What is Relational Frame Theory?

A
Psychologist Explains (+PDF)
12 Apr 2018 by Courtney E. Ackerman, MA. 

Have you ever thought about the amazing

ability of humans to create associations between words—which are really just
arbitrary combinations of sounds—and objects, events, and complex ideas?

Other species are able to make simple associations, but our ability surpasses theirs by
leaps and bounds. We are able to extend and generalize our understanding from very
specific situations to much broader contexts, allowing us to learn a tremendous
amount of information and understand astoundingly complicated ideas.

If you’ve ever wondered how we developed this cognitive superpower, you will likely
find the topic of this piece fascinating: Relational Frame Theory.

Read on to learn about this theory and its implications for how we think and how we
communicate with one another.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive
Psychology Exercises for free. These science-based exercises will explore
fundamental aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values, and self-
compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients,
students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

 What is Relational Frame Theory? A Definition
 Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (+PDF)
 Autism and Relational Frame Theory
 RFT Tutorial and Training
 Books on Relational Frame Theory
 A Take-Home Message
 References
What is Relational Frame Theory? A Definition
Relational Frame Theory, or RFT, was established to integrate a wide range of
psychological phenomena into a cohesive theory of language based on contextual
relationships. It proposes that human cognition and communication are founded in our
capacity for identifying and creating relational links between stimuli, and made
possible by our “arbitrarily applicable relational responding” ability (Cullinan &
Vitale, 2009).

Relational Frame Theory “for Dummies”: RFT Made Simple

If this definition leaves you scratching your head, you’re not alone! It’s a complicated
theory, one that even those who study it admit is difficult for non-experts to grasp
quickly (Blackledge, 2003). We’ll try to break it down in more simple terms.

Basically, RFT is based on the idea that relating one concept to another is the
foundation of all human language.

While many animals (including our four-legged furry friends) are able to connect the
dots between a neutral event and a subsequent important event (e.g., hearing a bell
and then getting food), humans are also able to connect a neutral event that follows an
important event (e.g., hearing a bell after getting food, but still relating the bell with
getting food).

Not only can humans connect events in this manner, they can also connect disparate
words and their meanings across relational networks.

For example, if you always said the word “dinner” to a child before, during, or after
their evening meal, he would connect the word “dinner” with eating his meal. If you
then told the child that “supper” was another word for “dinner,” he would be able to
easily connect the new word to the event of eating dinner. From that point forward,
calls of “dinner time!” and “supper time!” would be treated with equal enthusiasm by
the hungry child!

This ability is one of the amazing features of the human brain, and it lays the
foundational bricks for language (verbal, written, and body). This method of relating
is accomplished through the development of what researchers call relational frames or
the relationships we form between concepts based on reinforcement.

For example, if a child sees many different kinds of birds and is told that each is a
“bird,” she will be able to identify a species of bird she has never seen before as a
bird, because she has developed a relational frame (e.g., “things with feathers and
wings and beaks are birds”).

There are three properties of relational frames that detail how connections can be
made and relationships formed (Blackledge, 2003):

 Mutual entailment: if an individual notices that A leads to B, then A will be

connected to B in his mind, but B will also be connected to A.
a. Example: if an individual always brushes his teeth before bedtime, then
going to bed will naturally make him think of brushing his teeth as well.
 Combinatorial entailment: if A is related to B, and B is related to C, then A is
related to C and vice versa.
a. Example: if a child is told that “angry” is another word for “mad,” and that
“upset” is another word for “angry,” she will be able to make the unspoken
connection between “mad” and “upset.”
 Transformation of functions: if A and C are related and B, which is related to
one or both A and C, is thrown into the mix, the relationship between A and C
may change.
a. Example: a child associates an ice cream shop with tasty treats and a fun
experience; if, one day, the cashier at the ice cream shop is mean to the girl, the
relationship between going to the ice cream shop and her experience may
change.

These three properties are what allow us to learn and develop new relational networks,
and represents one of the unique abilities of our species.

Steven Hayes
Dr. Steven Hayes, a clinical psychologist, and professor of the University of Nevada’s
Behavior Analysis program, developed the relational frame theory to help explain
human cognition and language.

Hayes studied behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner, as do all psychology students at

one point or another. While he appreciated the brilliance of Skinner explaining and
describing behavior, he saw an opportunity to make a significant contribution to the
discipline of behaviorism—a theory on language from the behaviorist perspective.

Once Hayes had developed a solid theory about relational framing and language, he
began to expand his work to a very important goal:

“What we are seeking is the development of a coherent and progressive contextual

behavioral science that is more adequate to the challenges of the human condition.”
(Hayes, n.d.).

Hayes goes on to say that RFT and related research is intended to develop

“useful basic principles, workable applied theories linked to these principles,

effective applied technologies based on these theories, and successful means of
training and disseminating these developments…”
(Hayes, n.d.).

One of the ways in which Hayes is working towards this goal is through contributing
his research skills and knowledge to Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT).
He has applied the theories and findings of RFT to cognitive and behavioral
therapy and generated a large body of evidence to prove the efficacy of ACT’s
techniques.

Relational Frame Theory and Acceptance and

Commitment Therapy (+PDF)
 It might not be immediately clear how the
relational frame theory of language and cognition is connected to a form of therapy,
but you’ll see that ACT is firmly rooted within RFT.

According to the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science, an organization

dedicated to the same goals as Dr. Hayes, ACT is:

“a unique empirically based psychological intervention that uses acceptance and

mindfulness strategies, together with commitment and behavior change strategies, to
increase psychological flexibility.”
Hayes describes ACT as

“a third wave therapy that combines approaches from different traditions in the
service of improving psychological flexibility”
and

“an evidence-based psychotherapy that uses acceptance and mindfulness process,

and commitment and behavior change processes…”
(Hayes, n.d.).

ACT is based on the idea that suffering is a natural and unavoidable condition for
humans; however, that doesn’t mean we should simply throw in the towel and resign
ourselves to suffering.

ACT also holds the idea that some of the suffering we experience is unnecessary and
even harmful to our mental health, and applies relational frame theory to changing and
eliminating the thinking and language patterns we have that contribute to suffering.

One of the most common problems that clients present within therapy sessions is that
of experiential avoidance. Experiential avoidance is a process of anticipating
problems and coming up with solutions, which often involve getting rid of the
problem or avoiding it (Harris, 2011). This works great for many of our external
problems, but its effectiveness diminishes greatly when applied to internal problems
(e.g., depression, anxiety, addiction).

ACT offers techniques to help clients stop trying to avoid or manipulate their own
feelings, and learn how to accept their inner experiences and apply their energy
toward actual solutions to their problems.

There are six core processes of ACT that apply the theories and findings of RFT to
changing clients’ thought and language patterns.

Core processes

These six core processes are (Harris, 2011):

 Acceptance
 Cognitive Defusion
 Being Present
 Self as Context
 Values
 Committed Action

Acceptance is an alternative to the (very natural) human instinct to avoid negative, or

potentially negative, experiences. Acceptance is an active choice to be aware of and
allow these types of experiences without trying to avoid or change them. To be clear,
acceptance is not a goal of ACT, but a method of encouraging action that will lead to
positive results.

Cognitive Defusion refers to the techniques that are intended to change how an

individual reacts to or interacts with their thoughts and feelings rather than the nature
of these thoughts and feelings. ACT is not intended to limit our exposure to negative
experiences, but to face them and come out the other side with a decreased fixation on
these experiences.

Being Present is the practice of being aware of the present moment while declining to
attach judgments to the experience. In other words, being present involves actively
experiencing what is happening without trying to predict, change, or make value
judgments about the experience.

“Self as context” is the simple idea that an individual is not his or her experiences,
thoughts, or emotions. Instead of being one’s experiences, the “self as context”
process rests on the idea that there is a “self” outside of one’s current experience. In
other words, we are not what happens to us. We are the ones experiencing what
happens to us.

Values are those qualities and ideals that we believe in, that we hold dear, and that we
find fulfillment in when we choose to work towards and uphold them in our daily
lives. We all hold values, consciously or unconsciously, that direct our steps.

In ACT, the therapist assists his clients in applying processes and techniques that help
them live their lives according to the values they have identified as central to them.

In ACT sessions, the therapist will help clients commit to actions that will further their
goals and facilitate their attempts to live a life that is consistent with their values. All
of the exercises, techniques, and practices of ACT are intended to assist individuals in
reaching their goals through positive behavior changes (Harris, 2011).

If you’re interested in learning more about RFT and ACT, check out Harris’
textbook ACT Made Simple. You can find it for purchase here, or get a free, inside
look at an expanded version of the chapter on the connection between RFT and ACT
in this PDF.

If you want a more academic-focused dive into RFT and ACT, this article from RFT
developer Steven C. Hayes might be just what you’re looking for.

Autism and Relational Frame Theory

Given RFT’s focus on language, it’s not surprising that it has important implications
for those with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Usually, we naturally engage in the relational framing process and learn to create and
understand novel utterances (Plumb, n.d.). In children with ASD, there is an
interruption in this process.

Children diagnosed with ASD experience delayed or abnormal verbal and/or social
functioning at an early age. Signs and symptoms of problems with language and social
communication can include:

 Delayed or absent development of spoken language, with no gestures to

compensate
 Inadequate attempts to begin or maintain conversations
 Repetitive, stereotyped, or idiosyncratic language
 The absence of social imitative play or spontaneous or “make-believe” play
(relevant to the appropriate developmental stage; McHugh & Reed, 2008)
Children displaying these symptoms have trouble learning the relational frames that
non-ASD children learn as a matter of course. Studies have shown that reinforcement
can be applied to teach children with ASD some of these relationships and
associations; however, even when they succeed in grasping some of these concepts
that come easily to other children, they often fail to generalize across contexts.

RFT can be used to explain some of the problems facing ASD children struggling to
learn a language; according to the theory, they are experiencing an issue somewhere
within the relational framing process. They have trouble making mutual and
combinatorial associations and struggle with the transformation of functions.

When they do manage to develop some useful relational frames, the frames they come
up with on their own are frequently too rigid to allow for application to other contexts.

This deficit may also be at the root of another problem for people with ASD: lack
of empathy and inability to take another’s perspective.

Those on the autism spectrum have shown deficits in understanding and using the
relational operant known as “deictic framing;” in other words, people with ASD have
trouble distinguishing between “I” and “you,” between “here” and “there,” and
between “now” and “then” (Vilardaga, 2009).

Given the importance of being able to distinguish between “you” and “I” to empathy
and perspective taking, it’s no wonder people with ASD struggle with them.

Fortunately, RFT not only offers an explanation for some of the issues children with
ASD face, it may also offer some of the keys to improving the language
and communication skills of these children. The more we learn about how humans
normally learn and engage in relational framing, the better equipped we are to
encourage the development of relational framing in those who are at a natural
disadvantage.

There is already promising research on teaching relational framing to those with ASD
(Murphy, Barnes-Holmes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2005; O’Connor, Rafferty, Barnes-
Holmes, & Barnes-Holmes, 2009), and further research on RFT and autism is likely to
expand on what we already know in this area.

If you’d like more information on how RFT relates to autism, and you have a few
hours to spend on it, check out this video of the 3-hour workshop on the subject. It
was presented at the Penn State National Autism conference in 2011 by experts Ian
Stewart, John McElwee, and Siri Ming.
RFT Tutorial and Training

For a more detailed explanation of RFT and

information on further reading, check out Dr. Shawn T. Smith’s two-piece overview
of RFT here.

If you’re looking for a more structured opportunity to learn about RFT and its
applications, there is a great tutorial available from foxylearning.com and endorsed by
the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS).

This tutorial is an interactive online course that uses graphics, animations, and hands-
on activities to teach you the basics of RFT.

It is open to anyone and quite accessible for a wide variety of audiences, but it will
probably be especially useful for psychology students and practicing psychologists; it
can also help you meet your continuing education (CE) licensing requirements to
maintain your status as a Board Certified Behavior Analyst, as it has been approved
by the American Psychological Association (APA).

Click here to read about it on the ACBS website, or click here to go straight to the

tutorial.

Books on Relational Frame Theory

In addition to courses, tutorials, and other trainings on RFT, there are several great
books available for your perusal. Fair warning: some will be a bit technical for
someone new to RFT!

Advances in Relational Frame Theory: Research and Applications

 This book, edited by RFT experts Dr. Simon Dymond and
Dr. Bryan Roche offers an excellent deep dive into relational frame theory, the
research that has been done in this area, and the applications (both actual and
potential) of RFT.

It will walk readers through an explanation of RFT in general and provide information
on:

 Application of RFT principles to real clinical problems.

 Application of RFT to understanding behavior in the context of the workplace.
 The verbal and relational underpinnings of several clinical problems.
 The use of fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and EEG
(electroencephalogram) in RFT research.
 The measurement of implicit attitudes.
 The integration of RFT into evolutionary theory, in the pursuit of a contextual
behavioral science.

Click here to learn more about this book from the ACBS website, or click here to
purchase it from Amazon.

Other Books on RFT

Besides Dymond and Roche’s book, there are several other popular books on RFT and
ACT, including:

Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian Account of Human Language and

Cognition – Steven C. Hayes, Dermot Barnes-Holmes, and Bryan Roche
In 2001, this groundbreaking book was published, offering one of the first in-depth
looks at RFT outside of the RFT research circle. Within the RFT and ACT
community, it’s often referred to simply as “the purple book,” due to its bright cover
and its ubiquitous presence in the field.

It not only introduces readers to the theory and foundations of RFT, it also provides
empirical and conceptual tools researchers can use to explore human language and
cognition. It both challenges and expands upon behavioral psychology, making it a
must-read for any behavioral psychologists, cognitive psychologists, therapists, and
students aspiring to one of these careers.

The Thriving Adolescent – Louise L. Hayes and Joseph Ciarrochi

This book is intended to provide therapists, teachers, counselors, and other adults who
take an active role in the lives of young people with the tools they need to help
adolescents reach their full potential. It walks the reader through ACT techniques to
assist teenagers in figuring out how to manage their emotions, identify and live out
their values, practice mindfulness, and develop healthy relationships with others.

Learning RFT: An Introduction to Relational Frame Theory and Its Clinical

Application – Niklas Tӧrneke

Learning RFT is an excellent introduction to the theory for psychologists, therapists,

counselors, and students, as well as anyone else seeking a deeper understanding of
RFT. The author describes RFT, how it developed from behaviorism, and its
application in ACT.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Second Edition: The Process and Practice
of Mindful Change – Steven C. Hayes, Kirk D. Strosahl, and Kelly G. Wilson

If you’re looking for a more in-depth look at ACT in particular, you’ll want to
add this book to your bookshelf. Authored by RFT founding father Steven C. Hayes
and other experts in ACT, it acts as an update and expansion to the first edition, which
provided an early look into the groundbreaking new form of therapy focused on
acceptance and psychological flexibility.

It will give you a description of ACT that comes straight from the developers, along
with a detailed look at how it can be applied to six core processes: cognitive defusion,
acceptance, attention to the present moment, self-awareness, values, and committed
action. It also includes sample therapeutic exercises and patient-therapist dialogues to
help you take your learning from the theoretical to the applied.
A Take-Home Message
The topic of this article was a bit more in-depth than usual, and we packed a lot of
information into just a few pages. Don’t worry if it still seems unclear to you—it’s
still tough for the author of this piece to wrap her head around it!

I hope you got at least a basic understanding of RFT and its applications to human
lives, especially its contributions to promoting mental health through ACT. I
encourage you to look into the resources listed above if you’d like to dive a little
deeper into this topic.

What do you think of RFT? Does the theory make sense to you? Have you ever tried
ACT, either as a client or as a mental health professional? Let us know in the
comments!

As always, thanks for reading!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive
Psychology Exercises for free.

REFERENCES

 https://contextualscience.org/acbs
 Blackledge, J. T. (2003). An introduction to relational frame theory: Basics and
applications. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 3, 421-433.
 Cullinan, V., & Vitale, A. (2009). The contribution of Relational Frame Theory
to the development of interventions for impairments of language and
cognition. The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology – Applied Behavior
Analysis, 4, 132-145.
 https://docsmith.co
 Harris, R. (2011). Embracing your demons: An overview of Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy. Psychotherapy. Retrieved from
https://www.psychotherapy.net/article/Acceptance-and-Commitment-Therapy-
ACT#section-the-goal-of-act
 Hayes, S. (n.d.). ACT and RFT community. Steven C Hayes: ACBS. Retrieved
from http://www.stevenchayes.com/acbs/act-and-rft-community/
 Hendriks, A. L., Barnes-Holmes, Y., McEnteggart, C., De Mey, H. R. A.,
Janssen, G. T. L., & Egger, J. I. M. (2016). Understanding and remediating
social-cognitive dysfunctions in patients with serious mental illness using
relational frame theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 143.
 McHugh, L., & Reed, P. (2008). Using relational frame theory to build
grammar in children with autistic spectrum conditions. Journal of Speech and
Language Pathology-Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 60-77.
 Murphy, C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Barnes-Holmes, Y. (2005). Derived
manding in children with autism: Synthesizing Skinner’s verbal behavior with
relational frame theory. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 38, 445-462.
 O’Connor, J., Rafferty, A., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Barnes-Holmes, Y. (2009).
The role of verbal behavior, stimulus nameability and familiarity on the
equivalence performances of children. Psychological Record, 59, 53-74.
 Plumb, J. (n.d.). Applied RFT. ACBS. Retrieved from
https://contextualscience.org/applied_rft
 Vilardaga, R. (2009). A Relational Frame Theory account of
empathy. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy,
5, 178-184.