgerId;
50       this.timestamp = LocalDateTime.now().toString();
51       signing.initSign(fromWallet.getPrivateKey());

29
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

52       String sr = this.toString();
53       signing.update(sr.getBytes());
54       this.signature = signing.sign();
55       this.signatureFX = encoder.encodeToString(this
.signature);
56    }
57

The first constructor simply sets the class fields according to the
retrieved data from the database and uses the Base64.Encoder class to
convert the byte[] fields safely into String.
The second constructor is a bit more complex, so we will explain it in
more detail piece by piece. First let’s look at the constructor parameters
that are different: Wallet fromWallet and Signature signing. We will
explain the Wallet class in more detail in the next section, for now we
should just note that the fromWallet parameter contains the public and
private keys of the sender/maker of the transaction. We use the same
Signature class as in our Block isVerified method mentioned in the
previous section.
Next let’s explain the body of the constructor so we understand how
encrypting data works in our case. The signature creation phase shown in
Figure 2-1 offers an overview of what we are trying to accomplish.

Figure 2-1.  Signature creation

30
 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

To achieve this, first we set up our data by initiating our class fields
from the parameters and add a timestamp as shown on lines 44 to 50. Now
once we have our data that we would like to encrypt, we set our private key
to the signing object with the statement on line 51. This tells the signing
object, when encrypting, to use the private key we provided. On line 52
we are putting all the data we want to encrypt in a single String object
by using the toString() method. On line 53 we are feeding all the data
we want to encrypt to the signing object, and on line 54 we are actually
encrypting the data and assigning it to our signature field.
Next is our method for the verification of transactions, as shown in the
following snippet:

58    public Boolean isVerified(Signature signing)

59            throws InvalidKeyException, SignatureException {
60       signing.initVerify(new DSAPublicKeyImpl(this.
getFrom()));
61       signing.update(this.toString().getBytes());
62       return signing.verify(this.signature);
63    }
64

This method will be used by the other peers to verify that each
transaction is valid. Before explaining the code, let’s look at Figure 2-2 and
see what our method tries to accomplish.

31
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

Figure 2-2.  Verification phase

The workflow of the schematic is quite simple; we need to compare the

hash of the signature and the hash of the data contained in our class using
the public key.
Now let’s look back at our isVerified method and explain how the
workflow from the schematic is achieved. As parameters we are getting
the Transaction object that we want to verify and the Signature helper
class object, which pre-initialized to use SHA256 with DSA algorithm the
same way as before. On line 60 we are setting the public key with which we
would like to decrypt our signature. The new DSAPublicKeyImpl(byte[]
encoded) is just a wrapper from the sun.security.provider package that
will help convert our public key information from byte[] to PublicKey
object. On line 61 we set the transaction data that we want to verify against
the signature. Finally on line Blockchaintransaction.java 62 we provide
the signature, the process of comparison/verification gets executed and a
result is returned automatically for us.

32
 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

We finish up the rest of the class with generic getters, setters, and our
toString, equals, and hash methods, as shown in the following snippet:

65    @Override
66    public String toString() {
67       return "Transaction{" +
68               "from=" + Arrays.toString(from) +
69               ", to=" + Arrays.toString(to) +
70               ", value=" + value +
71               ", timeStamp= " + timestamp +
72               ", ledgerId=" + ledgerId +
73               '}';
74    }
75
76    public byte[] getFrom() { return from; }
77    public void setFrom(byte[] from) { this.from = from; }
78
79    public byte[] getTo() { return to; }
80    public void setTo(byte[] to) { this.to = to; }
81
82    public Integer getValue() { return value; }
83    public void setValue(Integer value) { this.value = value; }
84    public byte[] getSignature() { return signature; }
85
86    public Integer getLedgerId() { return ledgerId; }
87    public void setLedgerId(Integer ledgerId) {
      this.ledgerId = ledgerId; }
88
89    public String getTimestamp() { return timestamp; }
90
91    public String getFromFX() { return fromFX; }
92    public String getToFX() { return toFX; }

33
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

93    public String getSignatureFX() { return signatureFX; }

94
95
96    @Override
97    public boolean equals(Object o) {
98       if (this == o) return true;
99       if (!(o instanceof Transaction)) return false;
100      Transaction that = (Transaction) o;
return Arrays.equals(getSignature(),
101      
that.getSignature());
102   }
103
104   @Override
105   public int hashCode() {
106      return Arrays.hashCode(getSignature());
107   }
108
109}

Important! 
• Note how we use the toString() method throughout this
class to prep our data conveniently for comparison.
• Note how all the essential fields that make certain the
transaction is unique are included in the toString()
method.

34
 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

EXERCISE 2-1

If we fail to include a timestamp as part of the verification process in our

transaction object, can you think of a way to exploit this vulnerability?

2.3  Wallet.java
Let’s start as always with the imports for this class located in the following
snippet:

1 package com.company.Model;
2
3 import java.io.Serializable;
4 import java.security.*;
5

In the following snippet, observe the class declaration and fields:

6 public class Wallet implements Serializable {

7
8     private KeyPair keyPair;
9

Since we would like to be able to store and export/import our wallet

from/to a database, we will also implement the Serializable interface.
This class will contain a single field that will be an object of the KeyPair
class. This class is part of the java.security package and contains the
public key and private key that we mentioned in the previous sections.

35
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

Important! 
• Note how our blockchain wallet doesn’t require any
information regarding the wallet holder. This is the basis of
the wallet holder’s anonymity.
• Our blockchain wallet also won’t contain any field containing
the current balance of the wallet. We will explain how we
obtain our wallet balance in Chapter 6.

Let’s look at our first two constructors on our next snippet, which
will be used when we want to create a new wallet and assign a new key
pair to it:

10    //Constructors for generating new KeyPair

11    public Wallet() throws NoSuchAlgorithmException {
12        this(2048, KeyPairGenerator.getInstance("DSA"));
13    }
14    
public Wallet(Integer keySize, KeyPairGenerator
keyPairGen) {
15       keyPairGen.initialize(keySize);
16       this.keyPair = keyPairGen.generateKeyPair();
17    }

The first no parameters constructor will call the second constructor

with a default keySize and a KeyPairGenerator instance set to generate
keys using the DSA algorithm. The second constructor receives these input
parameters either from the first or from other parts of the application
and simply sets the size of the keys on line 15 and generates the keys
themselves on line 16.

36
 Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

Our third constructor will be used to create our wallet once we have
imported an already existing key pair from our database. We can observe it
in the following snippet:

18
19    //Constructor for importing Keys only
public Wallet(PublicKey publicKey, PrivateKey privateKey) {
20    
21        this.keyPair = new KeyPair(publicKey,privateKey);
22    }

The code here simply receives public and private key objects and
creates a new KeyPair object with them.
Finally, we finish up this class and chapter by including the generic
getters and setters in the following snippet:

23
24    public KeyPair getKeyPair() { return keyPair; }
25
26    public PublicKey getPublicKey() { return
keyPair.getPublic(); }
27    public PrivateKey getPrivateKey() {
             return keyPair.getPrivate(); }
28}

2.4  Summary
In this chapter, we covered the creation of our model layer of the
application. These classes and their methods will be used as basic building
blocks throughout the rest of the application. Therefore, having nice grasp
of them now will greatly benefit you in understanding the more complex
logic in the upcoming chapters. This is a small recap of what concepts we
covered so far:

37
Chapter 2 Model: Blockchain Core

• Representation of a single block of the blockchain by

implementing our Block.java class

• Java implementation of importing blocks from an

existing blockchain and creation of the head block of
the blockchain

• Representation of a blockchain transaction by

implementing our Transaction.java class

• Java implementation for importing transactions and

creating new transactions

• Java implementation of encryption and verification

(creating signatures and verifying them)

• Representation of a blockchain wallet by implementing

our Wallet.java class

Answer to Exercise 2-1: Someone can copy and paste a signed

transaction, and it will pass the validation checks since there is no way to
make sure the transaction is unique in time.

38
CHAPTER 3

Database Setup

“Blocks Database” by Filip Rizov

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 39

S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_3
Chapter 3 Database Setup

For a greater visualization of our blockchain and our wallet data, we

chose to implement a SQLite database instead of storing it in raw file data
format. Our plan is to set up one database for our blockchain and another
for our wallet just so we can maintain better separation of concerns and
increase security. In this chapter, we will learn how to set up our databases
from scratch and write an init() method for our application that will write
our table schemas in SQL with preset defaults. For this purpose we will be
using the SQLite JDBC driver and SQLite database browser.

3.1  SQLite Database Browser Setup

First we will be downloading our SQLite database browser from https://
sqlitebrowser.org/dl/. Just download the recommended version
for your operating system and install it on your machine with the
recommended settings. Once you run it, the app should look something
like Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1.  Our app

40
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

This means that you have installed the database browser successfully,
and we can move on to setting up our actual databases.

3.2  Blockchain.db
Our first database that we will implement is the one for storing our
blockchain data, and we will name it appropriately as blockchain.db. In
this chapter, we will learn to set up our database step-by-step by using the
SQLite browser. However, in the section “Writing your App init() Method,”
we will learn to set up our database programmatically by using SQL and
SQL JDBC driver. Ideally this chapter will go a long way in visualizing the
data contained in the blockchain through the database browser and help
bridge the gap for people less familiar with SQL. The “Writing your App
init() Method” section will give you the SQL code and teach you how to
programmatically implement your database setup in the future.
We start by clicking the New Database button or go to File
and then click the New Database command in case the button tray doesn’t
show. This should open a screen similar to Figure 3-2, asking us to name
our database and choose a filepath for saving it.

41
Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-2.  Naming and saving our database

I chose to create a folder named db in my e-coin project folder and

name the database blockchain. You can choose a different name or
location for your database; just make sure you remember to use those
names throughout instead of the ones in this book’s instructions. Once
we click Save, we are greeted with the window shown in Figure 3-3 that
prompts us to create our first table.

42
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-3.  Creating a table

We will name our table BLOCKCHAIN, and we want it to store all of our
blocks and the data they contain. Now in the upper window on the tab
named Fields, we will click the Add button to add a field row. These field
rows will represent the table columns, so from now on we will refer to
them as such. When you start creating your columns in the upper window,
you will notice that the SQL code in the lower window will modify itself to
correspond to your choices. For now let’s look at Figure 3-4 and set up our
table columns accordingly.

43
Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-4.  Setting up table columns

If you noticed that the names of the columns are similar to the names
of the fields of the Block.java class, then great job; having a different
column for each class field is exactly how we want to store our data.
Each row in our BLOCKCHAIN table will represent a different block, so we
also include an ID column here, which will number our blocks. The type

44
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

chosen for our column corresponds closely to the types of the fields in
the Block.java class in order to maintain the integrity of the data. This
is especially important for all our class fields of the byte array type to be
stored as BLOB; otherwise, the conversion to another type will change the
original information and render the public keys and signatures stored in
them invalid. You can read up more on SQLite types if you are interested
at https://www.w3resource.com/sqlite/sqlite-­data-­types.php. Now
once we click the OK button, we will have our first table in our database
created, and our database browser should look like Figure 3-5.

Figure 3-5.  Our first table in our database

45
Chapter 3 Database Setup

Our next step is to create a table that will contain the transactions
included in each block. For that purpose we click the Create Table button
and get another window looking exactly like the window we used to create
our BLOCKCHAIN table.

EXERCISE 3-1

Try creating the next table named TRANSACTIONS on your own before
learning how we did it.

Tip  Look at the fields of Transaction.java just like we did with

Block.java.

If you managed to do it, good job! Our implementation of the

Transactions table looks like Figure 3-6.

46
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-6.  Transactions table

Finally, the complete database schema should look like Figure 3-7.

47
Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-7.  Complete database schema

Now obviously if you click the Browse Data tab, the tables will be
empty, but let’s conclude this section by looking at Figure 3-8 and
Figure 3-9, which contain some dummy data so we can visualize how
everything will fall into place once we complete the rest of our application.

48
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-8.  BLOCKCHAIN table with dummy data

Figure 3-9.  Transaction table with dummy data

49
Chapter 3 Database Setup

For the BLOCKCHAIN table in Figure 3-8, each row represents a different

block in the blockchain. For the Transactions table in Figure 3-9, each
row represents a single transaction. All transactions containing the
same LEDGER_ID number represent transactions contained in a single
corresponding block with the same LEDGER_ID number.

3.3  Wallet.db
Before we go through basically the same steps for creating Wallet.db, let’s
explain our design decision as to why we create the wallet in a separate
database instead of creating just another table in our blockchain.db
database. It’s because this way we get a clear separation of concerns.
All the data in the blockchain database is supposed to get shared over
a peer-­to-­peer network, and all the data in your Wallet.db database is
supposed to be kept away from others; therefore, having your application
create separate connections to both also increases security. Another
benefit is that portability of either your wallet or your blockchain is just
a simple copy/paste of either blockchain.db or wallet.db from your
current machine to another without the need of any extra code. Of course,
this is not to say that the application can’t be made to work with only a
single database or that this is all you need to keep everything secure.

EXERCISE 3-2

Try creating the next table named WALLET on your own before looking how
we did it.

Tip  Follow same steps as in the “Blockchain.db” section.

50
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

If you managed to do it and realize that we might need to split the

keyPair field in our Wallet.java class into two columns, one for each key,
then great job. If not, then let’s go over the steps again. Let’s click the New
Database button, name our table WALLET, and in it create two columns
called PRIVATE_KEY and PUBLIC_KEY that will constitute our keypair. It
should look similar to Figure 3-10.

Figure 3-10.  Creating our keypair

51
Chapter 3 Database Setup

Our complete database schema for our wallet.db database will look
like Figure 3-11.

Figure 3-11.  Database schema for wallet.db

3.4  JDBC Driver for SQLite Setup

Now let’s install a JDBC driver for SQLite so we can use SQL inside our app
to set up the same schemas. Visit https://search.maven.org/artifact/
org.xerial/sqlite-­jdbc/3.34.0/jar and download the JAR manually
from the downloads option, as shown in Figure 3-11.

52
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-12.  Downloading JARs

You can create a libs folder inside your project folder and save it
there just like we have in our repository. Next Select File and then Project
Structure; then go to the Libraries tab in Project Settings, click the plus
sign to add new project library, choose Java, and select the JAR file we just
downloaded then click OK. Look at Figures 3-13 and 3-14 for visual help.

Figure 3-13.  Selecting Java

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Chapter 3 Database Setup

Figure 3-14.  Selecting the JAR file

With the library in place, we can start writing our ECoin class that will
contain our main and init() methods.

3.5  Writing Your App init( ) Method

Let’s briefly start with looking at our ECoin.java class before we jump
inside its init() method. Our ECoin.java class is located in the src.com.
company folder structure in our repository. This is our main application

54
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

class; in other words, our application starts from here. Our next snippet
shows the class imports, class declaration, the main method, and the
start method:

1  package com.company;
2
3  import com.company.Model.Block;
4  import com.company.Model.Transaction;
5  import com.company.Model.Wallet;
6  import com.company.ServiceData.BlockchainData;
7  import com.company.ServiceData.WalletData;
8  import com.company.Threads.MiningThread;
9  import com.company.Threads.PeerClient;
10 import com.company.Threads.PeerServer;
11 import com.company.Threads.UI;
12 import javafx.application.Application;
13 import javafx.stage.Stage;
14
15 import java.security.*;
16 import java.sql.*;
17 import java.time.LocalDateTime;
18
19 public class ECoin extends Application {
20
21     public static void main(String[] args) {
22         launch(args);
23     }
24
25     @Override
26     public void start(Stage primaryStage) throws Exception {
27         new UI().start(primaryStage);
28         new PeerClient().start();

55
Chapter 3 Database Setup

29         new PeerServer(6000).start();
30         new MiningThread().start();
31     }
32

On line 19 we can see that our class extends the Application class.
Application is part of the jaxafx package, and by extending it we show
that we will be running our application as a javafx application. Since the
Application class is actually an abstract class, by extending it we need
to implement the start(Stage s) method before we can run our app.
On lines 26 to 31 you can see our implementation of the start(Stage s)
method. Each line of the method body (lines 27–30) represents a different
thread that will run in parallel in our application. The thread on line 27
will display our UI and execute commands associated with it. The thread
on line 28 will act as a client and query other peers. The thread on line
29 will act as a server and respond to incoming queries from other peers.
The thread on line 30 will run the blockchain verification and consensus
tasks continuously. We will talk about each thread in our future sections
and explain how each thread works in detail. For now the explanation of
what these threads are trying to accomplish is enough and should give you
a nice overview of how our application is structured when it comes to the
topic of what it tries to accomplish.
It’s finally time to talk about our init() method and what we will
accomplish with it. The init() method runs before our application
start(Stage s) method, and its purpose is to check and set up the
necessary prerequisites so that our application can run. In our case, those
prerequisites include the existence of our wallet.db and blockchain.db,
their schemas, and their contents. Let’s look at the following snippet and
start explaining the code:

32
33     @Override
34     public void init() {

56
 Chapter 3 Database Setup

35         try {
36  //This creates your wallet if there is none and gives you a
    KeyPair.
37  //We will create it in separate db for better security and
ease of portability.
38             Connection walletConnection = DriverManager
39                    .getConnection("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\
spiro\\IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\
wallet.db");
40             Statement walletStatment =
                  walletConnection.createStatement();
41             walletStatment.executeUpdate("CREATE TABLE IF
NOT EXISTS WALLET ( " +
42                     " PRIVATE_KEY BLOB NOT NULL UNIQUE, " +
43                     " PUBLIC_KEY BLOB NOT NULL UNIQUE, " +
44                     " PRIMARY KEY (PRIVATE_KEY, PUBLIC_KEY)" +
45                     ") "
46             );
47             ResultSet resultSet = walletStatment.execute
Query(" SELECT * FROM WALLET ");
48             if (!resultSet.next()) {
49                 Wallet newWallet = new Wallet();
50                 byte[] pubBlob =
                    newWallet.getPublicKey().getEncoded();
51                 byte[] prvBlob =
                    newWallet.getPrivateKey().getEncoded();
52                 PreparedStatement pstmt = walletConnection
53                         .prepareStatement("INSERT INTO
                               WALLET(PRIVATE_KEY,
PUBLIC_KEY) " +
54                         " VALUES (?,?) ");

57
Chapter 3 Database Setup

55                 pstmt.setBytes(1, prvBlob);
56                 pstmt.setBytes(2, pubBlob);
57                 pstmt.executeUpdate();
58             }
59             resultSet.close();
60             walletStatment.close();
61             walletConnection.close();
62             WalletData.getInstance().loadWallet();
63

Line 38 and line 39 represent a single statement that uses our

previously set-up SQLDriver to open a connection to our wallet.db
database. The SQLDriver will check the existence of the wallet.db file in
the provided URL location and open a connection to it. In case the file is
missing, the SQLDriver will automatically create an empty wallet.db file.
On line 40 we use our established connection to the wallet.db
database to instantiate our Statement object. Every time we use this
Statement object to execute queries, it will execute them in the database
that the connection that was used to instantiate it points at. In this case,
that’s wallet.db. On lines 41 to 46 we use the executeUpdate(String s)
method on the Statement object named walletStatment, which takes
String and executes it as SQL inside the wallet.db. The SQL string,
except for the IF NOT EXISTS part that’s added here, is identical to the
SQL generated when we created the WALLET table manually, as shown
in Figure 3-10. In other words, what our SQL here is saying is that if the
WALLET table doesn’t exist, create it with a schema identical to the one we
created manually in the “Wallet.db” section.
In the next lines of code, lines 47–58, we will expand upon the
functionality of our app to also recognize whether we have an existing
keypair in our wallet.db. If it’s empty, the app will generate a new keypair
and populate our WALLET table with it. Line 47 queries the WALLET table and
saves the results in the ResultSet object. Line 48 checks if the resultSet

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 Chapter 3 Database Setup

object is empty, and if it is, then lines 49–57 create a new wallet and
export its keys to our Wallet table. Let’s see what this set of functionalities
allows us to do. We can run the app without any wallet.db, and it will
automatically set up the database for it and create a new wallet for us. We
can port our wallet to another machine by simply copying our wallet.db
and replacing the wallet.db file on that machine. Our init() method will
recognize that a keypair is present and won’t try to overwrite it. The last
thing to note is line 65. Here we will load the contents from our wallet.db
into our WalletData singleton class. This will store our wallet data into the
app memory and make it more readily accessible throughout the rest of
our app. We will talk more about the WalletData class in our next chapter.
Now let’s look at the next part of our init() method in the following
snippet:

64 // This will create the db tables with columns for

theBlockchain.
65    Connection blockchainConnection = DriverManager
66             .getConnection("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\spiro\\
               IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\blockchain.db");
67    Statement blockchainStmt =
                   blockchainConnection.createStatement();
68    blockchainStmt.executeUpdate("CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS
      BLOCKCHAIN ( " +
69                     " ID INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE, " +
70                     " PREVIOUS_HASH BLOB UNIQUE, " +
71                     " CURRENT_HASH BLOB UNIQUE, " +
72                     " LEDGER_ID INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE, " +
73                     " CREATED_ON  TEXT, " +
74                     " CREATED_BY  BLOB, " +
75                     " MINING_POINTS  TEXT, " +
76                     " LUCK  NUMERIC, " +

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Chapter 3 Database Setup

77                     " PRIMARY KEY( ID AUTOINCREMENT) " +

78                     ")"
79             );

Lines 65 and 66 will check and create a new blockchain.db file if it

doesn’t exist and establish a connection to it the same as we did on lines
38 and 39 previously for our wallet.db. Lines 67 to 79 will prepare and
execute a statement that will check if the BLOCKCHAIN table exist in our
blockchain.db and create one identical to the one shown in Figure 3-4.
On our next code snippet, we will be creating the functionality for our
app to create the first block in our blockchain if it’s not already present. It
follows a similar logic as the one we used to check whether our wallet.db
contained any data:

80     ResultSet resultSetBlockchain = blockchainStmt.execute

Query(" SELECT * FROM BLOCKCHAIN ");
81     Transaction initBlockRewardTransaction = null;
82     if (!resultSetBlockchain.next()) {
83     Block firstBlock = new Block();
84     firstBlock.setMinedBy(WalletData.getInstance()
       .getWallet().getPublicKey().getEncoded());
85     firstBlock.setTimeStamp(LocalDateTime.now().toString());
86     //helper class.
87     Signature signing = Signature.getInstance("SHA256
withDSA");
88     signing.initSign(WalletData.getInstance()
       .getWallet().getPrivateKey());
89     signing.update(firstBlock.toString().getBytes());
90     firstBlock.setCurrHash(signing.sign());
91     PreparedStatement pstmt = blockchainConnection
92         .prepareStatement("INSERT INTO BLOCKCHAIN
(PREVIOUS_HASH,
           CURRENT_HASH , LEDGER_ID," +

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 Chapter 3 Database Setup

93          " CREATED_ON, CREATED_BY,MINING_POINTS,LUCK ) " +

94          " VALUES (?,?,?,?,?,?,?) ");
95     pstmt.setBytes(1, firstBlock.getPrevHash());
96     pstmt.setBytes(2, firstBlock.getCurrHash());
97     pstmt.setInt(3, firstBlock.getLedgerId());
98     pstmt.setString(4, firstBlock.getTimeStamp());
99     pstmt.setBytes(5, WalletData.getInstance().getWallet()
       .getPublicKey().getEncoded());
100    pstmt.setInt(6, firstBlock.getMiningPoints());
101    pstmt.setDouble(7, firstBlock.getLuck());
102    pstmt.executeUpdate();
103    Signature transSignature = Signature
       .getInstance("SHA256withDSA");
104    initBlockRewardTransaction = new Transaction(WalletData
       .getInstance().getWallet(),WalletData.getInstance()
       .getWallet().getPublicKey()
       .getEncoded(),100,1,transSignature);
105   }
106   resultSetBlockchain.close();
107

Line 80 queries our BLOCKCHAIN table, and line 82 checks if there is

blockchain present; if not, it executes lines 83–105. Line 83 uses our third
block constructor. Line 84 retrieves our public key from the WalletData
singleton class and sets us as the creators/miners of the initial block. Line
85 sets the timestamp. Lines 87 to 90 instantiate and use the Signature
class from java.security to encrypt all of the data contained in the block
by using the private key of the creator/miner of the block and set it as our
current hash. This same process was observed in Figure 2-1 and explained
in more detail there. Lines 91–102 export the data for our initial block
from our app to our BLOCKCHAIN table. On lines 103 and 104 we prepare
the initial block reward transaction for our block. We wait to transfer

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it to the TRANSACTIONS table since we still are not sure if it exists in the
database. Let’s look at the following code snippet where we handle the
TRANSACTIONS table:

107
108            blockchainStmt.executeUpdate("CREATE
TABLE IF NOT
               EXISTS TRANSACTIONS ( " +
109                    " ID INTEGER NOT NULL UNIQUE, " +
110                    " \"FROM\" BLOB, " +
111                    " \"TO\" BLOB, " +
112                    " LEDGER_ID INTEGER, " +
113                    " VALUE INTEGER, " +
114                    " SIGNATURE BLOB UNIQUE, " +
115                    " CREATED_ON TEXT, " +
116                    " PRIMARY KEY(ID AUTOINCREMENT) " +
117                    ")"
118            );
119            if (initBlockRewardTransaction != null) {
120              BlockchainData.getInstance()
                   .addTransaction(initBlockRewardTransaction,
true);
121              BlockchainData.getInstance()
                  .addTransactionState(initBlockReward
Transaction);
122            }
123            blockchainStmt.close();
124            blockchainConnection.close();
125        } catch (SQLException | NoSuchAlgorithmException |
           InvalidKeyException | SignatureException e) {
126            System.out.println("db failed: " +
e.getMessage());

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 Chapter 3 Database Setup

127        } catch (GeneralSecurityException e) {

128            e.printStackTrace();
129        }
130        BlockchainData.getInstance().loadBlockChain();
131    }
132}

On lines 108 to 118 we check if the TRANSACTIONS table exists and

create it if it doesn’t in much the same way as we did with our previous
tables. Line 119 checks if we have initial reward transaction created, and if
we do, lines 120 and 121 transfer it to the database and set our application
state. Our last statement on line 130 shows our singleton class BlockData
being loaded up with the data contained in our blockhain.db database. In
our next chapter we will explain how this is achieved.

3.6  Summary
In this chapter, we covered the creation of two different databases that
will support our application. We also created our init() method with
functionality that allows easy portability and creation of wallets. Also, we
made sure that our application is capable of creating the first block in our
blockchain when no blockchain is present. This is a small recap of what
concepts we covered so far:
• Creation of databases and table schemas using the
database browser program
• Creation of our application’s main class
• Creation of our start(Stage s) method
• Setting up the SQLite driver in Java and using it to
create and query databases using Java and SQL
• Creating business logic for our app’s init() method by
using the SQLite driver and Java

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CHAPTER 4

Building the UI

“Interface” by Filip Rizov

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 65

S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_4
Chapter 4 Building the UI

This chapter will cover how to create our UI. Using the UI we will be
able to check our coin balance, display our public address so that we can
share it with others, look at recent transactions, and send coins to others.
For this purpose, we will use Scene Builder, a GUI tool that will help us
create our front end. For our controller classes, we will be using Java and
JavaFX. Finally, we will explain how to create our separate UI thread that
will listen for our input.

4.1  Scene Builder Quick Setup

Download Scene Builder by visiting https://gluonhq.com/products/
scene-­builder/. The page will display different options, as shown in
Figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1.  The Scene Builder download page

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Simply choose the appropriate download depending on your

OS. Install the app following the provided instructions and you are
good to go.

4.2  Creating Your Views

In the next sections we will explain how to create our views by using Scene
Builder. It’s recommended that you create a View folder within the folder
structure shown in Figure 4-2. This is where we will create and keep our
view classes.

Figure 4-2.  Creating the folder structure

4.2.1  MainWindow.fxml
Let’s create our MainWindow.fxml file. First start Scene Builder and choose
an empty scene, as shown in Figure 4-3.

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-3.  Choosing an empty scene

Once you do this, your next screen should look like Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4.  The empty screen

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

This means that we are ready to start creating our MainWindow.fxml

file, but first let’s explain some of the elements we are seeing in Figure 4-4.
In the top-left side of the screen, we can see the premade visual elements
that are used to create views by dragging and dropping them in the middle
of the screen or onto the Hierarchy tab. You can also notice that different
types of elements are grouped under different tabs such as Containers,
Controls, etc. In the bottom left of the screen, we can see the Hierarchy
tab; here we can observe the element structure of our scene. Below the
Hierarchy tab we have the Controller tab, where we can see information
regarding the location of our controller for this view and the fields
associated with our view elements. In the middle we can see a preview of
how our view will appear. On the right side of the screen we can see three
tabs called Properties, Layout, and Code, which is where we can adjust
and customize each element’s attributes. Before we start adding visual
elements to our scene, let’s first save this file in our View folder and name it
MainWindow.fxml, as shown in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5.  Saving the file

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

Let’s start creating our front-end scene by dragging a BorderPane

element from the Containers tab into the middle of the screen. Your screen
should look like Figure 4-6.

Figure 4-6.  Adding a BorderPane

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Notice the BorderPane element in the Hierarchy tab together with its
subelements. Next let’s drag a MenuBar from the Controls tab and drop it
into the TOP subelement of our BorderPane, as shown in Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-7.  Adding a MenuBar

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

If you click the + next to the MenuBar element, you will notice that it
comes with three menu subelements named File, Edit, and Help. Since
we are only going to use the File subelement, let’s delete the Edit and Help
subelements by right-clicking them and selecting Delete from the drop-­
down menu, as shown in Figure 4-8.

Figure 4-8.  Deleting some submenus

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Now let’s expand the File submenu. Here you will notice that we have
another nested element called MenuItem named Close. Let’s add another
MenuItem element and name it Make Transaction. To do this, first let’s
open the Menu tab and drag another MenuItem element and drop it right
above the Close MenuItem, as shown on Figure 4-9.

Figure 4-9.  Adding elements

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

As you are dragging the MenuItem element, notice the orange line
that will help you visualize where the item will be placed once you drop it.
You will notice that this MenuItem gets named by default as Unspecified
Action. Let’s select this element by clicking it in the Hierarchy tab and then
expand the Properties tab. You will notice a property called text that has
a text value named Unspecified Action. Let’s change this value to Make
Transaction, which effectively renames our element. The final result
should look like Figure 4-10.

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-10.  Renaming the text element

75
Chapter 4 Building the UI

EXERCISE 4-1

Rename the Menu element named File to Menu and the MenuItem Close
to Exit.

We are finished with our MenuBar and its subelements for now, so
let’s move on. Next add a TableView element from the Controls tab onto
the BorderPane’s CENTER subelement. Once you expand the TableView
element, you should find two nested TableColumn elements named C1
and C2. Drag TableColumn C2 into TableColumn C1. This will make
TableColumn C2 a nested element of TableColumn C1. If you followed
the instructions correctly, your hierarchy structure should look like
Figure 4-11.

Figure 4-11.  Two nested TableColumn elements

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Let’s add four more TableColumn elements from the Controls tab as
nested elements of TableColumn C1. In this table view that we are creating
we would like to be able to display our current block transactions with the
associated details, so we should rename our table columns accordingly
such as C1 to Current Block Transactions and then all the nested table
columns in order like this: From, To, Value, Signature, and Created On. If
you have done things correctly, your screen should look like Figure 4-12.

Figure 4-12.  The finished table columns

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

You have most likely noticed that the width of our table columns
doesn’t cover the whole area of our screen. To fix the width of our table
columns, select the TableView element, go into its Properties tab to find
the Column Resize Policy attribute, and select constrained-resize, as
shown in Figure 4-13.

Figure 4-13.  Resizing the table columns

Our next task is to add some elements that will allow us to display
our coins balance, our public key/wallet address, and a button that will
refresh our UI and retrieve the latest information regarding transactions
and our balance. We will do this by dragging another BorderPane from the
Containers tab inside the BOTTOM section of our existing BorderPane.
This new BorderPane will come with its own existing TOP, LEFT, CENTER,
RIGHT, and BOTTOM sections. In other words, this new BorderPane
subdivides the bottom section of the first BorderPane into five new
sections, as shown in Figure 4-14.

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-14.  New BorderPane

This will allow us to position the elements, we mentioned earlier, in

their own separate sections, which helps organize our hierarchy structure.
Now let’s insert an AnchorPane from the Containers tab into the LEFT,
CENTER, and RIGHT sections of our new BorderPane, as shown in
Figure 4-15.

Figure 4-15.  Inserting an AnchorPane

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

The AnchorPane will allow us to adjust the visual position of our

elements just by dragging them into a different position. Now let’s drag and
drop a Label and a TextField element from the Controls tabs into our LEFT
section AnchorPane. Once you have done that, notice that you can easily
reposition them by dragging them on the view screen itself. Figure 4-16
shows how your hierarchy should look and the ability to drag and align
your elements on the view screen.

Figure 4-16.  Repositioning elements

EXERCISE 4-2

Rename the Label element named Label to Your Balance: and reposition it
and the TextField element so they look better visually.

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Next let’s drop a Label and TextArea element from the Controls tab
into our CENTER section AnchorPane and a Button from the same tab into
our RIGHT section AnchorPane. Your hierarchy structure should look like
Figure 4-17.

Figure 4-17.  Adding a Label and TextArea to CENTER

EXERCISE 4-3

Rename the Label element named Label to Your Address / Public Key:,
rename the Button from Button to Refresh, and then reposition them to look
better visually.

In Figure 4-18 you can see the complete UX/UI design of our scene
with its expanded structure hierarchy. This is a good figure to review and
check if you have missed something in your own scene.

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-18.  Complete UX/UI design of our scene

If you open the MainWindow.fxml file from IntelliJ now, you will notice
that it has been filled up with the appropriate FXML code by Scene Builder
automatically. Keep in mind that you need to save your changes in Scene
Builder before the code in the FXML file gets generated. Also make sure to
save the latest changes in Scene Builder and exit if you intend to change
the FXML file manually; otherwise, you might desynchronize the work
from Scene Builder and your local file and lose some of the changes.
Until this point we have worked only on the visual design of our scene.
We have all our elements positioned the way we want them, but what we
are missing now are references to our back-end methods and fields so that
we can use them. First let’s add the file path of our future controller class
for this scene. This will create a link in the application between our view
and its controller. In other words, the application will try to find and run/
display any methods or fields that we will reference in the view from its
corresponding controller class. To add the file path of our controller class,
open the Controller tab in the bottom-left side of your screen and enter it
in the Controller class text field, as shown in Figure 4-19.

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-19.  Adding the file path of our controller class

Now let’s add a reference to the method that our refresh button should
call once we click it. To do that, select our refresh button, expand its Code
tab from the bottom-right side of the screen, and enter the method name
in the On Action text field, which will be refresh, as shown in Figure 4-20.

Figure 4-20.  Adding a refresh button

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

Next let’s add reference to our public key field so that we can display it
in our TextArea. Let’s select the TextArea and in the Code tab find the fx:id
field; name it publicKey, as shown on Figure 4-21.

Figure 4-21.  Adding a reference to our public key field

We’ll name our TextField for our coins balance eCoins, as shown in
Figure 4-22.

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-22.  Naming our coins balance

Now that we’ve shown you how to add controller references, you
should be able to finish adding the rest on your own.

EXERCISE 4-4

Add references to the fx:id field for our first BorderPane as borderPane, for
our TableView as tableview, for our From TableColum as from, for our To
TableColumn as to, for our Value TableColumn as value, for our Signature
TableColumn as signature, for our Created On TableColumn as timestamp.

Note These are case-sensitive values, so make sure to add them

exactly as written.

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

EXERCISE 4-5

Add references to the On Action field for our Make Transaction MenuItem as
toNewTransactionController, and for the Exit MenuItem as handleExit.

Note These are case-sensitive values, so make sure to add them

exactly as written.

Double-check to see if your changes are identical to the MainWindow.

fxml code in the following code snippet or found in our repository:

1  <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

2
3  <?import javafx.scene.control.Button?>
4  <?import javafx.scene.control.Label?>
5  <?import javafx.scene.control.Menu?>
6  <?import javafx.scene.control.MenuBar?>
7  <?import javafx.scene.control.MenuItem?>
8  <?import javafx.scene.control.TableColumn?>
9  <?import javafx.scene.control.TableView?>
10 <?import javafx.scene.control.TextArea?>
11 <?import javafx.scene.control.TextField?>
12 <?import javafx.scene.layout.AnchorPane?>
13 <?import javafx.scene.layout.BorderPane?>
14
15 <BorderPane fx:id="borderPane" maxHeight="-Infinity"
maxWidth=" -Infinity" minHeight="-Infinity" minWidth="-
Infinity"

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

16    prefHeight="500.0" prefWidth="800.0"
      xmlns="http://javafx.com/javafx/15.0.1"
      xmlns:fx="http://javafx.com/fxml/1"
17    fx:controller="com.company.Controller.MainWindow
Controller">
18    <top>
19        <MenuBar prefHeight="25.0" prefWidth="800.0"
             BorderPane.alignment="CENTER">
20            <menus>
21                <Menu mnemonicParsing="false" text="Menu">
22                    <items>
23                        <MenuItem mnemonicParsing="false"
                         onAction="#toNewTransactionController"
                         text="Make Transaction" />
24                        <MenuItem mnemonicParsing="false"
                          onAction="#handleExit" text="Exit" />
25                    </items>
26                </Menu>
27            </menus>
28        </MenuBar>
29    </top>
30    <center>
31        <TableView fx:id="tableview" prefHeight="406.0"
             prefWidth="800.0" BorderPane.alignment="CENTER">
32            <columns>
33            <TableColumn prefWidth="75.0" text="Current Block
               Transactions">
34               <columns>
35                  <TableColumn fx:id="from" prefWidth="160"
                    text="From" />

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

36                  <TableColumn fx:id="to" prefWidth="160"

                    text="To" />
37                  <TableColumn fx:id="value" prefWidth="160"
                    text="Value" />
38                  <TableColumn fx:id="signature"
                    prefWidth="160" text="Signature" />
39                  <TableColumn fx:id="timestamp"
                    prefWidth="160" text="Created On" />
40               </columns>
41            </TableColumn>
42            </columns>
43         <columnResizePolicy>
44            <TableView fx:constant="CONSTRAINED_RESIZE_
POLICY" />
45         </columnResizePolicy>
46        </TableView>
47    </center>
48   <bottom>
49      <BorderPane prefHeight="69.0" prefWidth="800.0">
50         <center>
51            <AnchorPane prefHeight="83.0" prefWidth="269.0"
                 BorderPane.alignment="CENTER">
52               <children>
53                  <Label layoutY="4.0" prefHeight="17.0"
                      prefWidth="149.0" text="Your Address /
                      Public Key:" />
54                  <TextArea fx:id="publicKey"
editable="false"
                      layoutY="23.0" prefHeight="36.0"
                      prefWidth="416.0" />
55               </children>

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

56            </AnchorPane>
57         </center>
58         <left>
59            <AnchorPane prefHeight="56.0" prefWidth="136.0"
                  BorderPane.alignment="CENTER">
60               <children>
61                  <Label layoutX="6.0" layoutY="6.0"
                     prefHeight="17.0" prefWidth="84.0"
                     text="Your Balance:" />
62                  <TextField fx:id="eCoins" editable="false"
                     layoutX="6.0" layoutY="23.0"
                     prefHeight="25.0" prefWidth="125.0" />
63               </children>
64            </AnchorPane>
65         </left>
66         <right>
67            <AnchorPane prefHeight="200.0" prefWidth="200.0"
                  BorderPane.alignment="CENTER">
68               <children>
69                <Button layoutX="113.0" layoutY="20.0"
                     mnemonicParsing="false"
                     nodeOrientation="LEFT_TO_RIGHT"
                     onAction="#refresh" prefHeight="30.0"
70                       prefWidth="67.0" text="Refresh"
                         textAlignment="CENTER" />
71               </children>
72            </AnchorPane>
73         </right>
74      </BorderPane>
75   </bottom>
76 </BorderPane>
77

89
Chapter 4 Building the UI

With the exercises complete, we now have our main window scene
completely finished. If you open the file in IntelliJ, it will show you some
errors since the references we added don’t exist yet, but we are about to fix
that in our following sections.

4.2.2  AddNewTransactionWindow.fxml
Since by now we have explained everything you need to know to create
your own view in Scene Builder, it’s time for you to create the scene from
this section by performing the following exercises.

EXERCISE 4-6

Open a new file in Scene Builder and save it in the same folder structure as
our previous scene. Name the file AddNewTransactionWindow.fxml.

EXERCISE 4-7

Create your scene with the hierarchy structure and appearance shown in
Figure 4-23. Add the controller class path as com.company.Controller.
AddNewTransactionController.

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

Figure 4-23.  Adding the controller class

EXERCISE 4-8

Add the controller class path as com.company.Controller.

AddNewTransactionController.

EXERCISE 4-9

Add references to the fx:id field for our To Address TextField as toAddress and
for our Amount TextField as value.

EXERCISE 4-10

Add references to the On Action field for our Send Transaction Button as
createNewTransaction.

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Chapter 4 Building the UI

Double-check to see if your changes are identical to the

AddNewTransactionWindow.fxml code in the following code snippet or
found in our repository:

1  <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>

2
3  <?import javafx.scene.control.Button?>
4  <?import javafx.scene.control.DialogPane?>
5  <?import javafx.scene.control.Label?>
6  <?import javafx.scene.control.TextField?>
7  <?import javafx.scene.layout.AnchorPane?>
8  <?import javafx.scene.text.Font?>
9
10 <DialogPane prefHeight="266.0" prefWidth="667.0"
xmlns="http://javafx.com/javafx/15.0.1" xmlns:fx="http://
javafx.com/fxml/1" ­fx:controller="com.company.Controller.
AddNewTransactionController">
11    <content>
12        <AnchorPane minHeight="0.0" minWidth="0.0"
             prefHeight="250.0" prefWidth="657.0">
13            <children>
14                <TextField fx:id="toAddress"
                   layoutX="14.0" layoutY="144.0" />
15                <TextField fx:id="value"
                   layoutX="178.0" layoutY="144.0" />
16                <Label layoutX="14.0" layoutY="121.0"
                   text="To Address" />
17                <Label layoutX="178.0" layoutY="121.0"
                   text="Amount" />
18                <Label layoutX="43.0" layoutY="28.0"
                   text="Add New Transaction">

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 Chapter 4 Building the UI

19                    <font>
20                        <Font size="18.0" />
21                    </font>
22                </Label>
23                <Button layoutX="447.0" layoutY="189.0"
                   mnemonicParsing="false"
                   onAction="#createNewTransaction"
                   text="Send Transaction" />
24            </children>
25        </AnchorPane>
26    </content>
27 </DialogPane>
28

4.3  Creating Your View Controllers

Once we have our view classes finished, it’s time for us to create their
controllers. We will start by adding a folder named Controller in the same
folder path as our View folder, as shown in Figure 4-24.

Figure 4-24.  Adding a folder

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Before we move on to explain the code in the controllers, let’s quickly

download and install an encoder library called Base64, which will help
us convert our public keys that are stored as byte arrays into strings, and
vice versa. This is important because the standard Java encoder while
converting byte arrays to strings will change the contents of the byte arrays,
which will make them invalid as a public key. To install our Base64 library,
let’s visit http://migbase64.sourceforge.net/ and download it. Once we
download it, we will need to unzip it and place in it the libs folder next to
our SQLite driver, as shown in Figure 4-25.

Figure 4-25.  Installing the encoder library called Base64

4.3.1  MainWindowController
Let’s observe our imports for the MainWindowController class in the
following code snippet:

1  package com.company.Controller;
2
3  import com.company.Model.Transaction;
4  import com.company.ServiceData.BlockchainData;
5  import com.company.ServiceData.WalletData;
6  import javafx.application.Platform;
7  import javafx.fxml.FXML;
8  import javafx.fxml.FXMLLoader;
9  import javafx.scene.control.*;

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10 import javafx.scene.control.cell.PropertyValueFactory;
11 import javafx.scene.layout.BorderPane;
12
13 import java.io.IOException;
14 import java.util.Base64;
15 import java.util.Optional;
16

Next let’s move on to the class fields as shown in the following snippet
and explain them:

17 public class MainWindowController {

18    //this is read-only UI table
19    @FXML
20    public TableView<Transaction> tableview = new
TableView<>();
21    @FXML
22    private TableColumn<Transaction, String> from;
23    @FXML
24    private TableColumn<Transaction, String> to;
25    @FXML
26    private TableColumn<Transaction, Integer> value;
27    @FXML
28    private TableColumn<Transaction, String> timestamp;
29    @FXML
30    private TableColumn<Transaction, String> signature;
31    @FXML
32    private BorderPane borderPane;
33    @FXML
34    private TextField eCoins;
35    @FXML
36    private TextArea publicKey;
37

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You will recall how in the “MainWindow.fxml” section we added fx:id

references for the fields in our controller class to some of our elements.
Now it’s time to create those fields. All the classes for these fields come
from the javafx package, which is included in your Java SDK. We will need
to annotate each element with the @FXML tag and name each field with the
same name as our fx:id reference. If done properly, an icon next to the line
number will appear, and if clicked, it will take you to the exact place in your
FXML file where the field is referenced. Also make sure that the classes for
our fields correspond to the types of elements we picked in our FXML file.
Now let’s move on to our following code snippet where we will talk
about our initialize() method for the controller:

38    public void initialize() {

39        Base64.Encoder encoder = Base64.getEncoder();
40        from.setCellValueFactory(
41              new PropertyValueFactory<>("fromFX"));
42        to.setCellValueFactory(
43              new PropertyValueFactory<>("toFX"));
44        value.setCellValueFactory(
45              new PropertyValueFactory<>("value"));
46        signature.setCellValueFactory(
47              new PropertyValueFactory<>("signatureFX"));
48        timestamp.setCellValueFactory(
49              new PropertyValueFactory<>("timestamp"));
50        eCoins.setText(BlockchainData.getInstance()
                .getWalletBallanceFX());
51        publicKey.setText(encoder.encodeToString(
              WalletData.getInstance().getWallet()
              .getPublicKey().getEncoded()));

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52        tableview.setItems(BlockchainData
              .getInstance().getTransactionLedgerFX());
53        tableview.getSelectionModel().select(0);
54    }
55

On line 39 we initialize our Base64 encoder. On lines 40–49 we are

creating cell value factories for our table columns. In other words, we
reference the values from the fields of the class that our table view contains
to be displayed in the appropriate columns. On line 50, we set the coins
balance to be displayed. Here you will notice that we are using methods
from our service layer to achieve this, which we will explain in detail in
our next chapter. Line 51 uses the Base64 encoder to encode our public
key, which we retrieve using our service layer classes, as a byte array and
change it into a string to display it. On line 52 we retrieve the transactions
we want to display by using the service layer method BlockchainData
.getInstance().getTransactionLedgerFX() and then set them in our
tableview to get displayed. Lastly, line 53 selects our first transaction by
default.
Let’s look at our final code snippet and explain the remaining
methods:

56    @FXML
57    public void toNewTransactionController() {
58        Dialog<ButtonType> newTransactionController =
             new Dialog<>();
59        newTransactionController.initOwner(borderPane
            .getScene().getWindow());
60        FXMLLoader fxmlLoader = new FXMLLoader();
61        fxmlLoader.setLocation(getClass().getResource(
               "../View/AddNewTransactionWindow.fxml"));

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62        try {
63            newTransactionController.getDialogPane()
                   .setContent(fxmlLoader.load());
64        } catch (IOException e) {
65            System.out.println("Cant load dialog");
66            e.printStackTrace();
67            return;
68        }
69        newTransactionController.getDialogPane()
              .getButtonTypes().add(ButtonType.FINISH);
70        Optional<ButtonType> result =
                          newTransactionController.showAndWait();
71        if (result.isPresent() ) {
72            tableview.setItems(BlockchainData.getInstance()
                 .getTransactionLedgerFX());
73            eCoins.setText(BlockchainData.getInstance()
                  .getWalletBallanceFX());
74        }
75    }
76
77    @FXML
78    public void refresh() {
79        tableview.setItems(BlockchainData.getInstance()
            .getTransactionLedgerFX());
80        tableview.getSelectionModel().select(0);
81        eCoins.setText(BlockchainData.getInstance()
            .getWalletBallanceFX());
82    }
83
84    @FXML
85    public void handleExit() {

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86        BlockchainData.getInstance().setExit(true);
87        Platform.exit();
88    }
89 }
90

You will notice that, just like our fields, all of our methods are methods
we referenced in our associated FXML file, which means we need to
annotate them with the @FXML tag also.

Important!  It’s a great practice to keep the controller classes

populated only with fields and methods that are used by the
associated view. Any other computations or methods that might be
required should be called from and handled by your service layer.

Let’s start with our first method, toNewTransactionController(),

on line 57. If you recall, we associated this method with our MenuItem
named Make Transaction on the On Action field. This means that
once we click the menu item, this method will run. What we want from
this method is to initiate a new dialog and display the contents of our
AddNewTransactionController.fxml file in it. Lines 58–68 achieve this.
Line 69 will create a FINISH button, and line 70 will create a listener where
it waits until it’s clicked. Lines 71–74 refresh our transactions list and coins
balance once the FINISH button is clicked.
On lines 78–83 we have our refresh() method, which is referenced
in our refresh button. In other words, once our refresh button is clicked, it
activates the refresh method, which uses our service layer to refresh our
transaction and balance values.
Lastly our handleExit() method on line 87 sets a Boolean that will
trigger all the parallel threads to exit their loops and finish, and line 88 tells
our UI thread to finish.

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4.3.2  AddNewTransactionController
Let’s look at our second controller’s code in
AddNewTransactionController.fxml, as shown in the following snippet:

1  package com.company.Controller;
2
3  import com.company.Model.Transaction;
4  import com.company.ServiceData.BlockchainData;
5  import com.company.ServiceData.WalletData;
6  import javafx.fxml.FXML;
7  import javafx.scene.control.TextField;
8
9  import java.security.GeneralSecurityException;
10 import java.security.Signature;
11 import java.util.Base64;
12
13 public class AddNewTransactionController {
14
15    @FXML
16    private TextField toAddress;
17    @FXML
18    private TextField value;
19
20    @FXML
21    public void createNewTransaction()
           throws GeneralSecurityException {
22        Base64.Decoder decoder = Base64.getDecoder();
23        Signature signing =
                   Signature.getInstance("SHA256withDSA");
24        Integer ledgerId = BlockchainData.getInstance()
               .getTransactionLedgerFX().get(0).getLedgerId();

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25        byte[] sendB = decoder.decode(toAddress.getText());

26        Transaction transaction =
                new Transaction(WalletData.getInstance()
27                .getWallet(),sendB ,Integer.parseInt(
                        value.getText()), ledgerId, signing);
28        BlockchainData.getInstance()
                .addTransaction(transaction,false);
29        BlockchainData.getInstance()
                .addTransactionState(transaction);
30    }
31 }

As you can see, it follows a similar design pattern. It contains

only fields and methods referenced in the view and annotates them
appropriately. Let’s explain the code in the createNewTransaction()
method. Lines 22 and 23 instantiate objects from our helper classes.
Line 24 retrieves the current ledgerId at the time of clicking the button.
On line 25 we use our Base64 object to convert our address from a string
back into a byte array so that lines 26 and 27 can use it to create a new
transaction. On line 28 we call on our service layer to add this transaction
to the current block in the database. On line 29 we call on our service layer
to adjust the current application state to include this transaction.

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4.4  Summary
In this chapter, we covered how to create our front-end UI with its
corresponding controllers. We learned how to use Scene Builder to create
quick mock-ups of our scenes and create references for the back end. We
learned how to create controller classes and how to design them properly.
This is a small recap of what concepts we covered so far:

• Creation of FXML files using Scene Builder

• Creation of object and method references between the

front and back ends of our application

• Creation of controller classes using java and javafx

• Setting up the Base64 external library encoder

and its use

• Design of controller classes with separation of

concerns in mind

• Creating dialog panes in javafx

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CHAPTER 5

Setting Up the Network

and Multithreading

“Networked” by Filip Rizov

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 103
S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_5
Chapter 5 Setting Up the Network and Multithreading

This chapter will cover creating our network layer; we will explain the
creation and functionality of each of our multiple threads and how they
fit into our application. Here we will explain the need for each thread
and how some of them are used to create a peer-to-peer network where
we transfer blockchain data and reach block consensus. In this chapter,
we will be using the standard Java and Javafx libraries, which will help
you learn every detail of the implementation. Before starting with this
chapter, if you are unfamiliar with the topic of Java threads, you can find a
quick tutorial that will help you grasp the basic concepts at https://www.
javatpoint.com/thread-­concept-­in-­java.

5.1  UI Thread

Since in our previous chapter we talked about the creation of our UI, let’s
start first with our UI thread. The object of the UI thread is for it to load
the UI and then wait and listen for any user interaction. To make our
UI responsive, our UI thread will need to be actively listening for user
input. To allow the UI thread to wait and listen, we will have to move any
continuous operations such as mining or sending requests to peers into
other threads. This thread is fairly simple, and it mostly contains some
standard boilerplate code from the javafx package. Let’s look at the
following code snippet:

1  package com.company.Threads;
2
3  import javafx.application.Application;
4  import javafx.fxml.FXMLLoader;
5  import javafx.scene.Parent;
6  import javafx.scene.Scene;
7  import javafx.stage.Stage;
8

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9  import java.io.IOException;
10
11 public class UI extends Application {
12
13    @Override
14    public void start(Stage stage) {
15        Parent root = null;
16        try {
17            root = FXMLLoader.load(getClass()
              .getResource("../View/MainWindow.fxml"));
18        } catch (IOException e) {
19            e.printStackTrace();
20        }
21        stage.setTitle("E-Coin");
22        stage.setScene(new Scene(root, 900, 700));
23        stage.show();
24    }
25 }

Since we will be running the javafx application stage object in

this thread, we will actually extend the Application class thread from
the javafx.application package instead of the standard Thread class
from the java.lang library. In this thread, we just need to override the
start method and insert the rest of the logic inside it. The stage object
will be passed from our main ECoin thread. On line 17, we set the root
path by using the relative folder path from the location of our UI thread
to the location of the first screen we want to see, which in our case is
MainWindow.fxml. Lines 21–23 are used to set and display the initial
scene of the UI. The location of our UI and all the other threads are in the
Threads folder, as shown in Figure 5-1.

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Figure 5-1.  The Threads folder

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5.2  Mining Thread

The object of our mining thread is for it to handle all the mining
operations of the application. It will need to run continuously as long
as our application is running and make sure new blocks are created at
the appropriate interval. Also, since we will be using mining points as
a method of achieving block consensus, this thread will also need to
keep track of the points. Our mining thread will first check if we have a
blockchain that is current and up-to-date, and then it will initiate the
mining of a new block at a precise interval. This thread will loop every two
seconds continuously.
Let’s look at the code of our MiningThread class in our next code
snippet:

1  package com.company.Threads;
2
3  import com.company.ServiceData.BlockchainData;
4
5  import java.time.LocalDateTime;
6  import java.time.ZoneOffset;
7
8  public class MiningThread extends Thread {
9
10    @Override
11    public void run() {
12        while (true) {
13            long lastMinedBlock = LocalDateTime.parse(
                 BlockchainData.getInstance()
14                   .getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                     .getTimeStamp())
.toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset.UTC);

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15            if ((lastMinedBlock + BlockchainData

                         .getTimeoutInterval()) <
                         LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC)) {
16                System.out.println("BlockChain is too old for
                         mining! Update it from peers");
17            } else if ( ((lastMinedBlock + BlockchainData
                         .getMiningInterval()) - LocalDateTime
.now().toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset
.UTC)) > 0 ) {
18                System.out.println("BlockChain is current,
mining will commence in " +
19                      ((lastMinedBlock + BlockchainData
                            .getMiningInterval()) -
LocalDateTime.now()
.toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset.UTC) ) +
" seconds");
20            } else {
21                System.out.println("MINING NEW BLOCK");
22                    BlockchainData.getInstance().mineBlock();
23                    System.out.println(BlockchainData
                         .getInstance().getWalletBallanceFX());
24            }
25            System.out.println(LocalDateTime
                  .parse(BlockchainData.getInstance()
26                .getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                  .getTimeStamp()).toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset.UTC));
27            try {
28                Thread.sleep(2000);
29                if (BlockchainData.getInstance()
                        .isExit()) { break; }

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30                BlockchainData.getInstance().setMiningPoints(
                        BlockchainData.getInstance()
                       .getMiningPoints() + 2);
31            } catch (InterruptedException e) {
32                e.printStackTrace();
33            }
34        }
35    }
36 }

Our MiningThread class extends the Thread class from the java.
lang package. We are overriding the run() method to set the logic that
this thread will run on. On line 12 we are setting a while loop with a true
parameter, which means we will be repeating the actions of this method
as long as our application is running. On lines 13 and 14 we are setting a
field with the value of the date when we mined our last block in seconds.
For this purpose we are using the BlockchainData class, which is part of
our service layer that we explain how to create in our next chapter. In order
not to burden the code, our application won’t handle different time zones;
therefore, we will be using the standard ZoneOffset.UTC constant. Our first
if statement on line 15 checks to see if more than 65 seconds (the timeout
interval we have set up in our BlockchainData class that we will cover in
Chapter 6) have passed since our last mined block. This will mean that our
blockchain is too old, so there is no point in trying to mine it until we get
an up-to-date version. Therefore, in this case, we print the message on line
16 in the console. If our first if statement is false, then on line 17 our else
if statement checks to see if less than 60 seconds (the mining interval
also covered in Chapter 6) have passed since the last mined block. If this
is true, then we will print to the console the time remaining until we get to
60 seconds. If we reach our else statement on line 20, that means we are
in that time window between 60 and 65 seconds since our last mined block
and it’s time to mine (create) another. Line 22 uses the service layer again

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to call a method to mine another block, and line 23 is used to print our new
wallet balance to the console by using the service layer again. On lines 25
and 26, regardless of the outcome of the previous control flow statements,
we print out the time of our last mined block to the console just for clarity.
Since there is no point in this thread to loop as fast as it can on line 28, we
call the thread to sleep for two seconds, which effectively makes this thread
repeat every two seconds. We will set the rate of acquiring mining points
to be one point per second; therefore, on line 29 we will add two mining
points for each two seconds we wait.

EXERCISE 5-1

Try to come up with an even more efficient way of looping this thread.

Hint Try using the Thread.sleep method in multiple places with

different times.

Note  Make sure to maintain the same rate of acquiring

mining points.

5.3  P2P Network Threads

Our next subsections will explain the classes that will create the threads for
our peer-to-peer network to run. For us to create a peer-to-peer network,
we will need our application to both act as a client and send requests to
other peers and act as a server where it listens for requests from other
peers and serves them. Let’s start first with our PeerClient class thread.

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 Chapter 5 Setting Up the Network and Multithreading

For the purposes of our book, we won’t be exposing our network to the
Internet due to security concerns; instead, we will set different local ports
to act as if they are different peers on our network.

5.3.1  PeerClient Thread

Our PeerClient thread will cycle through a predetermined list of peers and
try to share our blockchain with them. Let’s look at our next code snippet:

1  package com.company.Threads;
2
3  import com.company.Model.Block;
4  import com.company.ServiceData.BlockchainData;
5
6  import java.io.IOException;
7  import java.io.ObjectInputStream;
8  import java.io.ObjectOutputStream;
9  import java.net.Socket;
10 import java.net.SocketTimeoutException;
11 import java.util.LinkedList;
12 import java.util.Queue;
13 import java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentLinkedQueue;
14
15 public class PeerClient extends Thread {
16
private Queue<Integer> queue = new ConcurrentLinkedQueue<>();
17    
18
19    public PeerClient() {
20        this.queue.add(6001);
21        this.queue.add(6002);
22    }
23

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Before we override the run() method, we have a queue field that will
be populated with the port numbers of the peers we want to connect to. As
you can see on lines 19–21, we use the constructor to populate our queue
with a few predetermined port numbers. We mentioned before that we
will be using our local ports as peers. This means that instead of changing
the IP address to connect to different peers, we will be using our local IP
address 127.0.0.1 and instead change the local ports to which we connect.

EXERCISE 5-2

Try to use what we have learned so far to create a database table to store the
list of ports instead of having them hard-coded here.

For extra points: Try using the init() method from our ECoin class to set
everything up programmatically instead of manually doing it with the SQLite
browser.

Let’s move on to the next code snippet where we explore the run()
method of this thread:

24    @Override
25    public void run() {
26        while (true) {
27            try (Socket socket = new Socket("127.0.0.1",
                   queue.peek())) {
28                System.out.println("Sending blockchain object on
                   port: " + queue.peek());
29                queue.add(queue.poll());
30                socket.setSoTimeout(5000);
31

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32                ObjectOutputStream objectOutput =
                        new ObjectOutputStream(
                        socket.getOutputStream());
33                ObjectInputStream objectInput =
                        new ObjectInputStream(
                        socket.getInputStream());
34
35                LinkedList<Block> blockChain = BlockchainData
                       .getInstance().getCurrentBlockChain();
36                objectOutput.writeObject(blockChain);
37
38                LinkedList<Block> returnedBlockchain =
                       (LinkedList<Block>) objectInput
                       .readObject();
39                System.out.println(" RETURNED BC LedgerId = " +
                       returnedBlockchain.getLast()
                       .getLedgerId()  +
40                       " Size= " + returnedBlockchain.getLast()
                       .getTransactionLedger().size());
41                BlockchainData.getInstance()
                       .getBlockchainConsensus(
returnedBlockchain);
42                Thread.sleep(2000);
43
44            } catch (SocketTimeoutException e) {
45                System.out.println("The socket timed out");
46                queue.add(queue.poll());
47            } catch (IOException e) {
48                System.out.println("Client Error: " +
                        e.getMessage() + " -- Error on port: " +
queue.peek());
49                queue.add(queue.poll());

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} catch (InterruptedException |
50            
ClassNotFoundException e) {
51                e.printStackTrace();
52                queue.add(queue.poll());
53            }
54        }
55    }
56 }

Since we intend to constantly contact other peers and share our

blockchain, we loop this thread in a continuous while loop just like
our mining thread. Let’s look at our try with resources first. We start by
instantiating a socket with our local IP and the first port number in our
queue. Next we print out a message in our console just to log the action,
and on line 29 we move our port number that we used to instantiate
this socket to the end of the queue. On the next line we also set a socket
timeout. On lines 32 and 33 we instantiate our ObjectOutputStream and
ObjectInputStream objects. We’ll basically use the methods supplied
by these objects to send our blockchain and then receive a response
blockchain. On line 35 we use our service layer methods to get our
blockchain object, and on the next line we use objectOutput to send our
blockchain object to our peer. At this point, the blockchain we sent will
be checked and compared by our peer with his local blockchain. When
that process is done, our peer will send back the winning blockchain
according to his consensus method. We retrieve this blockchain using
our objectInput on line 38. However, since we don’t really trust our
peer, we run it through our consensus algorithm on the next line. Any
peer can change the application on his local machine to try to send false
information. That’s why we run our consensus algorithm to validate the
blockchain that we have received before, assuming it comes from a good
actor. This way the good actors will keep spreading and extending the
correct blockchain while stopping any attempts to share a false blockchain.

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We will go into detail and explain our consensus algorithm and the
steps we undertake in validating blockchains in the next chapter when
we talk about the service layer. On line 40 we make our thread sleep for
two seconds before looping again and attempting to connect to the next
peer. Lastly in this method it’s also important to look at our catch blocks.
So far we send the port number to the back of the queue only after we
successfully connect to the peer. However, in case we fail to connect to this
peer, we also include statements in our catch blocks that send the current
port number to the back of the queue. This makes sure we don’t get stuck
trying to connect to a single peer.

Important! Remember that no peer should trust another.

5.3.2  PeerServer Thread

Now it’s time to look at the side that responds to the requests of other
peers. The PeerServer thread listens on a certain port for incoming client
requests from the other peers’ PeerClient threads. In our implementation,
we will open a separate PeerRequestThread for each incoming request.
This will allow us to deal with multiple requests at once. Let’s look at the
following code snippet:

1  package com.company.Threads;
2
3
4  import java.io.IOException;
5  import java.net.ServerSocket;
6
7

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8  public class PeerServer extends Thread {

9
10    private ServerSocket serverSocket;
11    public PeerServer(Integer socketPort) throws IOException {
12        this.serverSocket = new ServerSocket(socketPort);
13    }
14
15    @Override
16    public void run() {
17        while (true) {
18            try {
19                new PeerRequestThread(
                        serverSocket.accept()).start();
20            } catch (IOException ex) {
21                ex.printStackTrace();
22            }
23        }
24    }
25 }

On lines 10 to 12 we declare a ServerSocket and set up our constructor

to assign the socketPort for our server. This is the port on which our
server will listen to requests. Inside our run() method we set a continuous
cycle where for each request that arrives at our server socket we create a
new PeerRequestThread to handle that request. This way our server thread
will always be available for new incoming requests.

5.4  PeerRequestThread
The PeerRequestThread handles each specific request that arrives at our
peer. Let’s look at the following code snippet and explain how it works:

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1 package com.company.Threads;
2
3
4  import com.company.Model.Block;
5  import com.company.ServiceData.BlockchainData;
6
7  import java.io.IOException;
8  import java.io.ObjectInputStream;
9  import java.io.ObjectOutputStream;
10 import java.net.Socket;
11 import java.util.LinkedList;
12
13
14 public class PeerRequestThread extends Thread {
15
16    private Socket socket;
17
18    public PeerRequestThread(Socket socket) {
19        this.socket = socket;
20    }
21
22    @Override
23    public void run() {
24        try {
25
26            ObjectOutputStream objectOutput = new
                  ObjectOutputStream(socket
                              .getOutputStream());
27            ObjectInputStream objectInput = new
                        ObjectInputStream(socket
                              .getInputStream());
28

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Chapter 5 Setting Up the Network and Multithreading

29            LinkedList<Block> recievedBC = (LinkedList<Block>)

                              objectInput.readObject();
30            System.out.println("LedgerId = " +
                  recievedBC.getLast().getLedgerId() +
31                " Size= " + recievedBC.getLast()
                  .getTransactionLedger().size());
32            objectOutput.writeObject(BlockchainData
                  .getInstance().getBlockchainConsensus(
                  recievedBC));
33        } catch (IOException | ClassNotFoundException ex) {
34            ex.printStackTrace();
35        }
36    }
37 }

We need to declare a socket and a constructor that will accept a socket

from the PeerServer class as this thread is created. This socket is the link
to the peer that sent the request. Our run() method is simple; on lines
26 and 27 we instantiate ObjectOutputStream and ObjectInputStream
objects using the socket we received from the PeerServer. Recall that
in our PeerClient class we are sending a LinkedList<Block> object
in the request that contains the blockchain of that peer. On line 29 we
use our objectInput class to instantiate the sent blockchain and name
it receivedBC. Lines 30 and 31 simply log some information from the
receivedBC. Lastly, on line 32, we use the objectOutput to send back the
winning blockchain after we run the receivedBC through our blockchain
consensus algorithm. You will notice that the method we call from the
service layer is the same method we called in the PeerClient class when
we received the response. In other words, when it comes to verifying
incoming blockchains and reaching consensus between that one and
the local one, the algorithm we use is ultimately the same regardless of
whether it comes as a request or is received as a response.

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 Chapter 5 Setting Up the Network and Multithreading

5.5  Summary
In this chapter, we covered the creation of multiple threads that will allow
our application to run responsively and uninterrupted. We learned how to
use sockets to send and receive requests to other peers. We learned what
elements are required to form a peer-to-peer network. We learned how
to run the UI of our application, and we learned how to set up a mining
subroutine. This is a small recap of what concepts we covered so far:

• Creating threads

• Using threads to handle different operations that need

to run in parallel

• Creating and using network sockets

• Setting up network client and server threads

• Designing a peer-to-peer network

• Using the javafx application thread

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CHAPTER 6

Service Layer

“Layered” by Filip Rizov

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 121

S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_6
Chapter 6 Service Layer

This chapter will cover creating our service layer that will provide
the functionality to everything covered in the previous chapters. In
this chapter, we will finally implement all the methods that we briefly
mentioned in our previous chapters. This chapter will most likely be the
most complex one to grasp so far since it will try to tie together all the
separate elements of our app. We recommend a solid familiarity with the
previous chapters before continuing with this one.

6.1  WalletData
In this section, we will explain our WalletData class. It is used to store our
wallet while our application is running and to make it available to every
other part of our application. Any additional functionality of the wallet
should be implemented through this class.
For now let’s explain the following code:

1  package com.company.ServiceData;
2
3  import com.company.Model.Wallet;
4
5  import java.security.KeyFactory;
6  import java.security.NoSuchAlgorithmException;
7  import java.security.PrivateKey;
8  import java.security.PublicKey;
9  import java.security.spec.InvalidKeySpecException;
10 import java.security.spec.PKCS8EncodedKeySpec;
11 import java.security.spec.X509EncodedKeySpec;
12 import java.sql.*;
13
14 public class WalletData {
15

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

16    private Wallet wallet;

17    //singleton class
18    private static WalletData instance;
19
20    static {
21        instance = new WalletData();
22    }
23
24    public static WalletData getInstance() {
25        return instance;
26    }

First we start with the regular class imports. Then, since we will be
storing our wallet in this class, we have a field of the Wallet class on line 16.
Now because we want the same wallet to be available throughout the
application we will create this class as a singleton class. Singleton is a basic
design pattern, and it means that this class will be present only as a single
object in memory and that we won’t be able to instantiate any additional
objects. This means there will be no chance of wallet duplicates all over our
application. We make our class a singleton class by having a static field of
our WalletData class, as shown on line 18, and then initiating it statically,
as shown on lines 20–22. The last thing to mention is the getInstance()
method. Instead of trying to instantiate new objects, we use this method to
gain access to the class. Let’s look at our next code snippet and explain the
rest of the code contained in this class:

27
28    //This will load your wallet from the database.
29    public void loadWallet() throws SQLException,
            NoSuchAlgorithmException, InvalidKeySpecException {

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

30        Connection walletConnection = DriverManager

.getConnection(
31                "jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\spiro\\IdeaProjects\\
                  e-coin\\db\\wallet.db");
32        Statement walletStatment = walletConnection
                 .createStatement();
33        ResultSet resultSet;
34        resultSet = walletStatment.executeQuery(
                 " SELECT * FROM WALLET ");
35        KeyFactory keyFactory = KeyFactory.getInstance("DSA");
36        PublicKey pub2 = null;
37        PrivateKey prv2 = null;
38        while (resultSet.next()) {
39            pub2 = keyFactory.generatePublic(
40                    new X509EncodedKeySpec(resultSet
                 .getBytes("PUBLIC_KEY")));
41            prv2 = keyFactory.generatePrivate(
42                    new PKCS8EncodedKeySpec(resultSet
                 .getBytes("PRIVATE_KEY")));
43        }
44        this.wallet = new Wallet(pub2, prv2);
45    }
46
47    public Wallet getWallet() {
48        return wallet;
49    }
50 }
51

First we have our loadWallet() method. We use it as the name suggests

to load our wallet from the database. If you recall, we use this method in
our application’s init() method in the ECoin class to load our wallet.

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

Lines 30–34 are regular JDBC code for establishing a connection to the
database where we keep our wallet keys and executing a select query to
retrieve them. On line 35, we initiate our KeyFactory helper class. It’s a class
from the java.security package, and it will help us create the PublicKey
and PrivateKey objects. On lines 36 and 37 we declare the PublicKey and
PrivateKey objects. On lines 39 and 40 we use the KeyFactory helper class
to generate a public key by inserting the byte array that we retrieve from
the database. However, since the generatePublic(KeySpec ks) accepts
a KeySpec object instead of byte array, we have to create a KeySpec object
by constructing it from the X509EncodedKeySpec constructor. This class’s
parent class implements the KeySpec interface, which means we can use it
to generate our public key, but also this class’s constructor accepts our byte
array, as shown in Figure 6-1.

Figure 6-1.  X509EncodedKeySpec Class

Lines 41 and 42 generate the private key for us using a similar method
and the PKCS8EncodedKeySpec class. It also accepts a byte array and builds
an object that implements the KeySpec interface, as shown in Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-2.  PKCS8EncodedKeySpec class

Both of these classes come from the java.security package, which is a

great asset since we can use them right away. The last thing that we do is on
line 44 where we create a new wallet object using our public and private keys
we retrieved from the database and assign it to the wallet field in our class.

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

Our last method in this class is the getWallet() method, as shown on

line 47. It’s a simple getter method that we use to get the wallet object to
the rest of our application.

6.2  BlockchainData
This is the biggest and most complex class in our application. Here we can
find all the functionality regarding our blockchain. Let’s start by showing
all the imports in the next code snippet for reference:

1  package com.company.ServiceData;
2
3  import com.company.Model.Block;
4  import com.company.Model.Transaction;
5  import com.company.Model.allet;
6  import javafx.collections.FXCollections;
7  import javafx.collections.ObservableList;
8  import sun.security.provider.DSAPublicKeyImpl;
9
10 import java.security.*;
11 import java.sql.*;
12 import java.time.LocalDateTime;
13 import java.time.ZoneOffset;
14 import java.util.ArrayList;
15 import java.util.Arrays;
16 import java.util.Comparator;
17 import java.util.LinkedList;
18

Next let’s go over the fields used in this class, as shown in our next code
snippet:

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

18
19 public class BlockchainData {
20
21     private ObservableList<Transaction> newBlockTransactionsFX;
22     private ObservableList<Transaction> newBlockTransactions;
23     private LinkedList<Block> currentBlockChain =
                  new LinkedList<>();
24     private Block latestBlock;
25     private boolean exit = false;
26     private int miningPoints;
27     private static final int TIMEOUT_INTERVAL = 65;
28     private static final int MINING_INTERVAL = 60;
29     //helper class.
30     private Signature signing = Signature
                  .getInstance("SHA256withDSA");
31
32     //singleton class
33     private static BlockchainData instance;
34

On line 21 we have an ObservableList that contains Transaction

objects. We are going to use this list only for displaying its contents on
our front end. Next on line 22 we have an ObservableList that contains
Transaction objects as well. This list will represent the current ledger
of our blockchain. All the operations regarding our current ledger will
be performed on this list. Our previous list will always be an exact copy
of this list. On line 23 we finally have our current blockchain, which
is represented as a LinkedList containing Block objects. Line 24 will
represent our latest block that we are trying to add to the blockchain. On
line 25 we have an exit Boolean that helps the exit command for our
front-end work. Next on line 26 we have the mining points integer field that
will help us keep track of our mining points that are used in our consensus

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

algorithm. On lines 27 and 28 we have our mining and blockchain timeout

interval constants. On line 30 we have the Signature helper class that
helps us create signatures. On line 33 we have our BlockchainData as a
static object, which helps us in making this a singleton class just like the
WalletData class.
This is just a quick summary of the class fields; you will see how each
one is used in more detail as we encounter them throughout the rest of
this class.
In our next code snippet you will see the rest of the static initializer, the
constructor, and the getInstance() method that we will use to create and
access this singleton class:

34
35     static {
36         try {
37             instance = new BlockchainData();
38         } catch (NoSuchAlgorithmException e) {
39             e.printStackTrace();
40         }
41     }
42
43     public BlockchainData() throws NoSuchAlgorithmException {
44         newBlockTransactions = FXCollections
                .observableArrayList();
45         newBlockTransactionsFX = FXCollections
                .observableArrayList();
46     }
47
48     public static BlockchainData getInstance() {
49         return instance;
50     }
51

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

If you recall, we explained what these elements do in our previous

section when we talked about the WalletData class. Let’s look at the
following code snippet:

51
52     Comparator<Transaction> transactionComparator = Comparator
                 .comparing(Transaction::getTimestamp);
53     public ObservableList<Transaction>
getTransactionLedgerFX() {
54         newBlockTransactionsFX.clear();
55         newBlockTransactions.sort(transactionComparator);
56         newBlockTransactionsFX.addAll(newBlockTransactions);
57         return FXCollections.observableArrayList(
                  newBlockTransactionsFX);
58     }
59

On lines 53 to 58 we have a simple method that is used for displaying

our current transaction ledger. It simply transfers the transactions from
our current ledger to an ObservableList that we can display on our UI. We
do this simply to maintain a separation of concerns. The only other thing
to mention is the transactionComparator on line 52, which sorts our
transactions at the time of creation.
Let’s move on to the next code snippet:

60     public String getWalletBallanceFX() {

61         return getBalance(currentBlockChain,
                  newBlockTransactions,
62                WalletData.getInstance().getWallet()
                  .getPublicKey()).toString();
63     }
64

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

65     private Integer getBalance(LinkedList<Block> blockChain,

66                                ObservableList<Transaction>
                   currentLedger, PublicKey walletAddress) {
67         Integer balance = 0;
68         for (Block block : blockChain) {
69             for (Transaction transaction : block
                   .getTransactionLedger()) {
70                 if (Arrays.equals(transaction
                       .getFrom(), walletAddress.getEncoded())) {
71                     balance -= transaction.getValue();
72                 }
73                 if (Arrays.equals(transaction
                       .getTo(), walletAddress.getEncoded())) {
74                     balance += transaction.getValue();
75                 }
76             }
77         }
78         for (Transaction transaction : currentLedger) {
79             if (Arrays.equals(transaction
                   .getFrom(), walletAddress.getEncoded())) {
80                 balance -= transaction.getValue();
81             }
82         }
83         return balance;
84     }
85

Let’s start with the getBalance method on line 65 since it’s used in the
method on line 60. This method goes through a given blockchain and a
current ledger with potential transactions for the new block and finds the
balance for the given public address. This method is useful not only for
displaying the current balance but also for verifying if a certain address has

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

enough coins before sending them. On lines 65 and 66 we see the input
parameters we just mentioned. On lines 68 to 77 we go through each block
of the blockchain, and for each transaction we check whether the given
address is sending or receiving funds. We also adjust the price accordingly.
To prevent double spending we also need to subtract any funds we
are already trying to send that exist in the current transaction ledger.
Remember that double spending is a situation where the sender tries to
send his total funds multiple times, effectively multiplying his funds out
of thin air. This happens on lines 78–82. If you are wondering why we
don’t count incoming funds until they are put on the blockchain, it’s to
prevent any bugs where an invalid incoming transaction is created just so
that we can send the incoming funds before the consensus discovers and
invalidates the incoming transaction. Finally, on line 83, we return the
balance that we calculated.
Now if we go back to our first method on lines 60–63 we can see that
it simply calls our getBalance method and inputs the local blockchain,
the current ledger, and our wallet’s public address. This method is used
to retrieve our own current balance when we need it throughout the
application.
Let’s look at our next method displayed in the next code snippet:

86     private void verifyBlockChain(LinkedList<Block>

                    currentBlockChain) throws
                    GeneralSecurityException {
87         for (Block block : currentBlockChain) {
88             if (!block.isVerified(signing)) {
89                 throw new GeneralSecurityException(
                        "Block validation failed");
90             }
91             ArrayList<Transaction> transactions = block
                        .getTransactionLedger();

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

92             for (Transaction transaction : transactions) {

93                 if (!transaction.isVerified(signing)) {
94                     throw new GeneralSecurityException(
                              "Transaction validation failed");
95                 }
96             }
97         }
98     }

This is the method that actually checks the validity of each transaction
and each block. In this method we can finally see the isVerified methods
from the Block and Transaction classes in action and how they fit in our
application. If you need, feel free to go back to Chapter 2 and recall how
these methods worked. The method itself is simple: it goes through all
of the blocks and all of the transactions within each block and checks if
each one is valid. You can see further in our book that this method is used
to validate our own blockchain as well as validate a blockchain we have
received from other peers.
Now let’s move on to the next code snippet:

public void addTransactionState(Transaction transaction) {

99     
100        newBlockTransactions.add(transaction);
101        newBlockTransactions.sort(transactionComparator);
102    }
103
104    public void addTransaction(Transaction transaction,
           boolean blockReward) throws GeneralSecurityException {
105        try {
106            if (getBalance(currentBlockChain,
                   newBlockTransactions,
107                new DSAPublicKeyImpl(transaction.getFrom())
                   ) < transaction.getValue() && !blockReward) {
108                throw new GeneralSecurityException("Not enough

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

                   funds by sender to record transaction");

109            } else {
110                Connection connection = DriverManager
                   .getConnection
111                        ("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\spiro
                   \\IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\blockchain.db");
112
113                PreparedStatement pstmt;
pstmt = connection.prepareStatement("INSERT
114                
INTO TRANSACTIONS" +
115                        "(\"FROM\", \"TO\", LEDGER_ID, VALUE,
                            SIGNATURE, CREATED_ON) " +
116                        " VALUES (?,?,?,?,?,?) ");
117                pstmt.setBytes(1, transaction.getFrom());
118                pstmt.setBytes(2, transaction.getTo());
119                pstmt.setInt(3, transaction.getLedgerId());
120                pstmt.setInt(4, transaction.getValue());
121                
pstmt.setBytes(5, ­transaction.getSignature());
122                
pstmt.setString(6, transaction.getTimestamp());
123                pstmt.executeUpdate();
124
125                pstmt.close();
126                connection.close();
127            }
128        } catch (SQLException e) {
129            System.out.println("Problem with DB: " +
               e.getMessage());
130            e.printStackTrace();
131        }
132
133    }
134

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

On lines 99–102 you will find our addTransactionState

method. It’s a simple method that adds a given transaction into our
current transaction ledger and sorts it. If you recall, we have already
mentioned this method in our init() application method and in our
AddNewTransactionController class.
Now let’s look at the addTransaction method. The general idea of this
method as its name suggests is to add a new transaction to our ledger. This
method will take a Transaction object and a Boolean flag marking if it’s
a reward transaction for the miner or it’s a regular transaction. We’ll dive
deeper into where and how we use this reward transaction when we talk
about our mineBlock() method later in this chapter. One thing to note,
though, is that in our blockchain the reward transactions create new coins
and award them to the miner that mines that block, so we make sure to flag
this transactions in order to skip the coin balance check performed by our
getBalance method.

Important!  Note that different blockchains have different

implementations regarding if their total coins are capped or uncapped
and how they are rewarded to the miners. Our way is just one way of
doing it.

Let’s go back to our method and look at lines 106–109. You can notice
that we perform a check calling the getBalance method and check if
the sender has more coins than the transaction’s amount. This of course
makes sure we reject any transaction that tries to cheat and send more
money than the sender actually has. However, also notice the caveat at
the end where we use the reward transaction flag to skip this check if this
is a reward transaction. If we don’t do this, the reward transactions will
otherwise fail this check because the getBalance method will discover
that these coins appear out of thin air. Since this feature is intended in
order to reward miners, the need to skip the getBalance method when it

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

comes to reward transactions is by now apparent. Next in our method we

see that if the check to invalidate the transaction fails, then we move on
to actually add it to our ledger. Lines 110 until the end use JDBC to add
the transaction to our database as well. Remember that we have covered
similar operations using JDBC when we explained our application’s
init method in Chapter 3 in case you need to recall how this part of the
code works.

EXERCISE 6-1

If you are familiar with any ORM solutions like Hibernate, you can try to
implement it here to automatically add the transaction in the database instead
of doing it manually like we do in our addTransaction method.

Let’s move on to our next method loadTransactionLedger. This

method is used within the loadBlockchain() method as a means to load
the transaction ledger for each block from the database to the application.
Let’s look at the following code snippet:

171
172    private ArrayList<Transaction> loadTransactionLedger(
                        Integer ledgerID) throws SQLException {
173        ArrayList<Transaction> transactions = new ArrayList<>();
174        try {
175            Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection
176                    ("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\
                       spiro\\IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\
blockchain.db");
177            PreparedStatement stmt = connection.prepareStatement
178                    (" SELECT  * FROM TRANSACTIONS WHERE
                       LEDGER_ID = ?");

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

179            stmt.setInt(1, ledgerID);
180            ResultSet resultSet = stmt.executeQuery();
181            while (resultSet.next()) {
182                transactions.add(new Transaction(
183                        resultSet.getBytes("FROM"),
184                        resultSet.getBytes("TO"),
185                        resultSet.getInt("VALUE"),
186                        resultSet.getBytes("SIGNATURE"),
187                        resultSet.getInt("LEDGER_ID"),
188                        resultSet.getString("CREATED_ON")
189                ));
190            }
191            resultSet.close();
192            stmt.close();
193            connection.close();
194        } catch (SQLException e) {
195            e.printStackTrace();
196        }
197        return transactions;
198    }
199

This method retrieves and returns a list of Transaction objects from

the database. It takes an integer as a parameter, which signifies the ledger
ID that we use to retrieve only the transactions for the required ledger.
Lines 175 to 180 are standard JDBC where we establish a connection to the
database, create our statement, insert the ledger ID as part of the query
statement, and execute the query. Lines 181–190 cycle through the result
set, create a new transaction for each result, and add it to the transactions
ArrayList. The rest of the method is just closing connections and the
return statement, which returns the list of transactions we have just
retrieved from the database.

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

Now let’s go back to the loadBlockChain() method, which we briefly

mentioned when explaining the use of loadTransactionLedger. This
method is used whenever we want to load the whole blockchain from
our database and set up the state of the app accordingly. If you recall, this
method is used in the application’s init method, and also you will see it
used in a few cases later in this chapter when we talk about the consensus
algorithm. The method is quite large, so we will split it into the next two
code snippets:

135    public void loadBlockChain() {

136        try {
Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection
137            
138                    ("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\spiro\\
                        
IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\blockchain.db");
139            Statement stmt = connection.createStatement();
ResultSet resultSet = stmt.executeQuery(" SELECT *
140            
FROM BLOCKCHAIN ");
141            while (resultSet.next()) {
142                this.currentBlockChain.add(new Block(
143                        resultSet.getBytes("PREVIOUS_HASH"),
144                        resultSet.getBytes("CURRENT_HASH"),
145                        resultSet.getString("CREATED_ON"),
146                        resultSet.getBytes("CREATED_BY"),
147                        resultSet.getInt("LEDGER_ID"),
148                        resultSet.getInt("MINING_POINTS"),
149                        resultSet.getDouble("LUCK"),
150                        loadTransactionLedger(
                              resultSet.getInt("LEDGER_ID"))
151                ));
152            }
153

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Chapter 6 Service Layer

Lines 137–140 are pretty standard JDBC code. We set up the connection
to our database and create and execute our query to select everything from
the BLOCKCHAIN table. Next we cycle through the result set creating a new
Block object and adding it to the currentBlockChan field from this class.
One thing to note is line 150 where we use the loadTransactionLedger
method with the current ledger ID from the result set to retrieve the list of
transactions for this block and include it in the Block object’s constructor.
Let’s move on to the second part of this method:

153
154            latestBlock = currentBlockChain.getLast();
155            Transaction transaction = new Transaction(
                        new Wallet(),
156                     WalletData.getInstance().getWallet()
                        .getPublicKey().getEncoded(),
157                     100, latestBlock.getLedgerId() + 1,
                        signing);
158            newBlockTransactions.clear();
159            newBlockTransactions.add(transaction);
160            verifyBlockChain(currentBlockChain);
161            resultSet.close();
162            stmt.close();
163            connection.close();
} catch (SQLException | NoSuchAlgorithmException e) {
164        
165            System.out.println("Problem with DB: " +
                                  e.getMessage());
166            e.printStackTrace();
167        } catch (GeneralSecurityException e) {
168            e.printStackTrace();
169        }
170    }
171

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 Chapter 6 Service Layer

In this part of the method, we will update the state of the application
so that it works properly from this point onward. To achieve this, we will
need to change our latestBlock and newBlockTransactions fields. On
line 154 we set up the lastestBlock field by getting the last block from
our currentBlockChain list, which got filled up in the first part of this
method. Next, to set up our newBlocksTransactions list first, we create a
new reward transaction object on lines 155–157. Then we clear the list and
add the new transaction we just created. This is the reward transaction
for our future block. The last important line is line 160, where we can see
the verifyBlockChain method on the currentBlockChain we just loaded
from our database. This is an important step since it covers cases when we
import someone else’s database and we need to check its validity.
It’s time to go over the methods that constitute the mining
functionality. In our next code snippet, let’s look briefly at the
mineBlock() method.

200    public void mineBlock() {

201        try {
202            
finalizeBlock(WalletData.getInstance()
.getWallet());
203            addBlock(latestBlock);
} catch (SQLException | GeneralSecurityException e) {
204        
205            System.out.println("Problem with DB: " +
                                  e.getMessage());
206            e.printStackTrace();
207        }
208    }
209

Let’s first recall that this is the method we call in the MiningThread
class when it’s time to mine new block. This method simply calls the
methods finalizeBlock and addBlock. The finalizeBlock method

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performs the necessary steps to finish up the latest block and adds it to
our currentBlockChain list. Different miners can have different latest
(nonfinal) blocks with different transactions in them. The addBlock
method simply adds the block to the database.
Let’s start explaining the finalizeBlock method first, as shown in the
following code snippet:

209
210    private void finalizeBlock(Wallet minersWallet) throws
                    GeneralSecurityException, SQLException {
211        latestBlock = new Block(BlockchainData
                        .getInstance().currentBlockChain);
212        latestBlock.setTransactionLedger(new ArrayList<>(
                               newBlockTransactions));
213        latestBlock.setTimeStamp(LocalDateTime.now()
.toString());
214        latestBlock.setMinedBy(minersWallet.getPublicKey()
                                  .getEncoded());
215        latestBlock.setMiningPoints(miningPoints);
216        signing.initSign(minersWallet.getPrivateKey());
217        signing.update(latestBlock.toString().getBytes());
218        latestBlock.setCurrHash(signing.sign());
219        currentBlockChain.add(latestBlock);
220        miningPoints = 0;
221        //Reward transaction
222        latestBlock.getTransactionLedger()
                         .sort(transactionComparator);
223        addTransaction(latestBlock.getTransactionLedger()
                         .get(0), true);
Transaction transaction = new Transaction(new Wallet(),
224        
                 minersWallet.getPublicKey().getEncoded(),
225              100, latestBlock.getLedgerId() + 1, signing);

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226        newBlockTransactions.clear();
227        newBlockTransactions.add(transaction);
228    }
229

In this method, we start with preparing/finalizing our latestBlock.

On line 211 we create a new Block and pass it to latestBlock. On line
212, we add our newBlockTransactions to the ledger of the latestBlock.
On line 213, we set the timestamp to the current time. On line 214, we set
our own wallet address since we are trying to mine this block as minedBy.
On line 215, we set the current mining points we have accumulated. If
you need to recall how we accumulate mining points, you can revisit the
“Mining Thread” section in Chapter 5. By this point our latestBlock
contains all the data except for the signature, which in this case will be set
as the current hash. Let’s recall that this signature actually represents an
encoded value of all the data contained in our block. That is why we always
create the signature and set the current hash last. Once this is done, any
changes to the block will result in the block failing the verification since
our signature when decoded with our public key won’t match the present
data in the block.

Important! If you need more help in understanding how we

create and use the signature, revisit Chapter 2.

Next on line 219 we include the latestBlock into our

CurrentBlockChain since we have finalized it completely. Before we
finish this method, however, we need to set up a few more items. On
line 220, we reset our mining points to 0. On line 222, we add the reward
transaction of the block we just finalized to the database since until now
we have kept it only in the newBlockTransactions list, which we copied in
our lastestBlock. Once this is done, we create a new reward transaction

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object, we clear the newBlockTransactions list since it contains the old

transactions of the block we already finalized, and we add the new reward
transaction to our newBlockTransactions. The newBlockTransactions
list, preloaded with the next reward transaction, is now ready to get
filled up with new transactions until the next mining cycle. This reward
transaction is what the miner gets for successfully mining the next block.

EXERCISE 6-2

Adding a reward transaction and keeping track of it looks a bit burdensome

and redundant. Can you streamline the codebase so that we don’t have to
do this?

Hint  We all know that the block’s creator is the one getting
rewarded. Try tweaking the getBalance method to add an extra 100
coins for each block that the address in question has created. This
will remove the need for reward transaction to be added explicitly.

Now once we have finalized/mined our block, it’s time to add it to the
database as well. For this purpose, we mentioned that we use the addBlock
method. Let’s look at the following code snippet and explain it:

229
230    private void addBlock(Block block) {
231        try {
232            Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection
233                    ("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\spiro\\
                        IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\blockchain.db");
234            PreparedStatement pstmt;

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235            pstmt = connection.prepareStatement
236                    ("INSERT INTO BLOCKCHAIN(PREVIOUS_HASH,
                        CURRENT_HASH, LEDGER_ID, CREATED_ON," +
237                     " CREATED_BY, MINING_POINTS, LUCK)
                        VALUES (?,?,?,?,?,?,?) ");
238            pstmt.setBytes(1, block.getPrevHash());
239            pstmt.setBytes(2, block.getCurrHash());
240            pstmt.setInt(3, block.getLedgerId());
241            pstmt.setString(4, block.getTimeStamp());
242            pstmt.setBytes(5, block.getMinedBy());
243            pstmt.setInt(6, block.getMiningPoints());
244            pstmt.setDouble(7, block.getLuck());
245            pstmt.executeUpdate();
246            pstmt.close();
247            connection.close();
248        } catch (SQLException e) {
249            System.out.println("Problem with DB: " +
e.getMessage());
250            e.printStackTrace();
251        }
252    }
253

By now you should be well versed in executing JDBC queries. This

method accepts a single Block object parameter and uses it to create a new
entry inside our BLOCKCHAIN table in the database, which will represent
our latest mined block. The last thing to note is that this addBlock method
is also used in our next method that we are about to explain, which is
replaceBlockchainInDatabase.

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The need for this method arises when we need to replace our own
blockchain with a blockchain we have received from another peer. We will
cover these reasons when we go over the consensus algorithm right after
we explain this method first. Let’s look at the following code snippet:

254    
private void replaceBlockchainInDatabase(LinkedList<Block>
receivedBC) {
255        try {
Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection
256            
257                    ("jdbc:sqlite:C:\\Users\\spiro\\
                       IdeaProjects\\e-coin\\db\\blockchain.db");
258            Statement clearDBStatement = connection
                             .createStatement();
259            clearDBStatement.executeUpdate(" DELETE FROM
               BLOCKCHAIN ");
260            clearDBStatement.executeUpdate(" DELETE FROM
               TRANSACTIONS ");
261            clearDBStatement.close();
262            connection.close();
263            for (Block block : receivedBC) {
264                addBlock(block);
265                boolean rewardTransaction = true;
266                block.getTransactionLedger()
                        .sort(transactionComparator);
267                for (Transaction transaction : block
                       .getTransactionLedger()) {
268                    
addTransaction(transaction,
rewardTransaction);
269                    rewardTransaction = false;
270                }
271            }

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272        } catch (SQLException | GeneralSecurityException e) {

273            System.out.println("Problem with DB: " +
                                  e.getMessage());
274            e.printStackTrace();
275        }
276    }
277

This method accepts a LinkedList<Block> object parameter, which

represents a blockchain that we want to import into our database. The
method starts by establishing a connection to our database and executes
statements on lines 259 and 260 that clear the existing data in our tables.
On lines 263–271, we cycle through the blocks and their transactions of the
blockchain we want to import and call the addBlock and addTransaction
methods we explained earlier to write each one to the database.

EXERCISE 6-3

Reusing the addBlock and addTransaction methods in the

replaceBlockchainInDatabase method is not an efficient way of
importing the blockchain to the database. Each call to one of these methods
opens and closes a connection to the database. Can you write a more efficient
implementation that serves the same purpose?

6.2.1  Blockchain Consensus Protocol

Finally we have arrived to the method that executes the consensus
algorithm in our application. Before we start explaining the code, we need
to talk a little bit about blockchain consensus.

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Blockchain consensus, or, in other words, the network consensus

regarding the blockchain that each peer builds and shares, is at the heart
of this technology. The main problem that needs to be solved for the
consensus to be reached reliably each time is the so-called Byzantine
generals problem. The term takes its name from an allegory developed to
describe a situation in which, to avoid catastrophic failure of the system,
the system’s actors must agree on a concerted strategy, but some of these
actors are unreliable. In short, the byzantine generals problem goes like
this: a number of Byzantine generals surround an enemy city and are
trying to decide whether to attack or retreat. Whatever is decided, they
must all follow the same decision. The problem gets more complicated
by the fact that the generals are separated from each other, and they
communicate only through messages. Also, some generals might be
traitors and might try to spread misinformation to the other generals
regarding their intentions to create even more confusion.
Let’s circle back now and draw some parallels between the generals
problem and our blockchain. The generals in question regarding our
application will be the miners/peers. The need for consensus between
them is obvious here; otherwise we end up with many different useless
blockchains. Also, the ability of the good peers to discover and discard
attempts at tampering with the validity of the blockchain by bad actors is
mandatory. There is no use in reaching consensus on a blockchain filled
with inaccuracies by bad actors. This means we have to treat each peer as
potentially a bad actor and untrusted source.
To explore the many complexities and problems that consensus
solutions face, we decided to implement our own slightly modified version
of the bitcoin’s proof-of-work algorithm. Our solution is of course far
inferior to what bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies actually use, but we
think that it will serve as a better learning tool to grasp the problems that
consensus algorithms face.

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277
278    public LinkedList<Block> getBlockchainConsensus(
              LinkedList<Block> receivedBC) {
279        try {
280            //Verify the validity of the received blockchain.
281            verifyBlockChain(receivedBC);
282            //Check if we have received an identical blockchain.
283            if (!Arrays.equals(receivedBC.getLast()
                  .getCurrHash(), getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                  .getCurrHash())) {
284                if (checkIfOutdated(receivedBC) != null) {
285                    return getCurrentBlockChain();
286                } else {
287                    if (checkWhichIsCreatedFirst(receivedBC)
!= null) {
288                        return getCurrentBlockChain();
289                    } else {
290                        if (compareMiningPointsAndLuck(
                               receivedBC) != null) {
291                            return getCurrentBlockChain();
292                        }
293                    }
294                }
295                // if only the transaction ledgers are different
then combine them.
296            } else if (!receivedBC.getLast()
                      .getTransactionLedger().equals(
                      getCurrentBlockChain()
297                   .getLast().getTransactionLedger())) {
298                updateTransactionLedgers(receivedBC);
299                System.out.println("Transaction ledgers
updated");

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300                return receivedBC;
301            } else {
302                
System.out.println("blockchains are identical");
303            }
304        } catch (GeneralSecurityException e) {
305            e.printStackTrace();
306        }
307        return receivedBC;
308    }
309

Our getBlockchainConsensus method accepts a LinkedList<Block>

parameter, which will represent the blockchain that we have received from
a peer. We will be performing validation checks and several comparisons
between our local blockchain and the one we receive. First we will explain
the overall logic of the method and then dive into each method that we
still haven’t explained. On line 281 we start by verifying the validity of the
received blockchain. As we mentioned earlier, we don’t trust any peer, so
we always verify anything we get from them. If the method we received
fails our validation check, the story ends there. Our application throws
an exception, and we discard the received blockchain. If the received
blockchain is verified, then we move on with comparison. On line 283 we
perform our first comparison between our own method and the one we
received. Here we check if the current hash of each blockchain is an exact
match. This check will be true only if our blockchains match completely.
Let’s go over the case when our blockchains current hashes don’t match.
This means that both blockchains have different miners of the last
block. When this happens, it means that it’s time for us to perform some
consensus checks to determine which miner gets to mine the last block.

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Our first consensus check is to determine whether any of the

blockchains are outdated, meaning checking if they are older than a full
mining interval. We will explain the checkIfOutdated method in further
detail later; for now we will just mention its functionality. It simply
determines if any method is outdated and discards it. If the received one
is outdated, then we keep using ours. If ours is outdated, we discard ours
and use the received one from this point forward. If both are outdated,
then we do nothing regarding consensus, and we wait to receive an up-­
to-­date blockchain. If both are up-to-date, then we move on with the
consensus checks.
Our next check is on line 287 and runs the method
checkWhichIsCreatedFirst. This method is here to determine if both
blockchains have the same initial block. If they don’t, we will use the one
that got created first. Our next check on line 290 is reached when both
blockchains do have the same initial block. Here we run the method
compareMiningPointsAndLuck. By the time we reach this method we have
determined that the received blockchain is valid, and both blockchains
are up-to-date and identical until the last block. To determine which
blockchain’s last block we are going to use, we will check each blockchain’s
recorded mining points. In case of a tie, we will determine the outcome by
their recorded luck value, which is just a large random number.
Now let’s move back to line 283 and go over the case when the
blockchain’s current hashes are identical. This means that the miner
for the last block has already been determined in a previous run of
this method. Recall from Chapter 5 that we constantly try to share our
blockchain to other peers so this getBlockchainConsensus method gets
run repeatedly. So if our current hashes are identical, we move on to line
296. On line 296 we compare the transaction ledgers of the blockchains.
There are cases where we have determined the correct miner before we
get all the transactions that happened during that block. Let’s imagine a
case where peer 1, peer 2, and peer 3 are trying to share their blockchains
just after mining a new block. Peer 1 has the highest mining points, so

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we expect his blockchain to win the consensus checks with peer 2 and
peer 3. However, all the peers start with only the transactions they have
recorded on their blocks. First peer 1 shares his blockchain with peer
2, and peer 2 accepts peer 1’s last block but also adds his transactions
to the ones peer 2 already has. Next, peer 1 shares his blockchain with
peer 3 and the same thing happens. At this point, both peer 2 and peer 3
contain peer 1’s last block and his transactions. At this point, when peer
2 tries to share its blockchain with peer 3, they will both have the same
current hashes since they both have peer 1’s last block; however, peer 2
is missing peer 3’s transactions and vice versa. This is the point at which
the consensus algorithm reaches line 296 and checks their transaction
ledgers. Since their transaction ledgers won’t be identical, the method
updateTransactionLedgers on line 298 will be called.

QUESTION 6-1

In the previous scenario, what will happen next if peer 3 tries to share his
blockchain with peer 1?

QUESTION 6-2

In the previous scenario, what will happen next if peer 2 tries to share his
blockchain with peer 3 again?

See the answers at the end of this chapter.

For the last case, when both blockchains are identical, then the
message on line 302 gets printed in console, and the received blockchain
gets returned on line 307.

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Now let’s circle back and go over the methods we mentioned. First
we start with the checkIfOutdated method, as shown in the following
snippet:

326
327    private LinkedList<Block> checkIfOutdated(
               LinkedList<Block> receivedBC) {
328        //Check how old the blockchains are.
329        long lastMinedLocalBlock = LocalDateTime.parse
330                (getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
.getTimeStamp())
                        .toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset.UTC);
331        long lastMinedRcvdBlock = LocalDateTime.parse
332                (receivedBC.getLast().getTimeStamp())
                        .toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset.UTC);
333        //if both are old just do nothing
334        if ((lastMinedLocalBlock + TIMEOUT_INTERVAL) <
                 LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC) &&
335                (lastMinedRcvdBlock + TIMEOUT_INTERVAL) <
                       LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC)) {
336            System.out.println("both are old check other
peers");
337            //If your blockchain is old but the received one is
                    new use the received one
338        } else if ((lastMinedLocalBlock + TIMEOUT_INTERVAL) <
                 LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC) &&
339                (lastMinedRcvdBlock + TIMEOUT_INTERVAL) >=
                LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC)) {

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340            //we reset the mining points since we weren't

                     contributing until now.
341            setMiningPoints(0);
342            replaceBlockchainInDatabase(receivedBC);
343            setCurrentBlockChain(new LinkedList<>());
344            loadBlockChain();
345            System.out.println("received blockchain won!,
                                  local BC was old");
346            
//If received one is old but local is new send
ours to them
} else if ((lastMinedLocalBlock + TIMEOUT_INTERVAL) >
347        
               
LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC) &&
348                (lastMinedRcvdBlock + TIMEOUT_INTERVAL) <
                       
LocalDateTime.now().toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC)) {
349
350            return getCurrentBlockChain();
351        }
352        return null;
353    }
354

This method accepts the received blockchain as a parameter. We don’t

need to pass the local blockchain since we can access it from within this
method. Lines 329–331 retrieve the creation times of the last blocks of
both blockchains in seconds. Lines 334 and 335 check if both are outdated
by comparing the last mined blocks in seconds and adding the timeout
interval to the current time. If they both are outdated, the message on line
336 gets printed in the console, and the null on line 352 is returned. The
next check on lines 338 and 339 checks if your local blockchain is outdated

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but the one you received is up-to-date. If this is the case, then the lines
341–345 run. This means that the mining points get reset since we were
spending time with an outdated blockchain until now. Then we add the
received blockchain to our database and set the application state to match.
The method returns null in this case as well. Our last case happens when
the check on lines 347 and 348 are true, which means that the receiving
blockchain is old but our local is up-to-date. In this case, we return our
local blockchain.
Our next method is the checkWhichIsCreatedFirst method.

355    private LinkedList<Block> checkWhichIsCreatedFirst(

            LinkedList<Block> receivedBC) {
356        //Compare timestamps to see which one is
created first.
357        long initRcvBlockTime = LocalDateTime.parse(
receivedBC.getFirst().getTimeStamp())
358                .toEpochSecond(ZoneOffset.UTC);
359        long initLocalBlockTIme = LocalDateTime.parse(
                 getCurrentBlockChain().getFirst()
360                .getTimeStamp()).toEpochSecond(
ZoneOffset.UTC);
361        if (initRcvBlockTime < initLocalBlockTIme) {
362            //we reset the mining points since we weren't
               contributing until now.
363            setMiningPoints(0);
364            replaceBlockchainInDatabase(receivedBC);
365            setCurrentBlockChain(new LinkedList<>());
366            loadBlockChain();
367            System.out.println("PeerClient blockchain won!,
                                  PeerServer's BC was old");

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368        } else if (initLocalBlockTIme < initRcvBlockTime) {

369            return getCurrentBlockChain();
370        }
371        return null;
372    }
373

In this method, first we retrieve the creation times of the initial blocks
in seconds, as shown on lines 357–360. On line 361 we check if the received
blockchain’s creation time in seconds is smaller than the one from our
local blockchain. This means that the receiving blockchain got created
first. If this is the case, then lines 363–367 execute, and the null on line 371
gets returned. If the case is the opposite, which means our local blockchain
got created first, then we simply return our local blockchain.
Let’s look at the compareMiningPointsAndLuck method in the
following snippet:

374    private LinkedList<Block> compareMiningPointsAndLuck(

               LinkedList<Block> receivedBC)
375            throws GeneralSecurityException {
376        //check if both blockchains have the same prevHashes
to confirm they are both
377        //contending to mine the last block
378        //if they are the same compare the mining points and
luck in case of equal mining points
379        //of last block to see who wins
380        if (receivedBC.equals(getCurrentBlockChain())) {
381            //If received block has more mining points
points or luck in case of tie
382            // transfer all transactions to the winning
block and add them in DB.

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383            if (receivedBC.getLast().getMiningPoints() >

                        getCurrentBlockChain()
384                    .getLast().getMiningPoints() ||
                        receivedBC.getLast().getMiningPoints()
385                    .equals(getCurrentBlockChain()
                       .getLast().getMiningPoints()) &&
386                     receivedBC.getLast().getLuck() >
                        getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
.getLuck()) {
387                //remove the reward transaction from our
losing block and
388                // transfer the transactions to the
winning block
389                getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                  .getTransactionLedger().remove(0);
390                for (Transaction transaction :
                   getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                  .getTransactionLedger()) {
391                    if (!receivedBC.getLast()
                           .getTransactionLedger()
                           .contains(transaction)) {
392                        receivedBC.getLast()
                           .getTransactionLedger()
                           .add(transaction);
393                    }
394                }
395                receivedBC.getLast()
                   .getTransactionLedger().sort(
                   transactionComparator);
396                //we are returning the mining points since
our local block lost.

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397                setMiningPoints(BlockchainData
                      .getInstance().getMiningPoints() +
398                    getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                      .getMiningPoints());
399                replaceBlockchainInDatabase(receivedBC);
400                setCurrentBlockChain(new LinkedList<>());
401                loadBlockChain();
402                System.out.println("Received
blockchain won!");
403            } else {
404                // remove the reward transaction from their
                      losing block and transfer
405                // the transactions to our winning block
406                receivedBC.getLast().getTransactionLedger()
                 .remove(0);
407                for (Transaction transaction :
                        receivedBC.getLast()
                       .getTransactionLedger()) {
408                    if (!getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                              .getTransactionLedger()
                              .contains(transaction)) {
409                        getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                              .getTransactionLedger()
                              .add(transaction);
410                        addTransaction(transaction, false);
411                    }
412                }
413                getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                       .getTransactionLedger()
                       .sort(transactionComparator);

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414                return getCurrentBlockChain();
415            }
416        }
417        return null;
418    }
419

As the comments in the code point out, this method starts by checking
if both blockchains contain the same previous hashes. This means that
they share the same blocks up until the last block. If this check fails, the
null on line 417 is returned. Lines 383–386 check if the winning conditions
for the received blockchain are met. If that is the case, then lines 389–402
get executed. What these lines do is as follows: we remove the reward
transaction from our ledger, we combine the ledgers, we refund our own
mining points, and then we add the winning blockchain with updated
transactons in our database and set up the application state accordingly.
The else on line 403 means that the winning conditions for the received
blockchain were not met, which means our local blockchain won. Lines
406–414 remove the reward transaction from the received blockchain, add
its transactions to our own ledger, and then return our blockchain.
The only method that remains to be explained from the getConsensus
method is the updateTransactionLedgers method. Let’s look at the
following snippet:

310    private void updateTransactionLedgers(

           LinkedList<Block> receivedBC) throws
GeneralSecurityException {
311        for (Transaction transaction : receivedBC
           .getLast().getTransactionLedger()) {
312            if (!getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                  .getTransactionLedger().contains(transaction) ) {
313                getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
                  .getTransactionLedger().add(transaction);

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314                System.out.println("current ledger id = " +

                   
getCurrentBlockChain().getLast().getLedgerId()
+ " transaction id = " + transaction
.getLedgerId());
315                 addTransaction(transaction, false);
316            }
317        }
318        getCurrentBlockChain().getLast()
          .getTransactionLedger()
          .sort(transactionComparator);
319        for (Transaction transaction :
                getCurrentBlockChain()
               .getLast().getTransactionLedger()) {
320            if (!receivedBC.getLast().getTransactionLedger()
                  .contains(transaction) ) {
321                receivedBC.getLast().getTransactionLedger()
                  .add(transaction);
322            }
323        }
324        receivedBC.getLast().getTransactionLedger()
          .sort(transactionComparator);
325    }
326

This method shares any transaction that might be missing between

the local and the received blockchain from their last blocks between
them. On line 311, we loop the transactions of the received blockchain’s
last block ledger. On line 312 we check if our local blockchain’s last block
ledger contains each transaction. If it doesn’t, then we add it to our local
blockchain and database. On line 319 we go through a second loop where

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we loop through our local blockchain’s last block transactions. On line 320
we check if each transaction is contained in the received blockchain. If it
isn’t, then we add it to the received blockchain.
Lastly in this class we have some simple getters and setters, as shown
in the following code snippet:

419
420    public LinkedList<Block> getCurrentBlockChain() {
421        return currentBlockChain;
422    }
423
424    public void setCurrentBlockChain(LinkedList<Block>
                       currentBlockChain) {
425        this.currentBlockChain = currentBlockChain;
426    }
427
428    public static int getTimeoutInterval() { return
                     TIMEOUT_INTERVAL; }
429
430    public static int getMiningInterval() { return
                    MINING_INTERVAL; }
431
432    public int getMiningPoints() {
433        return miningPoints;
434    }
435
436    public void setMiningPoints(int miningPoints) {
437        this.miningPoints = miningPoints;
438    }
439

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440    public boolean isExit() {

441        return exit;
442    }
443
444    public void setExit(boolean exit) {
445        this.exit = exit;
446    }
447}
448

6.3  Summary
In this chapter, we covered the complete service layer of our application.
We talked about singleton class design and how it fits our application.
Next we covered methods that allow the functionality of our wallet and
our blockchain. We learned how the functionality of our previous chapters
is achieved by going over the implementation of the methods they use.
One of the most important things we covered is the implementation of our
blockchain consensus.
Here is a small recap of the topics in this chapter:

• Wallet functionality

• Using singleton classes

• Interface with JavaFX front end

• Blockchain functionality

• Implementations of the functionality of previous

chapters

• Blockchain consensus implementation

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Answer to question 6-1: The method updateTransactionLedgers on

line 298 will be called.
Answer to question 6-2: Both blockchains are identical; the message on
line 302 gets printed in console, and the received blockchain gets returned
on line 307.

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Extras
This chapter will cover how to set up and run our blockchain application.
We will also talk about topics and ideas for expanding the functionality of
our application and conclude the book.

7.1  Running the Application

In previous chapters, we mentioned that we won’t expose our application
to the Internet because of security reasons, and instead we decided to test
it locally. To do this, first let’s create several copies of our e-coin project
folder, as shown in Figure 7-1.

Figure 7-1.  Creating copies of the e-coin project

The next step is to open each project in IntelliJ. You can do this by

selecting File and then Open Project, selecting the other folders, and when
prompted choosing to open a new window. You can look at Figure 7-2 and
Figure 7-3 as references.

© Spiro Buzharovski 2022 163

S. Buzharovski, Introducing Blockchain with Java,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-7927-4_7
Chapter 7 Extras

Figure 7-2.  Navigating to a folder

Figure 7-3.  Opening a project

Once this is done and you have all your copies open in IntelliJ, it’s time
to change some of the hard-coded values to make sure each copy is its own
original peer. First let’s change the PeerServer port, because each peer
needs to have its own port number. See Figure 7-4.

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Figure 7-4.  Changing the PeerClient port

Next we’ll need to add the socket port numbers of the other peers to
each other’s PeerClient queue inside the PeerClient class constructor, as
shown in Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-5.  Adding the socket number

Lastly, we’ll need to go over the jdbc connections and change the
file path to correspond to the file path of our copies. Figure 7-6 shows an
example of one.

Figure 7-6.  Changing the file path

The rest of these connection file paths can be found in the init()
method of our ECoin class and in several methods in the service layer
classes BlockchainData and WalletData. This last change will make sure
that each peer will have its own databases for storing the blockchain and
its wallet. If you want to export your wallet to another peer, you can simply
copy the wallet.db database from one peer’s folder path to another. Also

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keep in mind that if you delete a wallet.db database and you don’t have a
backup copy, that wallet’s access and coins will forever be lost to you since
you will be losing your key pair. Beyond this you just need to run each
copy from within IntelliJ and you will have yourself a running peer-to-peer
network.
Before running the application, make sure that you have Java SE 8
installed before running the application. If you are not sure what version
you have, you can check it by typing java -version in the console of your
IntelliJ.
Once you have mined some coins, you can actually send them to
another peer by copying the other peer’s address from their UI and using it
in the Add New Transaction window, as represented in Figure 7-7. Observe
that until consensus is reached for the current block, the coins won’t
appear in the receiving account. This prevents double spending because
the consensus algorithm will check for attempts at double spending before
assigning the coins to the other peer’s account.

Figure 7-7.  Adding a transaction

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Other functionality would be to stop one of the peers, let its blockchain
get old (older than one to two minutes), and then restart it and observe
how everything syncs up. Lastly, you can stop everything and check the
databases with SQLite Developer. This should provide you with additional
insight and confirmation of how the data is stored, and you’ll have a great
overview of the whole blockchain you have just created. Things should
look similar to Figure 7-8 and Figure 7-9.

Figure 7-8.  Browsing the data

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Figure 7-9.  Transactions table

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7.2  Topics for Future Improvements

Here are some ideas for you to consider if you decide to keep working on
the application:

• For consensus, implement bitcoin’s proof-of-work

algorithm.

• Implement a proof-of-stake algorithm.

• Implement smart contracts.

• Implement support for nonfungible tokens (NFTs).

• Add wallet functionality to the UI such as import/

export and creation of wallets with seed phrases.

• Make the full blockchain traversable through the UI;

currently that’s only possible through browsing the
database.

• Add a toggle to turn on/off mining while maintaining

the ability to send coins.

7.3  Conclusion
First I want to thank you for reaching the end of my book. What was
covered in this book by no means exhausts everything that can be said
regarding blockchain technology, but it is my sincere hope that it has
provided you with solid fundamentals and a better theoretical and practical
understanding of blockchains while using basic Java. The application as
you can see is by no means a finished product, but it is functional enough
to be a nice learning tool that you can use to experiment on and further
your learning on your own. If by now you have started getting ideas of
how to improve and rewrite pieces of the code by using your favorite
frameworks and libraries, I’ll consider that this book has served its purpose.

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