CHAPTER 2

LANGUAGE CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT SYSTEM
(Weeks 3-4)

MY JOURNEY

Planning the language curriculum is a very important stage in language learning

and teaching. This process allows school administrators and teachers to assess student
needs and decide for the most appropriate lesson, activities, materials, and methods that
would meet the demands of the learners. Hence, in order to plan and design an
appropriate language curriculum for a particular group of learners, it is important for
language teachers to be knowledgeable and skilful on the principles underlying curriculum
planning and course design.

In this lesson, you will learn the following:

1. What is a Curriculum?
2. The Changing Concept of Curriculum
3. Curriculum as Product
4. What is Curriculum Development?
5. Questions to consider in Planning and Developing Curriculum
6. Teaching Method as a factor influencing the development and designing of a
Language Curriculum
7. Syllabus Design and Language Teaching Curriculum Development
8. Some Consequences for being Curricula Developers
9. Role of School Leaders in Curriculum Implementation
10. Factors affecting Curriculum Today
11. Curriculum Change vs. Curriculum Innovation
12. Needs Analysis as an Important Facet of Curriculum Development

MY EXPECTATIONS

At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1. develop an understanding of the nature of the language learning area in

secondary schools curriculum;

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 2. understand the necessity of the curriculum;
3. understand the importance of Language Curriculum Development; and
4. deepen their sensitivity and appreciate the role of needs analysis as a facet in
curriculum development.

MY INITIAL TASKS

As a preliminary activity for the topic, kindly reflect on our schema about curriculum.
Complete the concept map below.

CURRICULUM

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 MY READINGS

Lesson 1: What is Curriculum?

One description of curriculum distinguishes it into varying levels according to their

distance from learners:

1. The societal level curriculum describes what is mandated for study at national
level.
2. The intended or written curriculum is a normative statement of intent for a course
or whole programme that is intended primarily to ensure that the educational goals
of the system are being accomplished. It is much more specific with the following
being specified: goals to be accomplished; specific objectives, the sequence in
which those objectives are to be studied; and the kinds of learning activities.
3. The planned curriculum results from teachers’ interactions with the written
curriculum, their own theories of practice and contextual opportunities and
constraints.
4. The instructional, taught or implemented curriculum is the one that teachers
take in to the classroom to negotiate and construct with learners, working with
various dynamic constraints and opportunities.
5. The received or experiential curriculum is the one that learners experience and
from which they construct their understandings.
6. The learned or achieved curriculum describes the portion of the received
curriculum that learners actually take up and learn. This is the bottom line
curriculum that the students actually learn: the values, skills, perceptions,
knowledge, behavior that may cause changes in the life of the student
7. The recommended curriculum is that one recommended by scholars and
professional organizations. It encompasses the curriculum requirements of policy
making groups such as DepEd, CHED, TESDA, DOST, DENR, NEDA identifying
skills and concepts they ought to learn.
8. The supported curriculum includes resources that support the curriculum
textbooks, software, and other media.
9. The assessed curriculum is the result of the tests and performance measures:
state test, standardized test, district test, teacher-made test.
10. The hidden curriculum is the unintended curriculum that defines what the students
learn from the physical environment, the policies, and the procedures of the school.

Based on the different levels or domains, curriculum may be defined as

 A plan for achieving goals;
 Dealing with the learners’ experiences;
 System for dealing with the society, filed of study with its own foundations,
theories, principles, and specialists;
 A concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a ;

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  Treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures. and
 A subject matter or course content.

Lesson 2: The Changing Concept of Curriculum

Education is on the frontline of the battle for the Philippine’s future

competitiveness. With the help of a good curriculum there will be a productive
education. The organization of schooling and further education has long been
associated with the idea of a curriculum. But what actually is curriculum, and how
might it be conceptualized? (Matias 2012)

Curriculum encompasses more than just a simple definition. However it can be

prescriptive, descriptive or both.

1. Prescriptive curriculum provides teachers and learners what ought to happen

and they take the form of a plan, an intended program, or an expert opinion about
what needs to take place in the course of study (Ellis 2004). The curriculum is all
the learning experiences or courses planned and directed by the school to attain
its educational goals.

2. Descriptive curriculum emphasizes that curriculum be taught not merely in terms

of how things ought to be but how things are in real classrooms and in real world.
Experiences are considered important in the learning process – learnings that each
child selects, accepts, and incorporates into himself to act with, on, upon in
subsequent experiences under the guidance of a teacher.

Lesson 3: Curriculum as Product

The dominant modes of describing and managing education are today couched in
the productive form. Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives
are set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured.

Lesson 4: What is Curriculum Development?

1. Curriculum development is an essentially practical activity to improve the quality

of language teaching through the use of systematic planning, development, and
review practices in all aspects of a language program.
2. The process of curriculum development covers determining learners’ needs,
developing aims or objectives to address the needs, determining an appropriate
syllabus, course structure, teaching methods, and materials, and carrying out an
evaluation of the language program that results from these activities.

The curriculum development models

Curriculum development models are different programmatic plans (various

sequences of steps devised with a view to curriculum effectiveness) which implies

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continuous monitoring of implementation to ensure that relevant considerations receive
due attention. Kelly (1985:15) correctly asserts that

in engaging in curriculum planning, therefore, we need to be clear about the

logic of the process and we need to take full account of all those other
factors that appear to have some relevance to our enterprise, but we also
need some basis upon which we can make the necessary choices and
selection, a set of criteria, a framework of values within which to work.

Hameyer (1991:20) likewise asserts that a conceptual curriculum model

―provides rules for deliberate interaction and activities, criteria for intervention, and
guidelines for evaluation. It stands to reason that curriculum models must be known and
understood in order to evaluate their implementation effectively. An overview of
curriculum development models follows:

The Taba model. This model is most commonly used. Taba (1962) argues that
curriculum should be designed by the teachers rather than handed down by higher
authority. In this regard she postulates that the teachers should start the process by
creating trial teaching learning units in their schools rather than engaging from outset in
creating a general curriculum design. Unlike the traditional approach which proceeds from
the general to the particular, the approach in this case is inductive. It consists of five
consecutive steps (see figure 2.1):

1. Producing pilot units

This stage proceeds in eight steps:
 Diagnosis of needs consisting in a clear identification of the students‘ needs
with due allowance for gaps, deficiencies and variations in students
backgrounds. According to Taba (1962:12), ―diagnosis, then, is an
important first step in determining what the curriculum should be for a given
population.
 Formulation of objectives or goals to be targeted in the light of diagnosis.
Taba (1962:12) avers that:

In large part the objectives determine what content is

important and how it should be organized. For example, if the
goal of studying world history is to produce intelligent
judgement about the current world scene, certain parts of
history are bound to be more important than others. If the goal
is to create a common perception of the past, then other
aspects of world history and other ways of learning it become
important. If reflective thinking is an important goal, a
thorough study of fewer topics and greater opportunities to
relate ideas would be more important than a complete
coverage of facts.

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  Selection of contents by determining appropriate subject matters or topics
aimed at defined objectives. This process must take account of different
levels of learners‘ capacity to grasp the content with due attention to level
of introduction as well as continuity or sequencing.
 Organization of content deciding at what levels, how deep and in what
sequences the subject matter will be dealt with or covered.
 Selection of learning experiences adopting methodologies or strategies as
well as learning activities. Taba (1962:13) asserts that ―the planning of
learning experiences becomes a part of a major strategy of curriculum
building instead of being relegated to incidental decisions made by the
teacher at the moment of teaching.
 Organization of learning activities: deciding how to engage learners‘ interest
in and commitment to content, and combinations and sequences to be
followed, given the characteristics and general background of targeted
students.  Determining what and how to evaluate with the aid of appropriate
techniques whether and to what extent defined objectives are being or have
been achieved.
 Checking for balance and sequence: observing consistency among the
various parts of the teacher-learning units, with a view to securing adequate
flow of learning experiences and a balanced combination of learning types
and forms of expression; in brief, ensuring effective interdiscipilinarity.

2. Testing experimental units

This phase consists in evaluating the validity; teach-ability and adequacy of
designed learning units.

3. Revising and consolidating

After testing the experimental units, they are modified to ensure that they keep
pace and are well adapted to variations in students‘ needs and abilities, available
resources and different styles of teaching.

4. Developing a framework
In light of the overall activity undertaken in the first three-step sequence, curriculum
specialists make a draft of a rationale for the curriculum planned.

5. Installing and disseminating new units

At this stage an appropriate network for in-service training is established so that
the teachers can implement pilot teaching-learning units in their classes.

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 The Saylor, Alexander and Lewis model. This model is premised on a deductive
approach and the first step, advisedly is to define the major educational goals and specific
objectives. Saylor, Alexander and Lewis (1981:31) observe that ―examination of past
and present practices of curriculum planning indicates a frequent lack of a continuing
goals and objectives, which is essential to systematic curriculum planning‖. The goals
and objectives of this approach are framed with reference to four areas: personal
development, social competence, continued learning skills, and specialization. The
authors warn that the model should be not enforced dogmatically but should make
allowances for varied educational settings and adaptive curriculum plans within the stated
areas without implicating spheres that are not specifically intended.

Referring to personal development, Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981:34) argue

that ―in a very general sense the entire purpose of education is to aid the development
of the person. Furthermore, they clarify the concept of personal development, asserting
that:

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 The personal development domain includes a vast array of learning
opportunities: basic communication skills; most opportunities relating to the
so-called general education objectives; value assessment and
development; guidance and counselling services; health and physical
education; exploratory subjects; and activities and opportunities that give
each individual chances to discover areas of interest for later specialization.
Esthetic education plays an important role in personal development (Saylor,
Alexander, and Lewis, 1981:34).

Regarding social competence, the same authors observe that, in a society of

human beings, and especially in one which prizes democratic values and processes, a
continuous and essential goal of education is ever-improving social competence that
includes citizenship education, social welfare, human relations, various knowledge areas
of social sciences and humanities and languages. Consequently, education towards
social competence implies:

…social interaction and organization within the schools themselves; the

participation of students in the various social groups and institutions of their
communities; and specific studies and skilldevelopment activities related to
particular human relations problems within the school and community, such
as those involved in cultural differences and conflicts, and, again, valuing
processes.

Particularly note the following observation made by the said authors on social
competence: ―Efforts to achieve aims associated with the social competence domain
can, if narrowly conceived, interfere with personal development. The reference here is to
the critical need to release people from confines of their particular place in space and time
by widening their frame of reference so that they have latitude for critical thinking and
continuous questioning of their immediate situation as well as the capacity to respond to
future changes by reinventing themselves and society as a whole for a better world.

With respect to continuous upgrading of skills, the authors aver that with the ever
increasing changes in today‘s society, the central mission of schooling is to develop life-
long learners by instilling basic skills that will lay the groundwork for continuous self-
motivated learning and self-improvement, to which end the authors suggest the following
activities and learning experiences: ability in reading, listening, viewing, and speaking,
employing of learning skills such as interviewing, discussing, interacting; using various
aids to information retrieval, namely information technology (IT) and telecommunications;
analyzing issues, selecting alternatives, piloting ideas; and generalizing (promoting
generalizability of teaching experiences).

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 The authors further note that specialization includes traditional school areas,
generally classified as prevocational or vocational, music, art, sports, cut-across learning
opportunities selected on the basis of individual interest and any field that can be explored
by an individual chosen for specialization.

It is up to curriculum specialists to decide on the right learning opportunities and

mode of delivery for each domain. In order to implement the mandatory curriculum plan,
teachers must produce instructional plans that specify appropriate instructional objectives
and methods. Finally, the authors contend that their model is the definitive means of
determining whether critical goals and objectives have been achieved.

The Tyler model. This model is embodied in Tyler‘s work titled ‗Basic Principles
of Curriculum and Instruction‘ (1949). It comprises the following stages:
1. The first stage includes the selection of objectives by the curriculum planners from
three sources, namely the learners, society and the subject matter.
 The curriculum design starts with research to determine the total range of
learners‘ educational, social, occupational, physical, psychological, and
recreational needs and interests. Tyler (1949:6) avers that learners‘
needsare the extent to which their existing condition falls short of the
prescribed standards or norms. It is recommended that teachers resort to
observation, interviews with students and parents, questionnaires and tests
to determine needs reliably.
 The next step in formulating general objectives consists of analysis of
contemporary life in both the local community and in society at large,
classifying it into health, family, recreation, vocation, religion, consumption
and civic activities. According to Tyler (1949:16), it is essential to note that:

The effort to drive objectives from studies of contemporary life

largely grew out of the difficulty of accomplishing all that was
laid upon the schools with the greatly increased body of
knowledge which developed after the advent of science and
the Industrial Revolution.

Tyler recommends two approaches to analyzing contemporary life. First,

educational efforts should be focused on the complexity and continuous
change that characterize life today in order to prevent outdated education
delivery that wastes learners‘ time. Particular attention should be paid to
matters of prominence in current affairs, so that learners can be prepared
to respond adequately to contemporary conditions. Secondly, students
critically need to train specific aspects of the mind with a view to enabling
them to meet life on equal terms which students would be more likely to do
if they can see the relevance of the instruction they receive to existing
conditions around them. That is, (1) life and learning situations must be
similar, and (2) students must be given the opportunity to put into practice

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 what they learn at school. Tyler (1949) sees no material difficulty in meeting
these conditions, hence their use as criteria to determine learning
objectives. Tyler warns, however, that contemporary activities are not
necessary indicative of relevance for the purpose of formulating learning
objectives simply because the activities are contemporary: it stands to
reason that activities may be contraindicative for educational purposes and
should therefore be selected with due circumspection. It should be noted
too that essentialist critics consider the importance attached to
contemporary life as an instance of the cult of ―presentism. The
essentialists contend that life is dynamic and continually changing.
Therefore, it is not advisable to prepare students to solve only contemporary
problems, because future problems will be different and students will be
unequipped, therefore, to handle such problems. A related criticism is that
adult activities may have little if any relevance to children and should
therefore also be discounted for lack of specific relevance.

 Finally, educational objectives are formulated by addressing

specific disciplines or by cutting across disciplines. In this
regard Tyler (1949) emphasizes the role of subject specialists,
who may be able to suggest how their subjects can contribute
to the education of young people, who are not necessarily
going to be specialists in their field.

It is important to note that once general objectives have been identified, the
curriculum planners have to consider the suitability of the objectives in
relation to the educational and social philosophy of the school, and in
relation to the psychology of learning. As noted by Tyler (1949:5), ―no
single source of information is adequate to provide a basis for wise and
comprehensive decisions about the objectives of the school‖. The aim of
this procedure is to eliminate unimportant and contradictory objectives,
leaving those that are the most important and feasible. Following this
process, the general objectives are transformed into specific instructional
objectives, in the following stages:

2. Selection of learning experiences The learning experiences referred to are

activities that should be undertaken by students in the teaching and learning
process to achieve prescribed learning objectives aimed at developing learners‘
thinking skills (concepts), helping learners to acquire information (skills), and
developing social attitudes and interests (values).

3. Organization of learning experiences Tyler (1949), Marsh and Stafford (1988) as

well as Lovat and Smith (2003) suggest that the organization of learning
experiences should integrate curriculum horizontally and vertically. Horizontal
integration is characterized by linking what is taught in one subject to another,
breaking down the compartmentalization of knowledge. Vertical integration

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 consists in enriching previous learning experiences or knowledge, or in
constructing new knowledge in succeeding lessons units, grades or years.

4. Evaluation of learning experiences It was noted that the evaluation of learning

experiences based on established learning objectives should occur throughout the
total planning exercise at regular intervals and not exclusively as the final stage of
teaching and learning. The aim is to determine whether learning outcomes are
being or have been achieved.

Summing up, the Tyler model consists of the following elements: objectives,
activities (learning experiences), organization of activities, implementation of the
activities and evaluation. Similarly, this model is premised on a deductive approach
to curriculum development. The Tyler model is also called the ‗objective model‘,
the ‗linear model‘ or the ends/means model (Marsh & Wills, 2003:72; Lovat &
Smith, 2003:114).

This model is considered the best by many curriculum planners, with

particular reference to planning the various phases of outcome-based learning
(Oliva 1992; Lovat & Smith 2003). However, some critics have censured it for being
linear, oversimplified and technocratic (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1993; Tyler, 1977)
emphasized the importance of the student‘s active role in the learning process and
non-school areas of learning as critical considerations in curriculum planning and
development (cf. Marsh & Stafford 1988:9). The reasoning behind these emphases
is that the development of higher–order thinking skills should be encouraged by
designing a curriculum that is rich in natural complexity and that teaching of the
curriculum should be done with due recognition of the pattern detecting
mechanisms of human that is, delivery should take optimal advantage for these
mechanisms (Tyler, 1977; Dool, 1993).

Lesson 5: Questions to Consider in Planning and Developing Curriculum

1. What procedures can be used to determine the content of a language program?

2. What are learners’ needs?
3. How can “learners’ needs” be determined?
4. What contextual factors need to be considered in planning a language program?
5. What is the nature of aims and objectives in teaching and how can these be
developed?
6. What factors are involved in planning the syllabus and the units of organization in
a course?
7. How can good teaching be provided in a program?
8. What issues are involved in selecting, adapting, and designing instructional
materials?
9. How can one measure the effectiveness of a language program?

Lesson 6: Teaching Method as a Factor Influencing the Development and

Designing of a Language Curriculum

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 The activities of language teaching have often been viewed from a very narrow
perspective. This is evident from the fascination with teaching methods that have
characterized the history of language teaching until recently.

Teaching methods have often been regarded as the most important factor in
determining the success of a language program, and advances in language teaching
have sometimes been seen as being dependent on the adoption of the latest method.
However, clear perspectives are often missing from the method-based view of teaching.
How teaching methods interact with other factors in the teaching-learning process is often
not thoroughly studied and considered. Among these factors are:

1. The learners and the teachers and their expectations for the program;
2. Learning and teaching styles they bring to the program;
3. Purposes of the language course/curriculum;
4. Goals the program have, and how these goals can be expressed;
5. Settings where teaching take place;
6. Organizational structure to be designed to support and maintain good teaching;
7. Resources to be used and their roles;
8. The role of textbooks, technology, and other teaching materials; and
9. Measures that will be used to determine the success of the program.

Choice of teaching method cannot be made unless a great deal is known about the
context for the language program and the interactions between the different elements
involved.

It is this perspective that characterizes a curriculum-based approach to language

teaching. Being an effective teacher meant much more than becoming a more skilful and
knowledgeable classroom practitioner. Effective teaching is dependent on:

1. Understanding the context for teaching;

2. The needs of teachers and learners;
3. The careful planning of courses and materials; and
4. The monitoring of teaching and learning.

It is important, therefore, to understand teaching as a part of an interrelated set of

factors and processes that are often referred to as curriculum development (Richards,
2001)

Lesson 7: Syllabus Design and Language Teaching Curriculum Development

1. The history of curriculum development in LT starts with the notion of syllabus

design.
2. Syllabus design is one aspect of curriculum development.
3. Curriculum designing is the process of developing a syllabus.

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 4. A syllabus is a specification of the content of a course of instruction and lists of
what will be taught and tested.

Course syllabus has undergone the evolution as it has followed the changes of
approaches and methods underlying it.

1. The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar

2. Learners everywhere have the same needs
3. Learners’ needs are identified exclusively in terms of language needs
4. The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook
5. The context of teaching is English as a foreign language

Lesson 8: Some Consequences for Being Curricula Developers

Curricula developers formulate, develop, and manage their:

1. Teaching learning process

a. Aims & Objectives. Specify general aims for the lessons series and specific
objectives per lesson unit for each grade level – Reflect on national
standards
b. Learning Outcomes
c. Assessment Standard

2. Content

a. Specify themes and topics for the lesson series. Reflect on conceptual
consistency (between themes) and sequencing between grade levels
b. Learning activities & teacher role. Specify what activities are expected
from the learner and how these are supported by the teacher
c. Reflect on balance between whole-class activities (e.g. Introduction/closing
of the lesson) and activities in grade groups

3. Materials and resources

a. Specify what materials and resources are needed to conduct the

lesson. Find out what is available in schools and how parts of existing
textbooks can be used as inspiration and/or background for the lesson
materials.
b. Grouping. Specify how pupils are to be grouped during the lessons
c. Location. Specify where pupils will be grouped during the lesson
d. Time. Specify the time available for the different lesson elements. Reflect
on time available for whole class instruction, individual (independent) work,
individual coaching of students
e. Assessment. Specify how learners’ progress will be tested

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Lesson 9: The Role of School Leaders in Implementing What is in the Curriculum

Curriculum development is the process by which education is transmitted or

delivered to students by the most effective methods that can be devised. In making the
curriculum there should be leaders. The school principals serve as the curriculum
leaders in which the major preparation initiatives rightfully focus attention upon
instructional leadership skills. They elevate curriculum leadership skills to a new status
and principals need support to assume the mantle of curriculum leadership called for
today.

Lesson 10: Factors affecting Curriculum Today

Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21st
century learners in both organized academic settings and corporation learning center.
Blueprinting curriculum development requires selecting learning goals, designing
knowledge delivery models while creating assessment methods for individual and group
progress.

Factors affecting curriculum development include government norms, which in turn

brings other factors into the process. Valid curriculum development requires awareness
of the diversity of the target community socially, financially and psychologically.

1. Political

Politics affect curriculum development in numerous ways and how politics

influences curriculum design and development starts with funding. Both private and public
educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building and maintaining
facilities and equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend on local, state and national
political standards. From defining goals, interpreting curricular materials to approving
examination systems, politics affects curriculum development.

2. Economic

Curriculum for in-house trainings in corporations focuses on educating employees

for promotions that bring better returns in profits. Nations financing education expect an
economic return from educated students contributing to the country's economy with global
competition abilities in technical fields. Curriculum content influences learner goals and
standards for academic achievement with an underlying influence of the nation's
economy.

3. Technological

Technology-driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century.

The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every
level of learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide computers as
requisite interaction for studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences

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educational goals and learning experiences among students. Undergraduate and
graduate degrees in computer technology are in increase in popularity.

4. Diversity

Curriculum development is affected by diversity that opens learning opportunities.

Social diversity includes religion, culture and social groupings. These affect curriculum
development because they can influence the types of topics and methods for teaching
information. Developing relevant curriculum takes into account society's expectations,
accommodating group traditions and promoting equality.

6. Environment

Environment issues affect curriculum development. For instance, world

awareness and action toward reversing and ending pollution continues to affect
curriculum development. Typical elementary classrooms teach recycling and healthy
environmental practices. Higher education in the sciences offers environmentally-focused
degrees.

Lesson 11: The Difference between the Curriculum Change and Curriculum
Innovation

With curriculum innovation, a teacher would be teaching the subject in a new way,
perhaps connected with other activities. If one innovative approach hasn't been done
before, a simulation of some experience brings in someone who lived in those times--an
experience that will transform the knowledge that the students have.

A change or innovation in curriculum will affect the courses/subjects being taught,

the resources or materials to be used, the teaching methodology to be applied, the time
plan, the subject requirements, even the criteria for rating the learners.

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1. Curriculum Change

The curriculum developer places curriculum within the broader framework of

quality education and effective educational policy, and defining curriculum change as a
dynamic process aimed at ensuring relevance of learning.

2. Policy Dialogue and Formulation

The curriculum developer explores contexts of policy change, firstly by

examining possible triggers and rationales for policy change and secondly by providing
tools for the analysis of strengths and weaknesses in local contexts and for the
identification of the partners involved in, and concerned with, the education system. It
then identifies the range of possible stakeholder involvement in policy dialogue and
formulation, as well as the possible causes of resistance to policy change.

3. Curriculum Design

The curriculum developer presents a generic structure for curriculum

frameworks and examines the relationship between its various constituent elements. It
provides an overview of different approaches to the process of defining what learners
should know and be able to do at the end of various learning cycles based on the
formulation of objectives, skills, competencies and/or standards. Each of these
approaches has implications for the structuring of learning content, time and space
allocation at school level, teaching and learning methodologies, and assessment
methods.

4. System Management and Governance

The curriculum developer examines the relationship between sound management

and governance and successful curriculum development. Consistent with the principle of
relevance, it explores the importance of effective management and leadership of
curriculum development processes at central, regional and school levels.

This area identifies a number of rationales and modalities for effective

management and governance, and considers the need to maintain balance between
centralization and decentralization. It explores issues related to the localization of
curriculum in specific national and local contexts as a way of ensuring greater
responsiveness to local needs and realities. In so doing, it attempts to clarify the different
practices associated with decentralization including devolution and decentralization of
decision-making power to lower levels, and de-concentration of administrative functions
away from the center.

The area promotes the view that educational authorities should develop or adopt
a management and governance system that is based on universally applicable principles

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(such as the primacy of what is best for the child and the importance of ethical and
corruption-free processes) and should adopt processes that will work most efficiently in
the prevailing economic and political circumstances.

5. Development of Textbooks and Teaching-Learning Materials

This explores current trends in policy and processes of textbook development

and presents a variety of models for the curriculum professional to consider. The potential
roles of various stakeholders, including the Ministry of Education, in the production and
distribution of textbooks are presented and users are invited to consider the schemes that
best apply to their contexts.

The full range of teaching-learning materials is also explored, and some ideas
for the selection and production are given in relation to curriculum needs.

6. Capacity Building for Curriculum Implementation

This area defines capacity building in the context of curriculum change, as a
process of developing the knowledge, skills and insight of individuals and groups engaged
in curriculum change and empowering them to make informed decisions in such areas as
policy formulation, curriculum design, textbook development and evaluation, piloting and
innovation, curriculum evaluation and student assessment through training and the
promotion of discourse. Capacity building for curriculum change is examined in the
contexts of new teaching and learning approaches and information and communications
technology. The module highlights the need for carefully targeted capacity building, the
priority areas for empowerment of the targeted stakeholders, and the varied approaches
to on-going capacity building in order to sustain the change process.

7. Processes of Curriculum Implementation

This area aims to explore and clarify possible models of curriculum
implementation. It examines a range of issues related to implementation, including:

 Planning for the implementation process;

 Analyzing funding and resources;
 The process of piloting new curricula;
 The importance of initial and continuing teacher training, and
 The possible roles of regional and school-based leaders in putting new curricula
into place.

8. Curriculum Evaluation and Student Assessment

Curriculum evaluation is presented as an important source of curriculum policy

change, and of on-going feedback for continuous curriculum adaptation in the process of
implementation. Rationales for evaluation are considered and the module then identifies
curricula and curriculum components which may be evaluated. Possible approaches to
evaluation are explored.

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 The area focuses on processes and techniques of evaluation: who should
evaluate, whose opinions are important, the types of qualitative and quantitative data that
can be useful, how to gather data and what to do with data.

Lesson 12: Needs Analysis as an Important Facet of Curriculum Development

Needs analysis is a procedure used to collect information about learners’ needs.

Needs analysis as a distinct necessary phase in planning educational programs emerged
in the 1960s as part of the system approach to curriculum development and was part of
the prevalent philosophy of educational accountability.

What are needs?

The term needs is sometimes used to refer to wants, desires, demands,
expectation, motivation, lacks, constraints (Brindley, 1984). Needs are often described in
terms of linguistic deficiency, that is, as describing the difference between what a learner
can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. Porcher (1997)
offers a different perspective: “Need is not a thing that exists and might be encountered
ready-made on the street. It is a thing that is constructed, the center of conceptual
networks and the product of a number of epistemological choices.”

Auberbach (1995: p. 9) has pointed out that English language teaching has often
been viewed as a “neutral transfer of skills, knowledge, or competencies” and that such
an approach is based on the needs of social institutions, rather than language learners.

The Users of Needs Analysis

Determining he likely audiences is an important first step in planning a needs
analysis in order to ensure that the information they need is obtained and that the needs
analysis will have the impact it is designed to have.

Needs analysis can thus have political dimension. It can be used to support a
particular agenda, for example, by giving priority to one group to the exclusion of others
within a population or in order to justify a decision that has already been made on
economic or other grounds.

The Target Population

The target population in a needs analysis refers to the people about whom
information will be collected. Typically, in language programs these will be language
learners or potential language learners, but others are also often involved depending on
whether they can provide information useful in meeting the purposes of the needs
analysis. For example, in conducting a needs analysis to determine the focus of an
English program in public secondary schools in an EFL context, the target population
might include:
a. Policy makers
b. Ministry of education officials
c. Teachers
d. Students

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 e. Academics
f. Employers
g. Vocational training specialist
h. Parents
i. Influential individuals and pressure groups
j. Academic specialists
k. Community agencies

Procedures for Conducting Needs Analysis

A variety of procedures can be used in conducting needs analysis and the kind of
information obtained is often dependent on the type of procedure selected. Since any one
source of information is likely to be incomplete or partial, a triangular approach (i.e.,
collecting information from two or more sources) is advisable. Many different sources of
information should be sought. For example, when a needs analysis of the writing problem
encountered by foreign students enrolled in American universities is conducted,
information could be obtained from the following sources:
a. Samples of student writing
b. Test data on a student performance
c. Reports by teachers on typical problems students face
d. Opinions of experts
e. Information from students via interviews and questionnaires
f. Analysis of textbooks teaching academic writing
g. Survey or related literature
h. Examples of writing programs form other institutions
i. Examples of writing assignments given to first-year university students

Instruments for Gathering Data

1. Questionnaires
2. Self-Rating
3. Interviews
4. Meetings
5. Observation
6. Collecting Learner Languages
7. Task Analysis
8. Case Studies Analysis Of Available Information

Designing the Needs Analysis

1. Literature survey
2. Analysis of a wide range of survey questionnaires
3. Contact with others who had conducted similar surveys
4. Interviews with teachers to determine goals
5. Identification of participating departments
6. Presentation of project proposal to participating departments and identification of
liaison person in each department
7. Development of a pilot student and staff questionnaires

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 8. Review the questionnaires by colleagues
9. Piloting of the questionnaires
10. Selection of staff and student subjects
11. Developing a schedule for collecting data
12. Administration of questionnaires
13. Follow-up interviews with selected participants
14. Tabulation of responses
15. Analysis of responses
16. Writing up of report and recommendations

Making Use of the Information Obtained

In the course of carrying out a needs analysis, a large number of potential needs
may be identified. However, these needs will have to be prioritized because not all of
them may be practical to address in a language program, or perhaps the time frame
available in the program is suitable for addressing only a portion of them. And the mere
fact that needs have been identified does not automatically imply that change will have to
be made in the curriculum. First, the existing curriculum (when there is one) has to be
examined to see to what extent the needs that have been identified are the needs are
being met.

MY DISCOVERY TASKS

Directions: Write the letter of the best answer.

1. The curriculum includes resources that support the curriculum textbooks, software,
and other media.
a. planned b. supported c. written d. achieved
2. The curriculum is the result of the tests and performance measures: state test,
standardized test, district test, teacher-made test.
a. assessed b. intended c. received d. learned
3. The curriculum is the unintended curriculum that defines what the students learn
from the physical environment, the policies, and the procedures of the school.
a. learned b. recommended c. hidden d. taught
4. It is the approach applied in Taba’s Model.
a. deductive b. inductive c. mixed d. none of the above
5. The approach applied in Saylor, Alexander and Lewis’ Model.
a. deductive b. inductive c. mixed d. none of the above
6. This phase of curriculum development involves decisions, among other things, on
grade placement and sequencing of content. Which phase is this?
a. curriculum planning
b. curriculum evaluation
c. curriculum organization
d. curriculum implementation

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 7. Teacher Michele, Teacher Sandra, and Teacher Rabiya initiated diagnosis of their
English learners and created trial teaching-learning units. They then consolidated
their results and suggested some inputs to Mrs. Lee, their Division Curriculum
Specialist. What curriculum model is shown here?
a. Alexander and Lewis Model
b. Taba Model
c. Tyler Model
d. Saylor Model
8. A stakeholder in curriculum development, Ms. Gongob, a district supervisor and a
member of the school board has one of the following primary roles.
a. Support and participate in parent-school organization activities.
b. Authorize school expenditures for curriculum development, implementation
and evaluation
c. Enact legislation to effect curriculum development.
d. Recommend changes in curriculum.
9. What process is being undertaken by curriculum developers when they enrich or
modify certain aspects of a particular program without changing its fundamental
conceptions?
a. curriculum improvement
b. curriculum change
c. curriculum design
d. curriculum implementation
10. Which of the following best defines curriculum development?
a. the total mental phenomena directly received at any given time
b. the planning of learning opportunities intended to bring out certain desired
changes in pupils and the assessment of the extent to which these changes
have taken place
c. a continuous cycle of activities in which all elements of curriculum are
considered
d. education is aiding each child to be socially creative individuals
11. What do you call the curriculum when the teacher puts into action all the different
planned activities in the classroom?
a. Recommended Curriculum
b. Written Curriculum
c. Taught Curriculum
d. Supported Curriculum
12. Which curriculum development phase focuses on the change which will take
place in certain aspects of the curriculum without changing the fundamental
conceptions?
a. curriculum improvement
b. curriculum change
c. curriculum design
d. curriculum implementation

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 13. Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba are both advocates behavioral-rational approach.
They believe that the development of a curriculum begins with a plan. How do
they differ in approach?
a. Tyler begins with implementation while Taba starts with design.
b. Tyler begins formulating the objectives while Taba starts diagnosing the
learners’ needs.
c. Tyler ends with evaluation while Taba ends with improvement and change.
d. Tyler ends with implementing the learning experiences while Taba ends
evaluating the learning experiences.
14. Which of the following violates the principle that “each child’s brain is unique and
vastly different from one another?
a. Giving ample opportunity for a pupil to explore rather than dish out information.
b. employing principles in multiple intelligence in teaching.
c. making a left-handed pupil write with her right hand as this is better
d. allowing open-dialogue among students of various cultural backgrounds
15. A piece of music may sound sad, but when each note is played, there is nothing
sad about it. This is based on the doctrine that says:
a. The whole experience is equal to the sum of its part.
b. The whole experience is greater than the sum of its parts.
c. The whole experience is less than the sum of its parts.
d. The whole experience is not in any way related to the sum of its parts.

MY TREASURE

Before we continue, kindly reflect on the

given quote. You may write your thoughts “A great leader is one who knows the
below. way, goes the way, and shows the way.”
-John Maxwell

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 Flexible Learning Task No. 2
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION:
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION

Directions: Interview three English teachers about their perceptions on curriculum

development and curriculum implementation. Write a 200-word synthesis
about your understanding of their answers on the following questions:
1. What is their perception on the notion that the curriculum should be designed by
the teachers in the grassroots level rather than handed down by higher
authority?
2. What do you this is the role of parents and other stakeholders in the curriculum
decision making at the school level? How about the teachers? How about the
school administration?
3. In the light of curriculum implementation, what should be are the qualities of a
great leader in an age of disruption?

Consider grammar, content, mechanics, and paragraph development in your writing.

MY SUPPLEMENTS

Reyes, E., Dizon, E. and Villena, D. (2015). Curriculum Development. Adriana

Publishing Co., Inc. Quezon City, Manila, Philippines. ISBN 978-971-9656-16-6

Mihm, J.E. (2018). The Curriculum Development System for Language Curriculum for
Secondary. Retrieved last September 3, 2020 from
https://www.slideshare.net/simplyjeyd/the-curriculum-development-system

Mehrmohammadi, M. (n.d.). Needs – Based Curriculum Development Process: A

Multilevel Conception. Tarbiat Modarres University.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED491548.pdf
Kourosh, F.V. (n.d.) Needs Based Curriculum Approach. Semantic Scholar.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d2d6/d5f0f7aac391d19e4b97e177719af7222c
bf.pdf

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