Department of Geology

College of Sciences
University of Mosul

Prepared by

Dr Omar Khalooq Mohammed Sajed

Acknowledgements

Special gratitude goes to Prof. Paul Glover from the University of Leeds for
approving to use his teaching materials that provide important additives to this
course.

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Well logging Prepared by: Dr Omar K. Mohammed Sajed

Introduction
Wireline logs are tools that are placed into the borehole to
measure the rock properties. They may be run down the
borehole on a cable (traditional) or attached to the drilling
assembly to provide real time measurement whilst drilling
(Measurement Whilst Drilling MWD or Logging while Drilling
LWD).

A log is a continuous recording of a geophysical parameter

along a borehole. The value of the measurement is plotted
continuously against depth in the well. Figure 1 shows a
single track of natural gamma log. Note that depth is
arranged vertically in feet or metres, and the header
contains the name of the log curve and the range while the
continuous measurements are represented by smooth
curves. This figure is only 50 m of borehole, but real logs
are often much longer (thousands of metres), and contain
multiple curves on a single track such as this, and multiple
Figure 1
tracks (Figure 2).

Figure 2

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The presentation of log data

Logs are presented on a standard grid defined by the American Petroleum Institute
(API). This grid consists of 3 tracks and a depth column as shown in Figure 3. Track
1 on the leftmost side is always linear and is often reserved for drill bit size, caliper
and gamma ray tool information. The right side usually has 2 tracks (linear, logarithmic,
or hybrid).

Figure 3

Tracks 2 and 3, which may have either a linear or a logarithmic scale. These tracks
are used for density, neutron, and sonic, and resistivity log.

All tracks can take multiple colour (i.e., black, blue, red, green, …etc) and style (i.e.,
dashed line or solid line). The scale units are given at the top of the log and every log
grid is headed by a log heading which allow the suitable interpretation of the log (Figure
4).

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Figure 4

Borehole types

Well Logging Measurements are carried out through the drilled borehole. The drilled
borehole may be either an Open Hole or a Cased Hole.

1- Open Hole: A borehole available immediately after drilling. Measurements concern

with formation evaluation.

2- Cased Hole: A borehole after placed the casing pipes and cementing.
Measurements concern with reservoir development and production well logs are made
when the drill-bit is removed from the borehole. This can be either between drilling
episodes, or at the end of drilling.

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Mud Logging

Mud logging, is the creation of a detailed record (well log) of a borehole by examining
the bits of rock brought to the surface by the circulating drilling medium. This provides
information about the lithology and fluid content of the borehole while drilling. The
drilling mud must be dense, viscous and should have PH of at least 9.

Mud additives:

 Bentonite: which used to increase the viscosity

 Barite: which used to increase the density
 Caustic Soda: which used to increase the alkalinity

Functions of drilling Mud:

 Cleaning the hole

 Cooling the drill bit
 Lifting cuttings to the surface
 Control the formation pressure
 Providing information about formations
 Helps in the invasion process

Types of Drilling Fluids:

1. Water-Base Mud: Water is the liquid phase of water-base Mud. Water is used may
be fresh water, sea water or saline water.
2. Oil-Base Mud: Oil is the liquid phase of oil-base Mud. Advantages of oil-base mud:
 Stabilizing formation
 Reduce downhole drilling problems
3. Drilling with air: Dry air or natural gas is used. In this case, we use arrangements
of air compressors instead of mud pump. Advantages of this technique:
 Prevent formation damage.
 Allows the bit to drill fast.
 Severe lost circulation problems.
4. Foam drilling: This technique is used if small amount of water are present in
formation is been drilled. The drilling foam is water containing air or gas bubbles.

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Basic well logging equipment

Basic well logging equipment consists of

1- Logging Unit. A special truck installed with a full computer system.

2- Logging cable or the wireline

3- Logging tool or sonde

The logging tool (sonde) is lowered into the wellbore by the logging cable (wireline)
and when it reaches the bottom of the interval to be logged, it is slowly withdrawn at a
specific speed. Log measurements are made continually during this process where
the measurements acquired by the sonde are transmitted to the surface system by the
logging. Then, the surface computer records, processes and plots these data as a
function of well depth (Figure 5).

 Instruments mounted in steel

sondes to protect from downhole
pressures and temperatures
 Several sondes combined in a single
logging tool string
 Sonde diameter approximately 4 -6”
(10-15 cm), combined string lengths
can extend over 60 ft (19 m)
 Instruments typically rated to 20,000
psi pressure and 350oF (177oC)

Figure 5
Wireline log tools

Tool or “sonde” is an instrument probe that automatically transmits information about

its surroundings underground. The tool contains various pieces of equipment to
measure the properties of the rock formation (Figure 6). Examples of the basic
physical parameters that can be measured down-hole with logs include:

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 The size of the borehole

 The orientation of the borehole
 Temperature
 Pressure
 The natural radioactivity of the rocks
 The acoustic properties of the rocks
 The attenuation offered by the rocks to radioactivity generated from the tool
 The electrical properties of the rocks

While examples of information that derived from logs include:

 Lithology derived from the combination gamma ray and density-neutron logs
 Shale volume from gamma ray or spontaneous potential (SP) logs
 Porosity derived from the sonic, neutron or density logs
 Fluid saturation calculated from the porosity and the electrical logs

Log tool types

The tools of logging can be classified into:

 Electrical Logs:
 Spontaneous Potential Log (SP)
 Resistivity Logs
 Mechanical Logs:
 Caliper (Cp)
 Radioactive Logs
 Gamma Ray (GR),
 Neutron (CNL)
 Density (FDC),
 Acoustic Logs
 Sonic ( D T )

Figure 6

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Well Logging History

 The first electrical log was introduced in 1927 in France using stationed
resistivity method (Figure 7).
 The first commercial electrical resistivity tool in 1929 was used in Venezuela,
USA and Indonesia.
 SP was run along with resistivity first time in 1931.
 Schlumberger developed the first continuous recording in 1931.
 GR and Neutron logs was started in 1941.
 Microresistivity array dipmeter and lateralog were first time introduced
in 1950’s.
 The first induction tool was used in 1956 followed by Formation tester in 1957
Formation Density in 1960’s, Electromagnetic tool in 1978 and most of Imaging
Logs were developed in 1980’s.
 Advanced formation tester was commercialized in early 1990’s.

Figure 7

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Advantages and Limitations of Well Logging

Advantages:
 Continuous measurements
 Easy and quick to work with
 Short time acquisition
 Better resolution than seismic data
 Economical

Limitations:
 Indirect measurements
 Limited by tool specification
 Affected by environment

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The borehole environment

A schematic borehole showing a

cylindrical invasion of borehole
fluids into the surrounding rock
as indicated by the dotted lines
(Figure 9 and 10).

Figure 9

Figure 10

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Basic definitions
 Drilling mud: circulating fluid used in drilling. Removes cuttings from the well bore,
lubricate and cool the drill bit, maintain an excess of borehole pressure over
formation pressure. The excess pressure forces the drilling fluid to invade porous
and permeable formations.
 Invasion: the process when drilling fluids invade into the formation.
 Mud cake: as invasion occurs, many of the solid particles from the drilling mud are
trapped on the side of the borehole and form mud cake.
 Mud filtrate: fluid that filters into the formation during invasion.
 Invaded zone: the zone which is invaded by mud filtrate. It consists of a flushed
zone and an annulus zone.
 Uninvaded zone: the area beyond the invaded zone where a formation’s fluids
are uncontaminated by mud filtrate.
 Flushed zone: a zone close to the borehole where the mud filtrate has almost
completely flushed out a formation’s hydrocarbons and/or water.
 Transition zone: the zone between the flushed zone and the uninvaded zone
where a formation’s fluids and mud filtrate are mixed.

Hydrocarbon saturation

Hydrocarbon saturation is defined as the amount of pore volume in a rock that is

occupied by gas or oil. The hydrocarbon saturation can be calculated by the following
equation;

𝑆ℎ = 1 − 𝑆𝑤 ,
whereas, the residual hydrocarbon saturation in the flushed zone is calculated by the
following equation;

𝑆ℎ𝑟 = 1 − 𝑆𝑥𝑜 ,
where;

𝑆ℎ = hydrocarbon saturation,
𝑆𝑤 = water saturation,
𝑆ℎ𝑟 = residual hydrocarbon saturation, and

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𝑆𝑥𝑜 = water saturation in the flushed zone.

Electrical Logs
The electrical logs measure the electrical properties of the formation. These
measurements deal with the resistivity of the formation or the measurement of
spontaneously generated voltages.

Electrical conduction takes place in rocks in two ways:

1. Electrolytic Conduction
2. Electronic Conduction
Electrolytic conduction is the most common method where the current moves
through the ions in the pore water. In electronic conduction, the current is carried by
the free mobile electrons in the metals. The low resistivity (high conductivity) of
metals is, therefore, explained by the large number of free electrons in their
structure.

Factors affecting electrical properties of reservoirs

 Salinity
 Temperature
 Saturation
 Presence of hydrocarbons
 Lithology
Electrical properties of reservoirs vary strongly with porosity and characteristics of the
fluids in the pore space; usually, basic properties are determined assuming that; the
reservoir rock is clean (non-shaly), and saturated by water Sw = 1.0 (water saturated
rock).

There are many tools and techniques have been designed and developed to make a
very accurate measurements of this parameter. Two main types of tool are measure
the electrical rock properties.

 Tool measures resistivity directly, and the result is given in ohm.m (Ω.m).
 Tool measures conductivity directly, and the result is given in siemens per metre
(S/m), or in millisiemens per metre (mS/m).

Resistivity Log types:

There are two main types; old resistivity logs, and modern resistivity logs.

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A) Old resistivity logs

This type of simple devices have been largely superseded by later technology, but the
logs will be seen in many old wells. The old resistivity logs consist of two types
according to their electrodes arrangements

1) The Standard Normal Log (SNL)

The current flow circuit (the generator circuit) to be separated from the potential
sensing circuit (the meter circuit). In this arrangement, a constant known current is
flowed from A to B (or B to A), and the potential is measured between M and N.
The current emitting electrode (A) and the measure
electrode (M) are placed close together on the sonde,
and the current return electrode (B) and the measure
reference electrode (N) far away (Figure 12). The
response is determined mainly by the distance
between A and M. The larger AM, the deeper the
measurement. Although many distances have been
used, the most common are 16 in (40 cm), known as
the short normal, and 64 in (162 cm), known as the
long normal.
Figure 12
2) The Standard Lateral Log (SLL)
The current electrodes A and B are placed close together on the sonde with several
feet away to the measuring electrode (M) and far away to the return measuring
electrode (N).

The spacing is defined by the distance from M to

the midpoint between A and B. The most common
spacing is 18 ft, 8 in (5.7 m). The lateral gives a
sharper response to a bed boundary than a normal
log (Figure 13).

Figure 13

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B) Modern resistivity logs

The modern resistivity logs is divided into two main types;
1) Laterologs
2) Micro-resistivity logs
1) Laterologs
The laterologs subdivided into three types;

1-1 The Basic Laterologs (LL3 and LL7)

1-2 The Daul Laterologs (DLL)
1-3 The Spherically Focussed Log (SFL)
2) The Micro resistivity Log (Microlog):
2-1 The MicroLog (ML)
2-2 The Microlaterolog (MLL)
2-3 The Proximity Log (PL)
2-4 The Micro Spherically Focussed Log (MSFL)

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Induction Log
Induction Log measures formation conductivity (its ability to measure conduct the
electrical current). These logs were originally designed for use in boreholes where the
drilling fluid was very resistive (oil-based muds or even gas). It can be used also in
water-based muds of high salinity but has found its greatest use in wells drilled with
fresh water-based muds.

The sonde consists of two wire coils, a

transmitter (Tx) and a receiver (Rx) (Figure
21). High frequency alternating current (20
kHz) of constant amplitude is applied to
the transmitter coil. This gives rise to an
alternating magnetic field around the
sonde that induces secondary currents in
the formation. These currents flow in
coaxial loops around the sonde, and in
turn create their own alternating magnetic
field, which induces currents in the
receiver coil of the sonde. Figure 21

The received signal is measured, and its size is proportional to the conductivity of the
formation.

Spontaneous Potential (Self- Potential)

The Spontaneous potential (SP) log is a measurement of the natural electrical
potential in the formation caused by salinity difference between the drilling mud and
the formation water. Curve records the naturally occurring electrical potential (voltage)
produced by the interaction of formation connate water and conductive drilling fluid.

It is a very simple log that requires only an electrode in the borehole and a reference
electrode at the surface. These spontaneous potentials arise from the different access
that different formations provide for charge carriers in the borehole and formation
fluids, which lead to a spontaneous current flow and hence to a spontaneous potential
difference (Figure 22). The SP log has four main uses:

 Identify the permeable and impermeable beds.

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 The determination of Rw.

 The indication of shale content.
 Correlation.

The measured SP value is influenced by bed thickness, bed resistivity, borehole

diameter, invasion, shale content, hydrocarbon content, and the ratio of Rmf to Rw.

In a thin formation (i.e., less than about 10 ft [3 m] thick), the measured SP is less than
SSP. The SP curve can be corrected by chart for the effects of bed thickness. As a
general rule, whenever the SP curve is narrow and pointed, the SP should be
corrected for bed thickness before being used in the calculation of Rw. To calculate
the shale volume (V shale) we use the following equation;

𝑃𝑆𝑃 − 𝑆𝑆𝑃
𝑉 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 =
𝑆𝑃 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝑆𝑆𝑃

𝑉 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = volume of shale

𝑃𝑆𝑃 = pseudostatic spontaneous potential (maximum SP of shaly formation)

𝑆𝑆𝑃 = static spontaneous potential of a nearby thick clean sand

𝑆𝑃 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 = value of SP in a shale (usually assumed to be zero)

In hydrocarbon-bearing zones, the SP

deflection is reduced. This effect is called
hydrocarbon suppression. Hydrocarbon
suppression of the SP is a qualitative
phenomenon, and cannot be used to
determine the hydrocarbon saturation of
the formation. The SP response of
shales is relatively constant and follows
a straight line called a shale baseline.

Figure 22

The SP value of the shale baseline is assumed to be zero, and SP curve deflections
are measured from this baseline. Permeable zones are indicated where there is SP
deflection from the shale baseline. For example, if the SP curve moves either to the

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left (negative deflection; Rmf > Rw) or to the right (positive deflection; Rmf < Rw) of
the shale baseline, permeable zones are present.

Permeable bed boundaries are placed at the points of inflection from the shale
baseline. Rocks other than shale (e.g. sandstones) will also result in poor or no
response on the SP curve because of no ion exchange. SP can only be acquired in
open hole, and conductive fluids are necessary in borehole to create a SP response,
so the SP log cannot be used in nonconductive drilling muds (e.g. oil-based mud).

When mud filtrate salinities are lower than connate water salinities (i.e., Rmf is > Rw),
the SP deflects to the left (the SP potential is negative). This is called a normal SP.
When the salinities are reversed (i.e., salty mud and fresh formation water, Rmf < Rw),
the SP deflects to the right. This is called a reverse SP. Other things being equal, there
is no SP (and no SP deflection) at all when Rmf = Rw (Figure 23).

Figure 23

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Caliper log
The Caliper Log is a tool for measuring the diameter and shape of a borehole. It uses
a tool which has 2, 4, or more extendable arms (Figure 24). The arms can move in
and out as the tool is withdrawn from the borehole, the arms are linked to a
potentiometer, and the movement is converted into an electrical signal by the
potentiometer.

In the two arm tool, the borehole diameter is measured and shown in the log together
with the bit size for reference. Borehole diameters larger and smaller than the bit size
are possible. Many boreholes can attain an oval shape after drilling. This is due to the
effect of the pressures in the rocks being different in different directions. In oval holes,
the two arm caliper will lock into the long axis of the oval cross section, giving larger
values of borehole diameter than expected. In this case tools with more arms are
required.

Two arm caliper Four arm caliper tool Multi-arm caliper tool
tool tool
Figure 24

The caliper logs are plotted with the drilling bit size for comparison (Figure 25 – 1&2),
or as a differential caliper reading, where the reading represents the caliper value
minus the drill bit diameter. The scale is generally given in inches, which is standard
for measuring bit sizes. The 4 arms (or dual caliper) tools are presented in a range of

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formats, an example of which is given in Figure 25 - 3. Note that data from the caliper
pairs are shown together and that they are different indicating an oval hole.

3. FOUR ARMS CALIPER

Figure 25

The differences between the caliper and bit size logs can be used to identify that part
of the log quality which depends on the presence of caving and mudcake and is used
to apply the borehole environmental corrections to the affected tool measurements
(Table 1), (Figure 26).

Table 1
Borehole condition Logs quality

Caliper – Bit size = 0% Excellent, no correction

Caliper - Bit size < 10% Good quality, refer to DRHO log

Caliper – Bit size = 10 – 30% Moderate, may require correction

Caliper – Bite size > 30 – 50% Bad, requires correction

Caliper – Bite size > 50% Very bad, requires correction

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Figure 26

Gamma Ray
Gamma ray (GR) logs measure the natural radioactivity in formations and can be used
for identifying lithologies and for correlating zones. Shale-free sandstones and
carbonates have low concentrations of radioactive material and give low gamma ray
readings. As shale content increases, the gamma ray log response increases because
of the concentration of radioactive material in shale. However, clean sandstone (i.e.,
with low shale content) might also produce a high gamma ray response if the
sandstone contains potassium feldspars, micas, glauconite, or uranium-rich waters
(Figure 27).

Consequently, low natural radioactivity identifies in sandstone, limestone, dolomites

and high natural radioactivity in shale, and organic rich rock (source rock). In most
reservoirs the lithologies are quite simple, being cycles of sandstones and shales or
carbonates and shales. Once the main lithologies have been identified, the gamma

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ray log values can be used to calculate the shaliness or shale volume Vsh of the rock.
This is important as a threshold value of shale volume is often used to help
discriminate between reservoir and non-reservoir rock.

Figure 27
Shale volume is calculated in the following way: First the gamma ray index IGR is
calculated from the gamma ray log data using the relationship.

𝐺𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑔 − 𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝐺𝑅 =
𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛
where:

𝐼𝐺𝑅 : the gamma ray index

𝐺𝑅𝐿𝑜𝑔: the gamma ray reading at the depth of interest
𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛: the minimum gamma ray reading. (Usually the mean minimum through a
clean sandstone or carbonate formation.)

𝐺𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 : the maximum gamma ray reading. (Usually the mean maximum through a
shale or clay formation.)

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Density Log (RHOB)

The density log emits medium-energy gamma radiation. These high velocity particle
collide with electrons in the matrix, and with each collision lose energy (Compton
Scattering) (Figure 29). The scattered returning gamma rays are counted and can be
used to measure the formation density.

It measures the total rock matrix density (g/cm3), and density of the pore fluids.
Variations in total density will be due to variations in the amount of matrix available to
absorb the gamma radiation, thus the tool is a porosity tool.

A radiation emitter and one detector are all that is necessary for a simple
measurement. The early tools had only one detector, which was pressed against the
borehole wall by a spring-loaded arm. This type of tool was extremely inaccurate
because it was unable to compensate for mud-cake of varying thicknesses and
densities through which the gamma rays have to pass.

All the newer tools (compensated formation

density logs) have two detectors to help
compensate for the mud-cake problem (Figure
29).

The compensated formation density tools have

one focused (collimated) radiation source, one
short spacing detector at 7 inches from the
source, and one long spacing detector 16
inches from the source. The gamma ray source
is either CobaIt-60 or Cesium-137 emitting
0.662 MeV from the source.
Figure 29
The source and both detectors are heavily shielded (collimated) to ensure that the
radiation only goes into the mudcake and formation, and that detected gamma rays
only come from the mud-cake or formation. The leading edge of the shield is fashioned
into a plough which removes part of the mud-cake as the tool is pulled up the well.
The tool is pressed against one side of the borehole using a servo-operated arm with
a force of 800 pounds force. Under this pressure and the pulling power of the wireline
winch the plough can make a deep impression in the mud-cake.

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The formation density log is recorded in tracks

2 and 3 of the standard API log presentation
on a linear scale. The scale is in g/cm3, and
usually spans 1.95 to 2.95 g/cm3 as this is the
normal range for rocks (Figure 30).

Density Porosity (Ø𝑫 )

The density porosity can be calculated using
the following equation;
(𝜌𝑚𝑎 − 𝜌𝑏 )
ø𝐷 = ,
(𝜌𝑚𝑎 − 𝜌𝑓 )
where;

ø𝐷 = density-derived porosity (fractional)

𝜌𝑏 = formation bulk density (the log reading)
𝜌𝑓 = pore fluid density
𝜌𝑚𝑎 = matrix density
Figure 30

Matrix densities values of common lithologies are shown in Table 2.

Table 2
ρma or ρfl
Lithology/Fluid
g/cm3 (Kg/m3)
Sandstone 2.644 (2644)

Limestone 2.710 (2710)

Dolomite 2.877 (2877)

Anhydrite 2.960 (2960)

Salt 2.040 (2040)

Fresh water 1.0 (1000)

Salt water 1.15 (1150)

Oil-based drilling mud 0.85 (850)

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Neutron log
Neutron logs are made of a source of neutrons in the probe detectors. Logging tool
emits high energy neutrons of several million electron volts (MeV) into formation to
collide with nuclei of formation’s atoms. Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with each
collision and the most energy is lost when colliding with a hydrogen atom nucleus. The
largest loss of energy occurs when the neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms as the
electrically neutral neutron has a mass that is practically identical to that of the
hydrogen atom. The rate at which the neutrons slow-down depends largely on the
amount of hydrogen in the formation (Figure 31).

At this energy the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with other nuclei in the formation.
Then, the neutrons will eventually be captured by a nucleus. Log records porosity
based on neutrons captured by formation. If hydrogen is in pore space, porosity is
related to the ratio of neutrons emitted to those counted as captured.

There are two type of the Neutron logs; Sidewall Neutron Porosity Tool (SNP), and
Compensated Neutron Log Tool (CNL). The (SNP) tool has a source and a single
detector with 16 inch spacing, which are mounted on a skid that is pressed against the
borehole wall. Because the tool is pressed against the borehole wall, the drilling mud
does not affect the measurement, and the attenuation due to the mud cake is reduced.
This tool is designed for use in open holes only.

The (CNL) tool has two detectors situated 15 inch and 25 inch from the source. The
detector further from the source is larger to ensure that adequate count rates are
observed. The critical measurement for this tool is the difference in the thermal neutron
population, which results from neutron capture and neutron scattering. The tool
readings are presented in limestone porosity units in the same way as the sidewall
neutron porosity tool.

The CNL tool has a very strong source of neutrons allowing the tool to operate in cased
holes. The CNL tool is run eccentred in the hole by an arm which presses the tool
against the side of the borehole. This means that the tool is insensitive to the type of
mud in the hole, but implies that the readings are only for one portion of the borehole
wall. The data from all tool types are recorded in tracks 2 and 3 in equivalent limestone
porosity units, with the scale running from –15% to 45% (Figure 32).

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Figure 32

Neutron Log applications

Neutron tools are used primarily to determine:
1- Porosity, usually in combination with the density tool.

2- Gas detection, usually in combination with the density tool, but also with a sonic
tool.

3- Shale volume determination, in combination with the density tool.

4- Lithology indication, again in combination with the density log and/or sonic log.

The hydrocarbon effect:

The presence of hydrocarbon liquid (oil) does not affect the tool response as it has
approximately the same hydrogen index as fresh water. Hydrocarbon gas, however,
has a much lower hydrocarbon index resulting from its low density, and its presence
will give rise to underestimations in porosity (Figure 33).

The shale effect:

Shale contain clays that have a significant amount of bound water molecules on their
surfaces. This increases the hydrogen index of the formation. Even very low porosity

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shales can give erroneously high porosity readings due to the presence of these bound
waters.

The chloride effect:

Chlorine is a good absorber of neutrons, and can lead to overestimations of porosity
if present either as formation fluid or mud filtrate.

Determination of Lithology

The direct use of the neutron log to identify lithologies depends upon the recognition
of which lithologies may contain hydrogen atoms (Figure 34).

Figure 34
Sonic log
Acoustic tools measure the speed of sound waves in subsurface formations. In other
words, it is a measure of a formation’s capacity to transmit sound waves. The acoustic
log can be used to determine porosity in consolidated formations. Borehole

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compensated sonic tools (BHC) have two acoustic transmitters and four acoustic
receivers.

The transmitters emit compressional sound waves into the formation and the receivers
measure the time it takes for the wave to travel through the formation to the receiver.
Travel time or ∆t is the time difference of the wave as it is received at both receivers.
Travel time depends on formation lithology, porosity, and pore fluid.

The compensated sonic tool is consists of two transmitters and four receivers.
Transmitter 1 starts to emit waves which received by two receivers. Then this process
repeats again with transmitter 2 and the other two receivers (Figure 35). Tool is putted
in center of borehole (no contact with hole).

Early sonic tools. Dual receiver sonic tools.

Borehole compensated sonic tools. Long spacing sonic tools.

Figure 35

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Well logging Prepared by: Dr Omar K. Mohammed Sajed

The interval transit time ∆t is recorded on the log in microseconds per foot (µs/ft.). If
the log is run on its own, the log takes up the whole of Track 2 and 3, if combined with
other logs, it is usually put in Track 3. Most formations give transit times between 40
µs/ft. and 140 µs/ft., so these values are usually used as the scale (Figure 36).

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