CE 44

Principles of Steel Design

Continuation…
Important Design Properties of Steel
The property of steel that is most important to the understanding of
design concepts is its stress-strain behavior.

Figure 1. Typical Stress-Strain Diagram for Mild Carbon Steels

Important Design Properties of Steel

FIRST REGION: ELASTIC RANGE – the linear relationship implies that some
increase in stress will lead to some specific, corresponding increase in
strain. The ratio of this linear relationship determines a material’s modulus
of elasticity, E, which is typically taken as 200000 MPa for steel.

This straight line relationship exists until the proportional limit. Soon after
the proportional limit is surpassed the material will reach its elastic limit
and then its yield point. This yield point corresponds to a stress level
referred to as the material’s yield stress, Fy. The yield stress of a material is
a stress level that is very important in structural design because it serves
as a limiting value of a member’s usefulness.
Important Design Properties of Steel

SECOND REGION: PLASTIC RANGE – after a material reaches its yield

stress, the material strains uncontrollably with practically no
corresponding increase in stress. Once a material is stressed past its elastic
limit, it can never return to its original length. This is referred to as plastic
deformation and can be disastrous for a structural member. Although
having a steel member enter the plastic region should always be avoided
in design, once the steel member has entered this region, its plastic
deformation is an important asset in signaling potential collapse.

The length of the elastic and plastic region is essence can be viewed as a
measure of the material’s ductility. If a material is ductile, it will strain or
deflect a large amount before actually breaking. In terms of a structural
behavior, it is highly advantageous for a material to exhibit distress before
it actually collapses because of the potential warning it provides.
Important Design Properties of Steel

Many structural problems can be remedied by quick action after a

member distress is fist noticed. Such distress may include sagging or
leaking roof systems, cracked slabs, or even displaced door and window
frames. After a mild carbon steel passes through its plastic region it
enters the third important region – the strain hardening region.
Important Design Properties of Steel

REGION THREE: STRAIN HARDENING RANGE – Steel undergoes an ability

to increase its stress-carrying capability. This is due to the fact that as
the steel deforms, the internal structure of the metal is being
dislocated. These dislocations increase as the plastic deformation
increases and in turn make it harder for the future dislocations to
occur. This concept is easily seen by trying to break a coat hanger by
repeatedly bending it back and forth. The hanger gets tougher to
bend the last two or three times before it breaks.

The last important point in the stress-strain diagram is the highest stress
point on the curve, the ultimate tensile stress, Fu. This is an important
material property that indicates the maximum stress level a member
can withstand before breaking.
Rolled Steel Shapes
The term rolled refers to the process whereby structural steel sections are
manufactured today. A rolled steel section actually starts out as a large block
of red hot steel called an ingot. This block is passed through a successive
series of rollers whereby it is gradually formed into its final shape. The
properties of the steel section can be further enhanced by additional
processes, such as quenching and tempering, which may take place after
the initial rolling.

Quenching – a rapid cooling of the steel section.

Tempering – the reheating of the steel to roughly 1150oF.

These process change the microstructure of steel, leading to increases in both

strength and hardness.
Failure in Steel Structures

Collapse is not the only type of design failure that occurs – in

fact, it might be the least likely in terms of quantity that
actually happens. Far more frequent, it is the design failure
that affects a project’s schedule or the serviceability of a
completed structure. Items such as excessive deflection,
temperature effects, or ease of erection all can lead to
problems that do not cause collapse but will give the
designer a multitude of headaches.
Three Key Points:
1. Serviceability of a steel structure is dependent upon the yield point, Fy, of its
key members. The stress on a member usually must not surpass this point
because that will lead to permanent deformation, and the member will be
considered to have failed.

2. The design of a structure must consider all possible loading cases and other
facets of the project. Stresses imposed by wind, temperature and seismic
activity must be incorporated into the design and the structure must mesh
with architectural, mechanical, and environmental aspects of the project.
To neglect these concerns may lead to delays and cost overruns, which
constitute a design failure.

3. The design must be practical. If the structure is only able to be built on

paper it is of little use and has again failed due to the poor design.
Adherence to these principles will help the inexperienced designer become a
success. The experience and insight of other professionals and construction
personnel should always be listened to and evaluated. The hardest of
problems can sometimes be solved by the simplest of means.
INTRODUCTION TO LRFD

Today there are two widely recognized philosophies that are being used in the design of
steel structures. These are the Allowable Stress Design (ASD) method and the Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method. The most common method for designing steel
structures until the late 1980’s was the ASD method because of its simplicity and proven
track record in providing the basis for safe and reliable designs. The ASD philosophy is
based on keeping the stresses in a member below some fraction of a specified stress in the
steel. It provides conservative results.
The LRFD method was adopted by the AISC in 1986 which proved to be an efficient
alternative to steel design. Although Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) has not
received the quick and overwhelming acceptance that some in the design community
would like, many expect this philosophy to achieve greater usage by designers in the near
future.
Advantages of LRFD

 The probabilistic approach provides a more uniform reliability in all structures to many types
of loading conditions. The method does away with many arbitrary practices, such as treating
dead and live loads as equivalent, thereby leading to a more rational design.
 Provides steel designers with an option that is similar to the strength design method presently
used in reinforced concrete design. This flexibility will give designers another tool in their
search for a safe and economical design.
 Typically provide better economy as the dead loads make up a greater percentage on a
given structure. Because dead loads are less variable by nature than live loads, a lower load
factor is used. This may lead to a reduction in member size and therefore better economy.
This cost effectiveness depends on the particular member, structure type, and span length
but is generally better than the ASD method as dead loads increase.
 Provides designer a better degree of flexibility in handling special cases. Unusual load cases
or special design situations may call for designers to modify the usual design procedures.
Such cases can be handled easily by modifying the load or resistance factors at the
designer’s judgment. Also resistance factors and load factors may be changed when future
research dictates the necessity thereof.
LRFD Versus ASD

The primary objective of the LRFD Specification is to provide a uniform

reliability for steel structures under various loading conditions. This uniformity
cannot be obtained with the allowable stress design (ASD) format.

The ASD method can be represented by the inequality

SQi £ Rn / F.S.

The left side is the summation of the load effects, Qi (i.e., forces or moments).
The right side is the nominal strength or resistance Rn divided by a factor of
safety. When divided by the appropriate section property (e.g., area or
section modulus), the two sides of the inequality become the calculated stress
and allowable stress, respectively.
The left side can be expanded as follows:
SQi = the maximum (absolute value) of the combinations
*0.75 is the reciprocal of 1.33, which represents the 1/3 increase in
allowable stress permitted when wind or earthquake is taken
simultaneously with live load.
D + L’
(D + L’ + W) x 0.75*
(D + L’ + E) x 0.75*

D–W
D–E
where D, L’, W, and E are, respectively, the effects of the dead, live, wind, and
earthquake loads; total live load L’ = L + (Lr or S or R)
L = Live load due to occupancy
Lr = Roof live load
S = Snow load
R = Nominal load due to initial rainwater or ice exclusive of the ponding contribution
AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO LRFD

ASD, then, is characterized by the use of unfactored service loads in

conjunction with a single factor of safety applied to the resistance. Because
of the greater variability and, hence, unpredictability of the live load and
other loads in comparison with the dead load, a uniform reliability is not
possible.
LRFD, as its name implies, uses separate factors for each load and for the
resistance. Considerable research and experience were needed to establish
the appropriate factors. Because the different factors reflect the degree of
uncertainty of different loads and combinations of loads and the accuracy of
predicted strength, a more uniform reliability is possible.
The LRFD method may be summarized by the formula

SgiQi  fRn

On the left side of the inequality, the required strength is the summation of the various
load effects Qi multiplied by their respective load factors gi. The design strength, on
the right side, is the nominal strength or resistance Rn multiplied by a resistance
factor f. Values of f and Rn for columns, beams, etc. are provided throughout the
LRFD Specification and will be covered here, as well.
According to the LRFD Specification, SgiQi = the maximum absolute value of the
following combinations

1.4D (A4-1)
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (A4-2)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W) (A4-3)
1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (A4-4)
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S (A4-5)
0.9D ± (1.3W or 1.0E) (A4-6)

(Exception: The load factor on L in combinations A4-3, A4-4, A4-5 shall equal 1.0 for
garages, areas occupied as places of public assembly, and all areas where the live
load is greater than 4.8 kN/m3).
The load effects D, L, Lr, S, R, W, and E are as defined above. The loads should be
taken from the governing building code or from ASCE 7, Minimum Design Loads in
Buildings and Other Structures (American Society of Civil Engineers, 1988). Where
applicable, L should be determined from the reduced live load specified for the
given member in the governing code. Earthquake loads should be from the AISC
Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings, which appears in Part 6 of the
AISC Manual.
Several representative LRFD f factors for steel members (referenced to the
corresponding chapters in the LRFD Specification) are:

ft = 0.90 for tensile yielding

ft = 0.75 for tensile fracture
fc= 0.85 for compression
fb= 0.9 for flexure
fv= 0.90 for shear yielding
EXAMPLE 1

Given: Roof beams W410 x 46, spaced 2 m center-to-center, support a

superimposed dead load of 2 kN/m2 . Code specified roof loads are 1.44
kN/m2 downward (due to roof live load, snow, or rain) and 0.96 kN/m2
upward or downward (due to wind). Determine the critical loading for LRFD.

Solution:
D = 46.2 kg/m (9.81 m/s2)/(1000 N/kN) + 2 kN/m2(2 m)
= 4.453 kN/m
L=0
(Lr or S or R) = 1.44 kN/m2(2 m) = 2.88 kN/m
W = 0.96 kN/m2(2 m) = 1.92 kN/m
E =0
Load Factored Loads
Combinations

A4-1 1.4D
A4-1 1.4(4.453 kN/m) = 6.2342 kN/m

A4-2 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

A4-2 1.2(4.453 kN/m) + 0 + 0.5(2.88 kN/m) = 6.7836 kN/m

A4-3 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (0.5L or 0.8W)

A4-3 1.2(4.453kN/m) + 1.6 (2.88kN/m) + 0.8(1.92kN/m) = 11.4876 kN/m

A4-4 1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

A4-4 1.2(4.453 kN/m) + 1.3(1.92 kN/m) + 0 + 0.5(2.88 kN/m)
= 9.2796 kN/m

A4-5 1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S

A4-5 1.2(4.453 kN/m) + 0 + 0 + 0.2(2.88 kN/m) = 5.9196 kN/m
A4-6 0.9D ± (1.3W or 1.0E)
A4-6a 0.9 (4.453 kN/m) + 1.3 (1.92 kN/m) = 6.5037 kN/m

A4-6b 0.9(4.453 kN/m) - 1.3(1.92 kN/m) = 1.5117 kN/m

The critical factored load combination for design is the third, with a total factored load
of 11.4876 kN/m
EXAMPLE 2. The axial loads on a building column resulting from the code-
specified service loads have been calculated as: 445 kN from dead
load, 667 kN from (reduced) floor live load, 133 kN from the roof (Lr or S
or R), 267 kN due to wind, and 222 kN due to earthquake. Determine
the required strength of this column.

Solution:

Load
Combination Factored Axial Load
A4-1 1.4(445 kN) = 623 kN
A4-2 1.2(445 kN) + 1.6(667 kN) + 0.5(133 kN) = 1667.7 kN
A4-3a 1.2(445 kN) + 1.6(133 kN) + 0.5(667 kN) = 1080.3 kN
A4-3b 1.2(445 kN) + 1.6(133 kN) + 0.8(267 kN) = 960.4 kN
A4-4 1.2(445 kN) + 1.3(267 kN) + 0.5(667 kN) + 0.5(133 kN) = 1281.1 kN
A4-5a 1.2(445 kN) + 1.0(222 kN) + 0.5(667 kN) + 0.2(133 kN) = 1116.1 kN
A4-5b 1.2(445 kN) - 1.0(222 kN) + 0.5(667 kN) + 0.2(133 kN) = 672.1 kN
A4-6a 0.9(445 kN) + 1.3(267 kN) = 747.6 kN
A4-6b 0.9(445 kN) - 1.3(267 kN) = 53.4 kN
A4-6c 0.9(445 kN) + 1.0(222 kN) = 622.5 kN
A4-6d 0.9(445 kN) - 1.0(222 kN) = 178.5 kN

The required strength of the column is 1667.7 kN based on the second combination
of factored axial loads. As none of the results above are negative, net tension need
not be considered in the design of this column.