Earth and Life Science – Grade 11

Alternative Delivery Mode

Quarter 1 – Module 2: Earth Materials and Processes
First Edition, 2020

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 11
Earth and Life
Science
Quarter 1 – Module 2: Earth
Materials and Processes

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 Table of Contents

PAGE
What I Need to Know 3
46

Module Contents 3
46

Learning Objectives 3
46

General Instructions 4
49

What I know 5
50

Learning Concept 8
51

What’s New 37
57

What I have learned 81

38

Assessment 40
83

Key to Answers 43
86

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 Module 2
Earth Materials and Processes
What I Need to Know
Earth materials include minerals, rocks, soil and water. These are basic
materials that make up the Earth in many forms. These are the resources that are
important in providing the necessities in life that include the industry, agriculture and
life in general. On the other hand, geological processes are dynamic processes at
work in the earth's landforms and surfaces. The system includes geologic processes
such as erosion, weathering, plate tectonics and other related processes.

When you travel by land or through air, you will see several landforms such as
deep valleys, rolling mountains, vast plains, beautiful shorelines and islands. But what
do you think have caused these features? Deformation is the process by which the
Earth’s crust is deformed along plate tectonic margins. This can produce some
geologic features such as folds, and faults.
This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics that will help you
answer the questions pertaining to Earth materials and processes.
This module has eleven (11) lessons:
▪ Lesson 1 - Stars on Rocks and Its Processes
▪ Lesson 2 - Exogenic Processes
▪ Lesson 3 - Sequel on Magma Formation
▪ Lesson 4 - How Metamorphism Works
▪ Lesson 5 - Pushing Beyond Limits
▪ Lesson 6 - Wonders of the Continents
▪ Lesson 7 - Formation of Folds and Faults
▪ Lesson 8 - Stratification of Rocks
▪ Lesson 9 - Relative and Absolute Dating
▪ Lesson 10 - Fossil Markers
▪ Lesson 11 - Geologic Time Scale

Learning Objectives

After undergoing through this module, you are likely to:

1. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical

properties. (S11/12ES-Ia-9)
2. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. (S11/12ES-Ia-10)
3. describe how rocks undergo weathering and how its products are carried away
by erosion. (S11/12ES-Ia-11)
4. explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and
deposited elsewhere. (S11/12ES-Ia-12)

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 5. make a report on how rocks and soil move downslope due to the direct action
of gravity. (S11/12ES-Ia-13)
6. describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from. (S11/12ES-Ia-14)
7. describe magma formation and what happens after the magma is formed.
(S11/12ES-Ia-15-16,18)
8. describe the changes in rocks due to changes in pressure and temperature.
(metamorphism) (S11/12ES-Ia-17)
9. describe how rocks behave under different types of stress such as
compression, pulling apart, and shearing. (S11/12ES-Ia-19)
10. explain and cite the evidences of continental drift. (S11/12ES-Ia-20-21)
11. explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults.
(S11/12ES-Ia-22)
12. explain how the seafloor spreads. (S11/12ES-Ia-23)
13. describe the structure and evolution of ocean basins. (S11/12ES-Ia-24)
14. describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed. (S11/12ES-Ia-25-26)
15. describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the
age of stratified rocks and subdivisions of geologic time. (S11/12ES-Ia-27)
16. describe how marker fossils (also known as guide fossils) are used to define
and identify subdivisions of the geologic time scale and describe how the
Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time scale.
(S11/12ES-Ia-28-29)

General Instructions

To achieve the competencies of this module, complete the following:

1. Understand and follow the instructions carefully.
2. Accomplish the pre-test to identify your preparedness about the lessons in this
module.
3. Refer your answers to the given answer key.
4. Read each lesson and do activities provided for you.
5. Demonstrate the activities to guide you in comprehending the lessons.
6. Take the self-test after each lesson to assess your understanding of the topics.
7. Answer the post-test to measure how much you have gained from the topics.

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 What I know
MULTIPLE CHOICE
Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the CAPITAL letter of your
choice. Write all your answers on a separate piece of paper.

1. Which of the following statements are TRUE?

I. All minerals are solid
II. When two or more minerals combine together, they form a rock
III. When magma cools at a fast rate, large mineral crystals are produced
IV. Quartz is the most common mineral found on Earth

A. I, II, III and IV B. I, II and III C. I, II and IV D. I and II only

2. Which of these minerals commonly forms by evaporation of sea water?

A. Clay B. Halite C. Feldspar D. Quartz

3. Calcite is used as absorbent material during the burning of fossil fuels and Halite
is used to preserve food. Which of the following properties can best be used to
distinguish between calcite and halite?
A. luster B. magnetism C. streak D. reaction with acid

4. Which would most likely occur during the formation of granite and basalt?
A. lithification of weathered and eroded materials
B. solidification of molten materials
C. exposed to extreme pressure and heat
D. precipitation of seawater

5. Marble, quartzite, greenstone and anthracite are rocks that came from pre-
existing rocks. What do they have in common?
A. they are plutonic igneous rocks
B. they are non-foliated metamorphic rocks
C. they are volcanic igneous rocks
D. they are foliated metamorphic rocks

6. Weathering are processes that decompose rocks and convert them to loose gravel,
sand, clay and soil. Which of the following shows a certain rock that undergoes
mechanical weathering?
A. water accumulates in a crack and then freezes
B. acid dissolves rock
C. iron in rocks combine with oxygen
D. feldspar weathers to form clay

7. What is the correct sequence of the processes involved in the formation of shale?
A. erosion, lithification, deposition, weathering
B. erosion, deposition, lithification, weathering
C. weathering, erosion, deposition, lithification
D. weathering, deposition, erosion, lithification

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8. Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of particles of weathered rocks called
clasts, which have been transported, deposited, compacted and cemented.
Which of the following rock sample is NOT classified as clastic sedimentary rock?
A. sandstone B. siltstone C. shale D. limestone

9. Geologists use both the minerals and texture to name igneous rocks. Most common
igneous rocks are classified in pair, each member of a pair containing the same
minerals but having a different texture. Which of the following igneous rocks are
NOT properly paired?
A. granite and rhyolite C. basalt and gabbro
B. andesite and diorite D. granite and basalt

10. The rate of cooling of magma also influences the size of mineral crystals in rocks.
A peridotite rock was observed to have big crystals, this rock is probably
A. extrusive igneous C. intrusive igneous
B. non-foliated metamorphic D. foliated metamorphic rock

11 Gneiss, a rock, is found to have visible layering in its surface. This rock is most
probably
A. foliated metamorphic C. organic sedimentary
B. clastic sedimentary D. intrusive igneous

12. Which of the following was the main reason why scientists rejected Alfred
Wegener's hypothesis?
A. All of his evidence turned out to be fake
B. He could not explain the mechanism for movement of the continents.
C. He failed to prove the taxonomic hierarchy of humans
D. He failed to identify the fossils found

13. According to the seafloor hypothesis, rocks farther away from the mid-ocean
ridge were older than those near it, how did scientists discover this
phenomenon?
A. by perceiving eruptions of magma on the ocean floor
B. by creating maps of rocks on the ocean floor using SONAR
C. by identifying the age of rocks gotten through by drilling on the ocean floor
D. by measuring how fast sea-floor spreading occurs

14. The youngest rocks on the ocean floor are located ____.
A. near trenches
B. far from mid-ocean ridges
C. at mid-ocean ridges
D. near continental slope and continental margin

15. Mt. Mayon and other active volcanoes in the Philippines are most likely to form at
____.
A. transform boundaries C. convergent continental-continental boundaries
B. divergent boundaries D. convergent oceanic–continental boundaries

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16. In seafloor spreading, where do magma rise?
A. at the mid-oceanic ridges C. along rift valleys
B. along the trenches D. at the edges of the continents

17. A process whereby the denser ocean floor subducts and move to the mantle,
forms the molten rock called magma and rises to form the new ocean floor is
known as _______.
A. conduction C. convection
B. continental drift D. subduction

18. What causes the seafloor to spread?

A. earthquake C. rising molten magma
B. sinking magma D. drifting continental crust

19. He proposed the theory of the seafloor spreading.

A. Alfred Wegener C. Tuzo Wilson
B. Harry Hess D. Abraham Ortelius

20. Molten rock refers to:

A. magma C. volcanic ash
B. lava D. caldera

21. Which is the largest division of geologic time?

A. Eon C. Epoch
B. Era D. Period

22. Which dating technique requires an extensive knowledge of stratigraphy?

A. Absolute Dating C. Relative Dating
B. Faunal Dating D. Radiometric Dating

23. In what era do we belong?

A. Cenozoic C. Mesozoic
B. Jurassic D. Paleozoic

24. Which is NOT a basis of stratigraphy?

A. Principle of Verticality C. Principle of Faunal Succession
B. Principle of Superposition D. Principle of Horizontality

25. Which principle states that layers can be traced over a long interval from one
location to another?
A. Principle of Faunal Succession C. Principle of Original Horizontality
B. Principle of Lateral Continuity D. Principle of Superposition

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 LESSON

1
Stars on Rocks
and Its Processes
_________________________________________________

Learning Concept

In this section, we will discuss Earth materials and processes, and it is important
that we would first gain basic understanding on the materials that make up the Earth’s
surface. The rocks and minerals that make-up Earth serve a great purpose as they
can be utilized as raw materials in industrial constructions, electronic devices, home
appliance, and can even be molded into jewelry.
The minerals that we will study here will include common rock-forming minerals
as well as economically-significant minerals. To gain understanding on the difference
between minerals and rocks, imagine your favorite chocolate bar. A chocolate bar has
different ingredients such as the chocolate, caramel, peanuts. Using this analogy, a
rock is like a chocolate bar, made up of different types of minerals clumped together.
Minerals are characterized with the following criteria from Haldar and Tišljar,
2014:
1. Naturally-occurring substance – it should be found naturally on Earth
2. Inorganic – cannot be formed from materials that were once part of
living things
3. Solid – minerals should always be solid (definite shape and volume)
4. Crystal Structure – particles line up in pattern that repeats over and
over
5. Definite Chemical Composition – elements should be in exact
proportion

Physical properties of minerals

Physical property of minerals refers to the outward appearance of minerals that

are used identify and differentiate one mineral from another. According to Rumble
2018, physical property of minerals are often utilized in classification as the definite
chemical composition and atomic structure of minerals is usually reflected in its
physical form.

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Luster: How shiny or dull a
mineral is
It is the appearance a mineral makes
when light is reflected on its surface.
metallic luster (appearance of metals),
vitreous luster (like shiny glass), earthy
luster (dull appearance of soil), and silky
luster (like satin cloth)
Earthy luster of shale

Color
The most obvious property of minerals.
Different minerals give off different
distinct color.
Malachite (green), Azurite (blue)

Minerals occur in variety of colors

Streak: Color of its powder

This refers to the color of the mineral in
its powdered form which may or may
not be similar to the color of the mineral.
This can be obtained by scratching the
mineral on a streak plate.

Streak produced by chalk mineral

Hardness
The property of mineral to resist
scratching or being cut. A mineral has
the property to mark the surface of any
mineral which is softer than itself.

Feldspar red can only be cut using steel

(hardness scale number 6)
Cleavage: breaking in planes
This refers to the property of minerals
to break in areas with weak bonding.
This is identified by the smooth and flat
surfaces of minerals when breaking
(not all minerals have cleavage).

Cleavage pattern of calcite

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Chemical Properties

The chemical property of minerals determines its chemical composition and

structure in the atomic level. Its chemical property also dictates the minerals reactivity
to various types of chemical substances cited from Saddleback College, 2012.

Crystal Form
This is a property of minerals which
refers to the orderly arrangement of
atoms that give them a solid
structure. The arrangement of atoms
determines the physical structure of
minerals

Crystal structure of bituminous mineral

Magnetism
Some minerals provide strong
magnetic attraction to some hand
magnet (e.g. magnetite)

Magnetic activity of magnetite rock

Reaction with Acid

Some minerals react with acid and
form bubbles that release carbon
dioxide (CO2)

Reactivity of mineral to acids

Taste
Some minerals produce distinct
taste (sulfuric acid – sour; Epsom –
bitter; NaCl – salty)
However, this can only be applied for
minerals which are soluble, as some
minerals may contain toxic materials

Halite mineral (rock salt)

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

Rocks are basically the core foundation of Earth, as different layers of rocks lay
below Earth’s surface. They are observable in every portion of our surrounding and
exist from land to ocean. Rocks are aggregate or clumps of one or more different types
of minerals. Rocks are categorized into three major rock types: Igneous,
Sedimentary, and, Metamorphic. The Earth’s surface is made up of 66%
sedimentary rocks while 34% of it is igneous and metamorphic rocks as cited from
Mibei, 2014.

Igneous rocks

These are also known as “volcanic rocks” as these rocks are formed by the
solidification or hardening of molten rocks (rocks that are melted due to volcanic heat).
Igneous was derived from the term “ignis” meaning fire, thus, referring to rocks that
are formed due to high temperatures Carlson et al., 2008.

Igneous rocks are classified into: Plutonic (intrusive) rocks and Volcanic
(extrusive) rocks. Plutonic rocks are formed when molten magma within the Earth’s
crust slowly cools and crystallizes. These rocks are characterized by their course-
grained texture and crystals are visible to the naked eye (e.g. granite, diorite, gabbro,
peridotite). On the other hand, Volcanic rocks are those that are formed due to the
extrusion of magma during volcanic eruption in the form of lava or fragmental ejecta.
These rocks are characterized by their fine-grained or glassy texture (e.g. obsidian,
basalt, rhyolite, andesite).

Granite (Plutonic igneous rock) Obsidian (Volcanic igneous rock)

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are materials that are formed from ‘sediments’ of other
rocks. These are actually formed by deposition of rocks through time, as minerals and
other particles from living matter combine and accumulate to form the rocks.
Sedimentary rocks appear to be grainy and of different composition due to
combination of deposited materials. Coastal rocks are good example of sedimentary
rocks (Haldar & Tišljar, 2014).

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 Sedimentary rocks can be classified into: Clastic and Non-clastic sedimentary
rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are land-derived inorganic sedimentary rocks which
are formed by the sedimentation of weathered rock particles (e.g. shale, sandstone,
conglomerate). Non-clastic sedimentary rocks are those that are formed by the
compaction, precipitation, or evaporation of chemical compounds (e.g. halite or rock
salt), or cementation of organic matter (e.g. coal)

A B C
A is a sample of shale (clastic), B is a sample of halite (non-clastic inorganic) and
C is a sample of coal (non-clastic organic).

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that are formed from an already existing rock due
to high temperature and pressure. According to Mibei, 2014, Metamorphism means
a change from the original form; thus, metamorphic rocks could change its form,
texture, physical and chemical properties. It can elongate, become shiny, or harden

Metamorphic rocks can be characterized by examining the composition of their

minerals, chemical composition, or their texture and foliation. However, texture is often
utilized as a diagnostic characteristic in metamorphic rock identification. There are two
basic types of metamorphic rocks: Foliated and Non-foliated metamorphic rocks.
Foliated metamorphic rocks have banded or layered texture due to its exposure to
high temperature and pressure (e.g. gneiss, phyllite, slate). Non-foliated metamorphic
rocks are characterized by the absence of banding or layering and can be observed
to have small or large grain sized minerals (hornfels, quartzite, novaculite).

Mica schist Marble

(Foliated metamorphic rocks) (Non-foliated metamorphic rocks)

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ROCK CYCLE
Rock cycle is a representation of the transition of the three rock types
associated with Earth’s processes such as weathering, deposition, volcanic eruptions,
erosion, and change in temperature and pressure. This shows the changes that rocks
undergo, and its modifications and transformations.

Formation of different rock types

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 What’s New
Learning Activity: Sorting and classifying rock types

DIRECTIONS: Below are words and phrases that are related to the three major
rock types. What you will do is you will sort out words in the box and list them to their
respective rock type.

Foliated Volcanic rocks Clastic rocks

Cementation Plutonic Coal

Obsidian Shale Sedimentation

Marble Ignis Shale

High temp and pressure Granite Mica schist

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

ROCKS ROCKS ROCKS

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 LESSON

2
Exogenic Processes
________________________________________________

Learning Concept

Earth has undergone many changes in time. Various landforms are destroyed
by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, lands have been eroded by flashfloods, or
swamped by sea level rise. As old landforms are destroyed, new would arise. The
constant deformation and rebuilding those cycles in the planet is what we refer to as
Earth’s geomorphic processes. According to Derbyshire et al. 2013, Geo means
Earth and morph means form; thus, these are the processes that shaped our planet
to what we know of it today
Geomorphic processes are classified into two: Endogenic process and
Exogenic process. Endogenic processes are the processes that occur below the
surface of the Earth. These are the changes that create large-scale landforms (e.g.
Volcanoes, Rifts, and Valleys). On the other hand, Exogenic processes, occurs above
the Earth’s surface and are involved with the modifications and transformation of the
landforms formed by Endogenic processes (e.g. Coastal beaches, Sand dunes)
In this section, we will discuss what the different types of exogenic processes
are and how these processes shape the landforms we know today.

Weathering

Weathering refers to the breaking or decomposition of rocks due to external

factors that can be caused by climate, weather, chemical compounds, or living
organisms. Weathering can be identified by formation of cracks, spaces, or small
fractures on rocks. Weathering can be characterized into Physical weathering (decay
of rocks due to weather elements such as high temperature or extreme cold),
Chemical weathering (decomposition due to chemical changes in the mineral), and
Biological weathering (breaking of rocks brought by living organisms) as cited from
Hugget, 2011.

A B C

Breaking of a rock due to physical weathering (A) chemical weathering of rocks due to acid rain (B);
and biological weathering rocks due to burrowing roots of trees (C).

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Erosion

Erosion refers to the movement of rocks, debris, and other products of

weathering, from one location to another. When large rocks are broken into smaller
pieces in weathering, erosional geomorphic agents would then carry these small
fragments. Erosional agents include flowing water (streams and rivers), glaciers, wind,
and ocean waves. Erosion contribute a large part on the continuous changes that
occur in the Earth’s surface.

Flowing water as erosional agent of weathered soil and rocks

Mass wasting

Mass wasting refers to the movement of rocks due to the force of gravity.
Cracks and breaks, due to continuous weathering, can create large chunks of rocks
that would eventually fall downwards due to its heavy mass. Mass wasting can occur
slowly, as small fragments of rocks are gradually deposited at a lower elevation, or it
can occur suddenly. Landslides are the most common mass wasting occurrence,
which can result to catastrophic consequences. Some activities can cause mass
wasting such as: removal of support from below (e.g. mining), overloading of materials
due to filling, overloading due to rainfall, removal of rock material from slope, or
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions as stated by Nelson, 2018.

Fragmented rocks falling due to gravity

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Deposition

Deposition is geological process which involves the addition of sediments, soil

and rocks to a land mass. Deposition is a direct consequence of erosion, wherein the
eroded rocks would then be deposited in a particular landform. This would occur when
the fragments of rocks carried erosional agents (e.g. wind, flowing, water, or gravity)
would lose their velocity, would eventually stop its movement and settle. Most common
deposition landforms are beaches and river deltas since they are the final destination
of most erosional agents.

Deposition of eroded soil in coastal areas

What’s New
Learning Activity: Creating my own erosion simulation

Objectives: At the end of this activity, you should be able to simulate erosion
and determine what factors would help prevent or minimize erosion.
Materials:
Large plastic container (preferably 50 cm x 50 cm) Sand
3 plastic bottles (1 L container) Chunks of rock
Humous soil 6 Plastic cups
Plant (any small-sized plant) 3 Plastic straw
Molding clay

Procedures:

1. Before conducting the experiment, cut the bottle in half (in a vertical
direction) for it to act as a pot.

2. Fill the plastic bottles with humous (fat) soil up to half

3. Plant any short-sized plant you can obtain in your backyard to one of the
plastic bottles. Allow the plant to grow for at least 2-3 days.

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4. On the 2 remaining bottles, place 4 large rocks (2-3 cm in diameter) on
top. On another bottle, cover its surface with sand.
5. Using your plastic cups, punch a hole at the bottom. The size of the hole
should just be enough to fit the plastic straw. After placing the straw, put
molding clay around the hole to avoid water from leaking.

6. After preparing all three bottles, position it in a slope with at least 30ͦ angle
7. Cut the lower portion of 3 plastic cups and place it at the mouth of the
plastic bottles. This will serve as the deposition site of the eroded
materials.
8. Hold the plastic cup with straw and position the straw on the bottom side
of the plastic bottles.
9. Fill the plastic cup with water, and note your observations for the three
bottles.
10. Weigh the eroded soil that is deposited on the plastic cups at the mouth
of the plastic bottles. Compare your results.

After performing the activity, answer the following questions.

Table 1. Mass of eroded soil from the three set-up

Set-up Mass of eroded soil (g)
Soil with plant
Soil with large rocks
Soil with sand

Q1. What are your observations on erosion of soil on the bottle with plant?
With large rocks? With sand? Compare your observations.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Q2. Which set-up have the least amount of eroded soil? What conclusion can
you draw from this result?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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 What’s More

MULTIPLE CHOICE
Directions: Read each item carefully and write the letter of your choice
on a separate sheet of paper. (1 point each)
1. Which of the following statements describes a mineral?
A. It is natural occurring, organic, solid, with crystal structure, and definite
composition
B. It is man-made, inorganic, solid, with crystal structure, and definite
composition
C. It is naturally-occurring, inorganic, solid, with crystal structure, and
definite composition
D. It is naturally-occurring, inorganic, solid, with crystal structure, and
indefinite composition

2. Which among the three rock types are formed due to the melting of rocks
brought about by volcanic activities?
A. Igneous rocks B. Sedimentary rocks
C. Metamorphic rocks D. Pleiomorphic rocks

3. Which statement is NOT true for sedimentary rocks?

A. Sedimentary rocks often have layers showing deposition of sediment at
different time periods.
B. Sedimentary rocks often have fossils trapped within them.
C. Sedimentary rocks often have layer structures of crystals caused by
effect of heat and pressure.
D. Sedimentary rocks consist of layers of lots of small particles and are
often porous.

4. Which statement is an example of biological weathering?

A. A tree in front yard spreads its roots in a sidewalk, pushing the sidewalk
up and causing it to crack
B. Over the course of two years, the top layer of soil at a Bukidnon farm is
blown away.
C. Rainfall collects in a crack in a rock. When the temperature drops, the
water freezes cracking the rock
D. A very large storm occurs along the coast. The waves washed away
sands in the shore.

5. This is an exogenic process from which rocks are transported downslope

due to the action of gravity.
A. Erosion
B. Mass Wasting
C. Weathering
D. Deposition

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 LESSON

3
Sequel on Magma Formation
___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

After learning various exogenic processes, we will discuss the different geologic
phenomena that occur within our planet. In this section, you will find out what happens
after molten rocks are formed.
Geologists have concluded that magma originates when solid rock melts. It
occurs when heat is added, the pressure is decreased and the inclusion of volatiles.
On your previous topic, rocks defer in various features and are classified as igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic.
The solidified state of this molten material is referred to as igneous rocks. These
rocks may actually differ as volcanic (extrusive) and plutonic (intrusive) rocks. These
categories follow a general rule, the slower the rock cools, the larger mineral crystals
are formed (Dutch, Monroe and Moran, 1998). Extrusive igneous rocks are formed
from lava, cools quickly, usually light colored, lower in density and has smaller or no
crystal grains. Some examples of this type include rhyolite, basalt and andesite. While,
Diorite, Granite and Gabbro, examples of intrusive igneous rocks, are formed from
magma, cools slowly, usually dense and darker. It also contains larger crystal grains.
Moreover, these rocks are further classified according to their texture and
mineral composition. Igneous textures resulted from the differences in cooling rate of
the rocks which includes coarse-grained (phaneritic), fine-grained (aphanitic),
porphyritic, glassy, frothy and pyroclastic (fragmental). The amount of silica, the kinds
of feldspar and other minerals present are the basic categories to classify igneous
rocks in terms of its chemical composition. Rocks are classified as felsic (>65% silica),
mafic (45-52% silica), intermediate (53-65% silica) and ultramafic (<45% silica).

Molten materials inside a volcano

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 What’s New

Learning Activity: Features of Igneous rocks

Instructions: You prepare three (3) rock specimens and answer the worksheet. Draw and
sort the collected specimens based on their characteristics, such as color, texture, shape,
size, and weight
SAMPLE NO. ____
TEXTURE: Rough, smooth, bumpy, gritty, rigid, soft, hard
SHAPE: round, oval, diamond, circular, square, triangle
SIZE: Small, tiny, large, pea size, medium
COLOR: black, white, grey, brown, tan, gold, silver, yellow,
WEIGHT: heavy, piece, pile, dense, volume, sum, chunk
CLASSIFICATION: ____ Intrusive ____ Extrusive

Others, specify: (describe other observable features of the igneous rock sample)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

SAMPLE NO. ____

TEXTURE: Rough, smooth, bumpy, gritty, rigid, soft, hard
SHAPE: round, oval, diamond, circular, square, triangle
SIZE: Small, tiny, large, pea size, medium
COLOR: black, white, grey, brown, tan, gold, silver, yellow,
WEIGHT: heavy, piece, pile, dense, volume, sum, chunk
CLASSIFICATION: ____ Intrusive ____ Extrusive

Others, specify: (describe other observable features of the igneous rock sample)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.
SAMPLE NO. ____
TEXTURE: Rough, smooth, bumpy, gritty, rigid, soft, hard
SHAPE: round, oval, diamond, circular, square, triangle
SIZE: Small, tiny, large, pea size, medium
COLOR: black, white, grey, brown, tan, gold, silver, yellow,
WEIGHT: heavy, piece, pile, dense, volume, sum, chunk
CLASSIFICATION: ____ Intrusive ____ Extrusive

Others, specify: (describe other observable features of the igneous rock sample)
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

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 What’s More
Learning Activity: Aftermath of magma formation

Instructions: Describe what happens after the magma is formed using a concept map

What I can do

Enrichment Activity: Essay Writing

Conclusive Activity
Instructions: Write your reflections after doing the learning tasks by completing the
statement.

Today, I learned
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________.

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 LESSON

4
How Metamorphism Works
___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

In this lesson, you will understand how metamorphic rocks are formed and its
mystery behind its beautiful petrological structure.
Rock is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals. It
can be classified based on their origin. Metamorphic rock can be formed from
previously existing rock and can be classified as foliated and non-foliated. Gneiss,
Schist and Slate are examples of foliated rocks which are formed when pressure
squeezes minerals creating a platy or sheet-like structure. While, non-foliated rocks
do not have a layered appearance. Examples include marble, hornfels and quartzite.
Metamorphism is a process which causes changes in mineral contents, texture
and chemical composition of a rock. Chemically active fluids, pressure and heat are
the causes of metamorphism. Heat drives the reaction since it provides energy that
results in recrystallization of minerals. Metamorphism increases density, reorientation
of the mineral grains into banded appearance and growth of larger mineral
crystallization.

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
• Contact Metamorphism occurs when rock is exposed to a body of magma
where the rising temperature drive changes into the rock.
• Regional dynamo thermal metamorphism produces the greatest volume of
metamorphic rock where directed pressures and high temperatures occur
during mountain building. Hence, it results to large-scale deformation and high-
grade metamorphism.
• Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs when rocks are exposed to hot water and
dissolved ions changing its chemical and mineral composition.
• Burial metamorphism results from an increased pressure when rocks are
buried.

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 • What’s New
Learning Activity: Features of metamorphism

Instructions: Trace the changes in mineral composition and texture of rocks due to
changes in pressure and temperature using concept map.

• What’s More

Enrichment Activity:
Word hunt

Instructions: Look for the

words that are related to the
lesson topic.

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 LESSON

5
Pushing Beyond Limits
___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

When you travel to various places, you can see different geological structures
that amazes you without a doubt. You witness the fascinating mountains of Bukidnon
and majestic chocolate hills of Bohol. But how these structures were formed?
Rolling mountains, vast plains, deep valleys and beautiful shapes of the
archipelago is caused by the continuous movement our crustal plates. These
movements in the Lithosphere is collectively termed as Diastrophism. As the earth’s
crust moves, force is applied to rocks which can cause alteration and deformation to
its physical structure.
Geological stress refers to the forces acting upon a crustal plate which causes
diastrophic movements. Stress Forces can be classified into three (3) types namely,
tension, compression and shearing. Tension is a force which stretches or pulls rock
layers from opposite directions. It normally creates another seafloor since it pushes
the rock layers away from each other. Compression is a type force which would create
mountains and fault lines because pushes rock layers away from each other. While,
shearing make rock layers slide past each other creating fault lines.
Furthermore, compressional stress may cause rock layers to create fold or fault.
Folding occurs when rock layers crumple or wrinkle due to pushing from both
directions. Faults, on the other hand, occurs when rock layers breaks and cause
earthquakes.

• What’s New

Learning Activity: Rock behavior

Instructions: Identify the type of force applied on the rock and describe the rock
behavior due to the force.

How these rocks behave under the

stress?
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________

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 What’s More
Enrichment Activity: Geologic Stress Analysis

Instructions: The table below shows diagram of the different geologic stress.
Kindly illustrate the rock movement direction using the lines, describe the stress and
its possible structured geologic feature.

Rock Geologic
Geologic Stress
Diagram Movement Structure
Stress Description
Direction formed

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 LESSON

6 Wonders of the Continents

___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

Have you ever wondered how these landmasses are formed? In this lesson,
you will understand the wonders of the seven (7) continents. Where do these come
from? How they formed this unique land feature?

Present Continental Position

In 1912 Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologists and geophysicist, presented

the Continental Drift Hypothesis. Wegener noted the apparent jigsaw-puzzle fit of the
Americas, Africa and Europe and argued that the continents had once been joined to
form a single supercontinent. Wegener put forward an idea that Pangaea, a
supercontinent, began to dismantle 200 million years ago and form the continents.
For many years of the studying the origin of the continents, Wegener found
significant evidences on his claim of the supercontinent. His evidences include the
continental topography, fossil correlation, rock structures and ancient climates.
According to him, continents seemed to fit together at the edge of their shelves of
which rock formations are of the same age, type and structure. He also presented
correlational analysis of fossils together with the paleoclimatic evidences were the
manifestation that rocks undergone similar deformities and environment.
However, the same with many revolutionary theories, Wegener’s hypothesis
was rejected for lack of convincing support on how these crust blocks move.

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 • What’s New

Learning Activity: Sketch your Pangaea

Instructions: To see how the continents are fit together, let’s make a sketch image
of the Pangaea. On the box below, trace the world map and try to connect the
continents as one landmass. Color the areas on the landmasses and give the names
of every continents.

What’s More

Enrichment Activity: Concept mapping

Instructions: Create a concept map on the concepts of Continental Drift. Be sure
to use all of the terms form the word bank. Other words may be included on your
concept map as well.
(a)Topographic evidence (e) Evidence
(b) Fossil correlation (f) Continental movements
(c) Professional qualification (g) Rock structures
(d) Paleoclimate (h) Reasons for rejection

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 LESSON

7 Formation of Folds and Faults

___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

The Earth’s crust is divided into numerous bulky, firm sections of called plates
that move as a unit over a partially plastic-like layer, asthenosphere. In 1965, the
Canadian physicist J.T. Wilson, combined the principles of Continental Drift and
Seafloor Spreading to come up with the Plate Tectonics Theory. According to the Plate
Tectonics Theory, these plates float atop the asthenosphere. This movement is
brought by the interaction of forces that has resulted in the formation of various
geologic features such as mountain ranges, valleys and volcanoes.
Plate Tectonics, as the basic system that operates geological processes on
Earth, is based on the complete idea on Earth’s structure, types of tectonic plates,
plate boundaries and the concept of convection of molten rock materials as the driving
forces of plate movements. (Moncada et al., 2016). Although solid the Earth’s crust
may be pushed, pulled or squeezed out by the motion of matter resulting from changes
in temperature known as Convective flow.
Types of Plate Boundaries

In divergent boundaries, plates spread apart creating gap for the hot magma to
rise and cool. The cooled magma then becomes new crust. Common along oceanic
ridges. Common modern examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East African Rift
In convergent boundaries, plates collide (forming mountains) and destroyed as
one crust dive beneath the other - the process called subduction. This process
generates volcanoes. Ocean trenches are examples where Mariana Trench in the
Pacific Ocean is an example. Other common modern examples include Western
Aleutians, Andes and Himalayas
In transform fault boundaries, plates slide past each other and cause breaks
(faults) in the lithosphere and causes earthquakes. San Andres fault in California and
Marikina fault line are examples.

Folding
Geologic folding occurs when a body of warm sedimentary rock is compressed
or squeezed by tectonic forces and shortens horizontal distances in rocks. The
geometry of folds is divided into parts, namely: anticline and syncline.
Faulting
A fault occurs when rock layers break which there has been relative motion.
The movement on crustal blocks can occur along faults during an earthquake.

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 • What’s New

Learning Activity: Tracing the Origin

Instructions: Trace the reason how the folds and faults are created using the illustration
below.

A
B

Continental-Oceanic Convergent Plate Boundary Transform Plate Boundary

C
D

Continental-Continental
Divergent Plate Boundary
Convergent Plate Boundary

Questions:
1. What plate boundary would result to:
a. Mountain Ranges: __________________
b. Seafloor Spreading: _________________
c. Continental Volcanic Arcs: ____________
d. Fault Lines: ________________________
2. Which of the plate boundary do you think would result to folding? ________
3. How the plate boundary in item no. 2 does develops a geologic fold?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. Cite a plate boundary which you think could develop fault lines ____________
5. What are the considerations needed for a plate boundary to develop a fault
line?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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 LESSON

8
Stratification of Rocks
___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

Stratification is the process in which sedimentary rocks are arranged in layers

due to crustal movement, displacement of soils, and distortion of terrain. The layers of
stratified rocks differ from one another depending on the kind, size, and color of their
sediments. The area of study dealing with layers of rocks is known as stratigraphy.
The layers (strata) are formed from the accumulation, compaction and
cementation of sediments over a period of time. Most fossils are found in these layers.
Young rock layers are found at the surface and older layers below. Geologist has been
using these stratified rocks to reconstruct Earth’s history.

Geologic Time Scale

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 Stratification can occur on the scale of hundreds of meters, and down to sub
millimeter scale. It is a fundamental feature of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks
form in layers. These rock layers formed through time and through processes of
erosion, deposition, compaction and cementation. For example, fossils before were
once debris and organic materials embedded in rocks that formed part of the Earth’s
surface but now are found beneath the ground. The sedimentary rock layers which are
found on top are the youngest and those which are found of the bottom are the oldest
rocks. This is called the Law of Superposition.
A lot of people especially in petroleum industries used equipment while others
opt to drill some wells to extract petroleum products such as natural gas, oil and even
to find water from sedimentary rock layers beneath the ground. Stratigraphic laws are
basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the age and characteristics of
rock layers. These laws were developed by Steno, Hutton and Smith.

Principle of Superposition: In a stack of sedimentary rocks, the topmost layer is

always youngest and lowermost always oldest (as long as the rocks have not been
overturned).
Principle of Horizontality: The debris and other forms of deposits accumulated in
bodies of water form sedimentary rock layers that are parallel and horizontal to the
ground.
Principle of Lateral Continuity: Rock layers, as originally laid down, are bounded by
the edge of the basin of deposition. Layers of sedimentary rocks extend sideways in
the same order. A later event such as river cutting may form a gap, but the connection
between strata can still be established.
Principle of Faunal Succession: It was developed by William Smith who noticed
succession of rock layers and saw that the same vertical changes in fossils that are
embedded in rocks occurred in different places.

What’s New
Learning Activity: Stratification of Rocks
Instructions: Read the instructions of the activity below. Write True on the space
provided, if the statement is correct, and False if NOT. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

_____1. The term 'rock strata' refers to layers of sedimentary rocks

_____2. Rock layers at surface are older strata.
_____3. Stratification is the process of layering sedimentary rocks.
_____4. Layers of stratified rocks are the same all throughout.
_____5. Crustal movement and displacement of soil causes stratification.
_____6. Earth is the only planet with sedimentary rocks.
_____7. Sediments formed as a result of rock weathering.

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 LESSON
Relative and Absolute Dating
9 ___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

Relative Dating is a method used to determine the relative order of geologic

events. This method does not provide actual numerical dates for the rocks but are just
estimates based on the profile of the strata. The profile of the strata includes chemical
composition, rock type, and presence of organisms.

Principles in Relative Dating

Principle of superposition states that in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary

rock, the layers found at the top are the youngest rock and the bottom are the oldest.
Principle of Original Horizontality: The debris and other forms of deposits
accumulated in bodies of water form sedimentary rock layers that are parallel and
horizontal to the ground.
Principle of Cross-cutting states that the geologic structure that cuts across another
structure is younger than the structure it cuts across.
Principle of Inclusion states that inclusions found in other rocks (or formations) must
be older than the rock that contains them.

Younger layer

Older layer

Relative Dating Method

What’s New
Learning Activity: Relative Dating
Instructions: Describe relative in determining the age of stratified rocks
Procedure:
1. Copy the concept notes on relative dating.
2. Draw in a piece of paper or in your activity notebook the same picture or drawing
based on the given illustration below.

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 3. Answer the activity as instructed.
Based on the principles above, arrange the layers of sedimentary rock form the
oldest to the youngest.
D
1._________
2._________
3._________ A
4.________
B

Absolute Dating is a method that provides estimates of the age of stratified

rocks. Radioactive isotopes are commonly used by most of the scientists to determine
the age of rocks. Isotopes are elements having the same atomic number but different
atomic mass. Isotopes which are not stable and decompose into other isotopes by a
process called radioactive decay are called radioactive isotopes. The time needed for
half of a material of a radioactive element to undergo radioactive decay is termed as
half-life. The method used in determining the absolute age of a sample by determining
the relative percentages of a radioactive parent isotope and a stable daughter isotope
is called Radiometric Dating.

Types of Radiometric Dating

1.Radiocarbon dating for dating organic remains.
2.Potassium-argon dating is often used to date rocks that are 100,000 years to billions
of years old.
3.Uranium-lead dating is based on measuring the amount of the lead-206 daughter
isotope in a sample.
4.Uranium-lead dating can be used to determine the age of igneous rocks that are
between 100 million years and a few billion years old.

What’s More

Enrichment Activity: Absolute Dating

Instructions: Describe absolute dating in determining the age of stratified rocks.
Unscramble the letters to make a word. Match the word with its description.
1. viracioadte dyace dating organic remains
2. siotpeso the time needed for half of the
sample to decay
3. arcobn tidang the process of breaking down
isotopes
4. bsoelauto tignad elements of same atomic number but
different atomic masses
5. lahf-lief a method used estimate the age of
rock

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 LESSON

10 Fossil Markers
___________________________________________________

Learning Concept
Fossils are the remains and traces of ancient organism which contain a lot of
information about the past. Fossils are used to determine the age rocks. These are
called INDEX FOSSILS and these are only found in rocks of a particular age. Index
fossils are also found in most common rocks around the world. These index fossils
(marker fossils) serve as guide in determining the geologic timescale of Earth.

Fossil of Trilobites
In the late 17th century, the principle of geologic timescale was introduced by
Nicholas Steno who explained that each layer of rock could represent a “slice” of time.
Geologist agreed that if two strata found in distant places have same fossils, they could
have been laid down in the same geologic time period. Geologic time shows
descending order of duration using units of abstract time: Eons – represents the
longest amount of time and is divided into Precambrian eon and Phanerozoic Eon.
Phanerozoic Eons are divided into eras (Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, which
are further divided into periods, epochs and finally ages. Years are expressed in MYA
or MA which means “million years ago”.

What’s New
Learning Activity: Marker Fossils
Instructions: Describe the importance of marker fossils. Fill the blanks with
appropriate words to complete the sentence. Write your answers on a separate sheet
of paper.
1._____________ serves as guide in determining the geologic timescale of Earth.
2.Eons represent the __________ amount of time in the geologic timescale and it is
subdivided into eras ___________, ____________, and _________.
3._________ are remains and traces of ancient organism.
4. Eras are further divided into _________, _________, and _______.

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 LESSON

11 Geologic Time Scale

___________________________________________________

Learning Concept

The history and evolution of Earth are described using the geologic timescale.
The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that relates
geological strata (stratigraphy) to time. It is used by geologists, paleontologists, and
other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that have
occurred during Earth's history. The two eons (Precambrian and Phanerozoic eon)
was the formative years and the beginning of the biological evolution of Earth.
Precambrian Eon theories are partially supported by rock evidences state that Earth’s
transformation happened during Precambrian eon. The oldest fossils found were
dated around 3.5 billion years old. During this eon no organisms of the present could
have been formed.

Geologic Time Scale

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 During the Phanerozoic Eon, organisms start evolving; various geologic
process and biologic complexities became more evident. This eon is divided into:
1. Paleozoic Era - the era of old life lasted 542 to 251 MYA. It is subdivided
into: Cambrian & Ordovician (age of invertebrates); Silurian & Devonian (age
of fishes); Mississippian & Pennsylvanian (carboniferous period) and Permian
period (animals are mostly amphibians and plants mostly conifers).
2. Mesozoic Era – Age of reptiles about 251 to 65.5 MYA. It is subdivided into
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous period. Reptiles are dominant organisms
during this era.
3. Cenozoic Era – The era of recent life started from 65.5 MYA to present. It is
also known as the age of mammals.

What’s New
Learning Activity: Geologic Time Scale
Instructions: Describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic
time scale. Match column A with column B. Write the letter on the space provided.
Column A Column B
____ 1. Organisms start evolving in these times. A. Cenozoic era
____ 2. The most dominant organisms in Mesozoic Era. B. Permian
____ 3. Earth’s transformation happened in this eon. C. Reptiles
____ 4. It is known as the age of mammals. D. Mesozoic era
____ 5. Known as the age of invertebrates E. Precambrian eon
____ 6. Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Period F. Phanerozoic eon
____ 7. Amphibians are dominant in the period G. Cambrian & Ordovician

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 What I have learned

✓ A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid element

or compound composed of an ordered arrangement of atoms with a specific
chemical composition.
✓ Luster, hardness, color, streak, specific gravity, crystal form, cleavage, and
fracture are the different properties of minerals.
✓ A rock is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals.
Rocks can be classified based on their origin into igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
✓ Igneous rock is formed by the process of crystallization. It is formed from
hardened magma or lava. Examples: Granite, Rhyolite, Andesite, Diorite,
Basalt and Gabbro, Obsidian, Pumice and Tuff.
✓ Sedimentary rock is formed by the process of lithification. The process of
lithification involves compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to
the pressure exerted by the layers of sediment above and cementation that
involves the action of chemicals that bind these sediments together. Examples:
Conglomerate, Breccia, Sandstone, Siltstone and Shale.
✓ Metamorphic rock can be formed form previously existing rock such as
igneous and sedimentary rocks. When they are subjected to heat and pressure,
they undergo the process of metamorphism and they are eventually converted
into an igneous rock. Examples: Slate, Schist, Gneiss, Marble, Quartzite
✓ The rock cycle involves processes such as weathering, erosion, deposition,
compaction, cementation, melting, crystallization, and metamorphism.
✓ Weathering refers to the breakdown of rocks either physically or chemically.
Mechanical (Physical) weathering occurs when physical forces break rock
into smaller and smaller pieces without changing the rock’s mineral
composition. Chemical weathering is the transformation of rock into one or
more new compounds.
✓ Igneous rocks can be classified into intrusive and extrusive.
✓ Intrusive igneous rocks, also known as plutonic rocks, are generally formed
from magma, cools slowly, usually dense and darker. It also contains larger
crystal grains. Diorite, Granite, and Gabbro are examples of intrusive igneous
rocks.
✓ Extrusive igneous rocks are formed from lava, cools quickly, usually light
colored, lower in density and has smaller or no crystal grains. Examples of
extrusive igneous rocks are basalt, andesite, and rhyolite.
✓ The faster rock cools, the smaller mineral crystals are formed.
✓ Igneous rocks can be classified according to its texture and mineral
composition.
✓ Igneous textures differentiate on its cooling rate and can be classified as
coarse-grained (slow cooling), fine-grained (fast cooling), porphyritic (varied
rate of cooling, glassy (very fast cooling), frothy and pyroclastic (fragmental).
✓ These rocks can be classified according to its chemical composition such as
felsic (>65% silica), mafic (45-52% silica), intermediate (53-65% silica) and
ultramafic (<45% silica).
✓ Contact metamorphism occurs when rock moves near a body of magma.
✓ Regional dynamothermal metamorphism results in large-scale deformation.
This process produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock.

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✓ Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs when rocks are exposed to hot water
and dissolve ions to change chemical and mineral composition.
✓ Burial Metamorphism results from burial of rocks.
✓ Diastrophism refers to process of rocks deformation.
✓ Stress refers to the forces acting upon a crustal plate. It is classified into
tension, compression and shearing.
✓ Tension moves rock layers away from each other.
✓ Compression occurs when rocks are pushed towards one another. It may
cause rock layers to create fold or faults.
✓ Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologists and geophysicist, presented the
Continental Drift Hypothesis.
✓ He argued that the continents had once been joined to form a single
supercontinent, Pangaea which began to break apart 200 million years ago and
form the present landmasses.
✓ The evidences of the Continental Drift Theory include continental topography,
fossil correlation, rock structures and ancient climates.
✓ Plates is one of numerous moving rigid sections of the crust over the
asthenosphere.
✓ The uppermost mantle, along with the overlying crust behaves as a strong, rigid
layer called lithosphere.
✓ Plates are divided into three (3) boundaries namely divergent, convergent and
transform fault boundaries.

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 2. Assessment

MULTIPLE CHOICE
Directions: Read and understand each item and choose the CAPITAL LETTER of
your choice. Write all your answers on a piece of paper. (1 point each)

1. Which of the following statements are TRUE?

I. All minerals are solid
II. When two or more minerals combine together, they form a rock
III. When magma cools at a fast rate, large mineral crystals are produced
IV. Quartz is the most common mineral found on Earth
A. I, II, III and IV B. I, II and III C. I, II and IV D. I and II only

2. Which of these minerals commonly forms by evaporation of sea water?

A. Clay B. Halite C. Feldspar D. Quartz

3. Calcite is used as absorbent material during the burning of fossil fuels and Halite is
used to preserve food. Which of the following properties can best be used to
distinguish between calcite and halite?
A. luster B. magnetism C. streak D. reaction with acid

4. Which would most likely occur during the formation of granite and basalt?
A. lithification of weathered and eroded materials
B. solidification of molten materials
C. exposed to extreme pressure and heat
D. precipitation of seawater

5. Marble, Quartzite, Greenstone and Anthracite are rocks that came from pre-
existing rocks. What do they have in common?
A. they are plutonic igneous rocks
B. they are non-foliated metamorphic rocks
C. they are volcanic igneous rocks
D. they are foliated metamorphic rocks

6. Weathering are processes that decompose rocks and convert them to loose gravel,
sand, clay and soil. Which of the following shows a certain rock undergoes
mechanical weathering?
A. water accumulates in a crack and then freezes
B. acid dissolves rock
C. iron in rocks combine with oxygen
D. feldspar weathers to form clay

7. What is the correct sequence of the processes involved in the formation of shale?
A. erosion, lithification, deposition, weathering
B. erosion, deposition, lithification, weathering
C. weathering, erosion, deposition, lithification
D. weathering, deposition, erosion, lithification

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8. Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of particles of weathered rocks called
clasts, which have been transported, deposited, compacted and cemented.
Which of the following rock sample is NOT classified as clastic sedimentary rock?
A. Sandstone B. Siltstone C. Shale D. Limestone

9. Geologists use both the minerals and texture to name igneous rocks. Most common
igneous rocks are classified in pair, each member of a pair containing the same
minerals but having a different texture. Which of the following igneous rocks are
NOT properly paired?
A. Granite and Rhyolite C. Basalt and Gabbro
B. Andesite and Diorite D. Granite and Basalt

10. The rate of cooling of magma also influences the size of mineral crystals in rocks.
A peridotite rock was observed to have big crystals, this rock is probably
A. extrusive igneous C. intrusive igneous
B. non-foliated metamorphic D. foliated metamorphic rock

11 Gneiss, a rock, is found to have visible layering in its surface. This rock is most
probably
A. foliated metamorphic C. organic sedimentary
B. clastic sedimentary D. intrusive igneous

12. Which of the following was the main reason why scientists rejected Alfred
Wegener's hypothesis?
A. All of his evidence turned out to be fake
B. He could not explain the mechanism for movement of the continents.
C. He failed to prove the taxonomic hierarchy of humans
D. He failed to identify the fossils found

13. According to the seafloor hypothesis, rocks farther away from the mid-ocean
ridge were older than those near it, how did scientists discover this
phenomenon?
A. by perceiving eruptions of magma on the ocean floor
B. by making a map of rocks on the ocean floor using technology
C. by identifying the age of rocks which are gotten through drilling on the
ocean floor
D. by measuring how fast sea-floor spreading occurs

14. The youngest rocks on the ocean floor are located ____.
A. near trenches
B. far from mid-ocean ridges
C. at mid-ocean ridges
D. near continental slope and continental margin

15. Mt. Mayon and other active volcanoes in the Philippines are most likely to form at
____.
A. transform boundaries C. convergent continental-continental boundaries
B. divergent boundaries D. convergent oceanic–continental boundaries

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16. In seafloor spreading, where do magma rise?
A. at the mid-oceanic ridges C. along rift valleys
B. along the trenches D. at the edges of the continents

17. A process whereby the denser ocean floor subducts and move to the mantle,
forms the molten rock called magma and rises to form the new ocean floor is
known as _______.
A. conduction C. convection
B. continental drift D. subduction

18. What causes the seafloor to spread?

A. earthquake C. rising molten magma
B. sinking magma D. drifting continental crust

19. He proposed the theory of the seafloor spreading.

A. Alfred Wegener C. Tuzo Wilson
B. Harry Hess D. Abraham Ortelius

20. Molten rock refers to:

A. magma C. volcanic ash
B. lava D. caldera

21. Which is the largest division of geologic time?

A. Eon C. Epoch
B. Era D. Period

22. Which dating technique requires an extensive knowledge of stratigraphy?

A. Absolute Dating C. Relative Dating
B. Faunal Dating D. Radiometric Dating

23. In what era do we belong?

A. Cenozoic C. Mesozoic
B. Jurassic D. Paleozoic

24. Which is NOT a basis of stratigraphy?

A. Principle of Verticality C. Principle of Faunal Succession
B. Principle of Superposition D. Principle of Horizontality

25. Which principle states that layers can be traced over a long interval from one
location to another?
A. Principle of Faunal Succession C. Principle of Original Horizontality
B. Principle of Lateral Continuity D. Principle of Superposition

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Key to Answers

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