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A cognitive constructivist view of distance education:

An analysis of teaching‐learning assumptions
D.R. Garrison
Published online: 28 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: D.R. Garrison (1993) A cognitive constructivist view of distance education: An analysis of
teaching‐learning assumptions, Distance Education, 14:2, 199-211, DOI: 10.1080/0158791930140204

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 A cognitive constructivist view of distance education:
An analysis of teaching-learning assumptions

D.R. Garrison

It has been said that assumptions regarding learning are implicit in designs of
instruction and education. The purpose of this article is to explore the assumptions
of the teaching-learning process in distance education. Cognitive constructivist
learning theory is used to clarify current and emerging assumptions regarding
teaching and learning at a distance. It is suggested that perhaps a cognitive
constructivist view of learning may provide a perspective for distance educators
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to clarify their assumptions and design instruction that is more than efficient
assimilation of prescribed content.

Introduction

To those familiar with distance education it is clear that correspondence

study represents not only an historical legacy but a continuing dominance
of distance education practice. Although the International Council changed
its reference from correspondence to distance education in 1982, the basic
assumptions of practice have not changed appreciably (Holmberg, 1989,
1990). Notwithstanding the many technological innovations in distance
education, its conception and practice remains largely an industrialised and
private form of learning based upon self-instructional texts and print-based
communication.
While the promotion and practice of distance education as a private form of
learning has predominated, some have attempted to question the assumptions
upon which the theory and practice of distance education is based (Garrison,
1989; Garrison and Shale, 1990). There would seem to be a need to reflect
critically upon distance education's conceptions of teaching and learning—
concepts which are germane to learning in an educational sense. Reliance
upon pre-packaged self-instructional materials as a primary method of
distance education reflects implicit assumptions regarding the teaching-
learning process. Notwithstanding the possible enhancement of self-
instructional texts with various communications technology, important
assumptions are communicated regarding the educational transaction.
Whether we see print materials as the primary source of information and
learning for the student or, alternatively, as a resource to stimulate reflection
and communicative action represents a subtle but crucial difference in how
we view the educational transaction.

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This article addresses two views of teaching and learning at a distance

which, it is argued, will distinguish existing and emerging paradigms. The
purpose is not to advocate a polarisation of distance education perspectives
or determine the exact proportion of practice based upon existing and
emerging paradigms. The purpose is to clarify subtle but crucial differences
in assumptions concerning the teaching-learning process.
With the addition of various communications technologies, it has become
less clear which assumptions guide the practice of distance education. While
we may choose to accept a postmodemistic 'world in which alternative and
conflicting paradigms are a reality' (Hlynka, 1991:30), at least we should
be aware of conflicting paradigms. It is the intent here to clarify current and
emerging assumptions regarding teaching and learning through the
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application of behavioural and cognitive theories.

Two perspectives

It is believed there is a fundamental change in how distance education is

practised and perceived. More specifically, it is argued that much of distance
education instructional design and delivery has been based, either explicitly
or implicitly, upon behavioural learning theories or assumptions. Further,
the position taken here is that emerging perspectives and practices are, and
ought to be, consistent with socio-cognitive constructivist theories of
learning.
The reality is that pre-packaged self-instructional course materials inherently
carry a behavioural orientation to learning. Although attempts are made to
make the materials flexible and interactive, they remain a prescriptive and
private learning process. Winn (1990:53) argues 'that behavioural theory
is inadequate to prescribe instructional strategies that teach for understanding'.
In particular, Winn suggests that analysis of conditions and pre-selection of
strategies before implementation of instruction is not appropriate for
higher-level cognitive goals. That is, pre-packaged self-instructional course
materials are behaviourally based and are not appropriate for achieving
understanding of complex and ill-structured subject areas. Behavioural
theory is based upon reinforcement and correction in guiding student
responses toward a prescribed learning goal. This matches the design of
self-instructional materials. Little opportunity exists for the negotiation of
learning goals, collaborative learning decisions, or for learners to assume
responsibility for constructing meaning for themselves, based upon their
previous knowledge structures.
In classic behavioural theory there is a separation of design from
implementation—ostensibly to standardise instruction to ahigh level. What

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 D.R. Garrison

behavioural theory does not address is the dynamic nature of learning. As

Winn (1990:59) states,
as soon as the student begins to study the instructional material, the student
has different knowledge and skill from that which he had before instruction
began... [and it] is likely that subsequent decisions concerning instructional
strategies would be different.
A behavioural approach to instructional design assumes a static and
standardised view of knowledge. Feedback is simply whether responses are
correct. On the other hand, a cognitive approach may provide explanatory
feedback and allow for the construction of new and unexpected knowledge
structures. Pre-packaged self-instructional materials fit into the behavioural
approach to instructional design and, therefore, the assumptions that guide
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these forms of distance education need to be examined closely.

Cognitive constructivist learning theory

Against the above necessarily brief and bold statement on behavioural

theory we might compare some cognitive constructivist theory.
A pervasive assumption of current cognitive psychology is constructivism—
a view that knowledge is constructed by the individual in context based upon
interpretation of experience and previous knowledge structures (Resnick,
1991). Cognitive constructivist learning theory is concerned with meaningful
learning. The learner takes responsibility to construct meaning actively, not
in isolation, but through dialogue with oneself as well as others. The most
important objective in the cognitive constructivist approach to learning is
understanding—not observable and measurable behaviours. DiVesta and
Rieber (1987: 221) suggest that 'Understanding is an effective objective
since it makes provisions for material to be assimilated and integrated into
the learner's knowledge structure'. The implication is that learning from
cognitive constructivist principles go beyond the assimilation of facts and
implies the construction of meaningful and useful knowledge structures.
Shuell (1987: 415) suggests that cognitive psychology has significantly
influenced learning theory in a number of ways: (1) 'learning is an active,
constructive and goal oriented process that is dependent upon the mental
activities of the learner'. What is important are the mental activities that may
lead to a behavioural change or response; (2) the existence of metacognitive
or higher-level learning processes such as regulation of learning activities
and strategies for enhancing learning; (3) the explicit recognition that
learning is influenced by prior knowledge; (4) knowledge is represented by
complex structures and the concern is how the learner extracts meaning; and
finally, (5) 'concern for analyzing learning tasks and performance in terms
of the cognitive processes that are involved' (Shuell, 1987:415).

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The most important implication of cognitive constructivist learning theory

for education is that learning is an active and evolving process. Winn (1990:
64) states that for 'instruction to be successful, it must therefore constantly
monitor and adapt to unpredicted changes in student behaviour and thinking
as instruction proceeds'. Learners must be actively engaged in integrating
new information into existing knowledge structures. Since new knowledge
structures can only be created by the learner, the role of the teacher is to
monitor continually the learner's cognitive processes and challenge or
question inappropriate or unclear perspectives. Through the on-going
interaction between teacher and student, development of meaningful, valid
and increasingly complex knowledge structures are encouraged. This
dynamic and often unpredictable learning process necessitates continuous
mediation by a teacher to ensure worthwhile outcomes that DiVesta and
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Rieber (1987) refer to as flexible, durable, transferable, and self-regulated

knowledge.

The teacher may provide a tentative structure of knowledge. Through

sustained communication, however, learners will begin to construct and
confirm their own understanding. Further tests of the learner's understanding
may be carried out through interaction with fellow students. In this view of
the educational process, knowledge is not static but is negotiated between
teacher and learner. Knowledge in general is a social artifact and in
education it is the outcome of the interaction between teacher and learner.
Learners attempt to interpret, clarify and validate their understanding
through sustained dialogue (i.e. two-way communication) and negotiation.
While the purpose of education is to study society's meaning structures
(knowledge), individuals build upon their previous experience and cognitive
structures to develop new views and knowledge structures. Through dialogue
we ensure the learner's active construction of meaningful knowledge as
opposed to disseminating prescribed information to a relatively passive and
uncritical learner. To paraphrase Perkins and Salomon (1989), education
should be about educating minds instead of training memories.

With regard to implications for practice, both the learner's and teacher's role
need to be clarified. Learners must appreciate that there are multiple ways
to construct knowledge and they must come to understand the role of their
biases and perspectives in constructing meaning. Teachers, on the other
hand, being aware of the above, must become facilitators of learning where
control of the learning transaction is shared by the teacher and learner.
Svinicki suggests that teachers in a cognitive paradigm face two tasks:
First, we must organize the course and its content in a way consistent with
what we believe about how learning takes place paying attention to structure,
sequence, examples, and activities. Second, and simultaneously, we must
help students learn how to learn content, a step in sophistication above the
mere learning of content itself. (Svinicki, 1991:29)

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 D.R. Garrison

While the focus is upon learning and the learner taking responsibility to
construct meaning, this does not diminish the role of the teacher, As noted
previously, the teacher carries a heavy responsibility to structure content
that provides a framework to connect and make sense of ideas and facts. The
goal is not simply the assimilation of facts. To account for deficiencies in
previous knowledge structures, teachers must relate new knowledge
structures to those already possessed by students. This demands extended
two-way communication between teacher and student. Such communication
serves a multitude of purposes but essentially it is a recognition that
knowledge is not static and it cannot be transmitted in whole from the
teacher to the student.
Resnick (1991: 2) states, 'much of human cognition is so varied and so
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sensitive to cultural context that we must also seek mechanisms by which

people actively shape each other's knowledge and reasoning processes'.
Students do not construct meaning/knowledge in isolation. The social
context, particularly the teacher, contributes to the construction of meaning.
Perret-Clermont et al. (1991: 46-47) suggest that cognition is not an
autonomous function
but is the result of the individual's depending on the communication constraints
of the settings in which the individual grows and the patterns of intersubjectivity
that the individual's partners invite him or her to establish.
The genesis for restructuring one's thoughts is dependent upon sociocognitive
conflict depicted by an interactionist and constructivist model of cognitive
development (Perret-Clermont et al., 1991).
Such social interactions go beyond internal or private thought processes
precipitated by print materials. They include two-way communication
where students attempt to explain their interpretation and listen to others'
understanding. The more constrained the communication the less chance
there will be for constructing meaning.

Implications for distance education

The issue of a paradigm shift in distance education was recently raised by
Holmberg (1990). His argument is that a paradigm shift is a myth since
'today's distance education is either identical with or a direct descendent of
traditional correspondence education' (Holmberg, 1990: 55). In essence,
Holmberg bases his understanding and defining assumptions of distance
education upon the prevalence of current (and past) practice which is, of
course, correspondence study. This is consistent with his view of distance
education which is 'not under the continuous immediate supervision of
tutors ... but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and
teaching of a supporting organization' (Holmberg, 1989:3). It is important
to note his observation that distance teaching represents the activities 'of the

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tutorial organization, particularly its authors and tutors' (Holmberg, 1989:

3).
This last statement regarding the supporting or tutorial organization reflects
subtle and implicit assumptions concerning the educational transaction. The
teaching function is the responsibility of course authors and tutors. Course
authors reflect the paradigm of pre-produced self-instructional texts. Tutors
are available to respond, often by print, to assignments of pre-produced
course units. At the end of these course units 'students are invited to answer
(and ask) questions, compute, translate, solve problems, write essays, etc.
and to submit this work for correction and comment' (Holmberg, 1989:4).
The emphasis is on producing a package of materials that will be so
complete that the learner shouldn't need much (if any) contact with a tutor
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or teacher. The tutor is a marker and often a resource of last resort. The tutor
does not and is not expected to assume a sustained proactive role in the
learner's quest to construct meaning. In another context, Coldeway (1991:
9) reports, Athabasca University' students and tutors have telephone contact
approximately once every four weeks'.
This view represents a subtle denigration of the teaching function in
correspondence-based delivery which significantly alters the educational
process. Holmberg (1989:7) states that 'Any learning can be an educational
experience'. But not all learning is educational. Learning in an educational
sense necessitates consideration of alternative perspectives, discussing
discrepancies with regard to previous understanding, and generally
negotiating meaning with the teacher and fellow students. Holmberg rejects
the 'unity' of teaching and learning since, as he states, there is not always
learning when teaching occurs. Granted that it may not be the learning
prescribed but, if open dialogue regarding differing perspectives occurs,
then there is a unity of teaching and learning. Teaching is not the transmission
of prescribed information—it is a process of facilitating the exploration and
creation of meaning through collaboration. The teacher can enhance
motivation, facilitate learning, and encourage critical analysis. Through
these processes and the arrangement of the educational environment the
teacher can significantly influence the quality of learning. Although the
learner is ultimately responsible for learning, educationally the quality of
that learning experience is established through the proactive interaction and
guidance of a teacher.

What makes learning educational is the transaction between teacher and

learner. The teacher is not an optional resource in an educational transaction,
because the teacher communicates social values and knowledge. At the
same time, the intent of the educational process is not to indoctrinate
students with narrow societal values. The goal is to integrate and encourage
learners to view society from a broad but critical perspective. While all
learning is to some extent a social phenomenon, learning in an educational

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 D.R. Garrison

context is a process of transmitting and consensually validating societal

values and knowledge as well as critically examining differing perspectives
and assumptions. Acquiring knowledge is never complete and, therefore,
we must see our understanding as tentative and subject to constant validation
and revision. It is not entirely up to the learner as to what constitutes
knowledge. We must see the complexity of societal knowledge and not
retreat to an ideological insularity. Therefore, the teacher is an integral
component of the educational transaction—not simply an optional resource
or marker. The goal of all education is to construct meaning through critical
and collaborative analysis and consensual understanding.
Holmberg (1989:162) states that his view of distance education Ms based on
motivated deep-learning as an individual activity' (p. 162). The key phrase,
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however, is 'as an individual activity' which is consistent with our

interpretation of his description of the role of the tutor as being an optional
resource. However, is it reasonable to expect motivated deep-learning from
individuals studying in private? It is the position here that few students by
themselves have the ability to analyse their current knowledge and beliefs
critically, to assume the responsibility of constructing new meaning, and to
act upon that understanding for purposes of confirming its usefulness and
long-term assimilation.

Communications technologies must do more than enhance the private

learning process. Interactive communication does more than merely convey
information. Without sustained interaction the learner has few opportunities
to develop deep understanding (Ramsden, 1984) and is not encouraged to
do more than assimilate information. Integrating, elaborating, and
restructuring concepts are 'more likely when one is required to explain,
elaborate, or defend one's position to others, as well as to oneself (Brown
and Palincsar, 1989: 395). Negotiating goals, clarifying and challenging
assumptions are not factored into the equation. Pre-packaged learning
materials are generally prescriptive in nature and afford little flexibility over
what is to be learned and how. The first objective is to pass the exam or
complete the assignment 'correctly', not to analyse the content critically for
meaning (i.e. deep learning).

Bereiter and Scardamalia (1989:385) state that to 'develop high-level skills

of learning from text, the student must do more than try to answer assigned
questions'. This activity does not encourage students to identify the
significance of the message and the principles involved. Marton and Saljo
(1976: 124) contend that learning depends upon task demands and when
questions are of a technical nature, that is, recalling and summarising text
materials, learning is 'reduced to a search for the type of knowledge
expected on the test'. The goal for most adult learners is to set and achieve
personal learning goals such that learners take responsibility to construct
meaning and not simply extract answers for prescribed questions. Pre-
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packaged independent learning materials inherently promote technical

knowledge and rote recall, unless opportunities are provided for sustained
communication encouraging learners to construct personal meaning and
validate understanding socially.

Technology and ideals

It is argued here that the dominant paradigm in distance education, that of

pre-packaged materials designed forminimum tutor/teacher contact, ensures
that new technologies capable of supporting sustained two-way
communication will simply remain an 'unimportant add-on'. Salomonet al.
(1991: 8) suggest with regard to cognitive impact that
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no important impact can be expected when the same old activity is carried out
with a technology that makes it a bit faster or easier; the activity itself has to
change.
They
distinguish between two kinds of cognitive effects: Effects with technology
obtained during intellectual partnership with it, and effects of it in terms of the
transferable cognitive residue that this partnership leaves behind in the form
of better mastery of skills and strategies (Salomon, et al., 1991:2).
That is, in the latter case the effect of technology is not concerned with just
the assimilation of the content in amore efficient manner but with' relatively
lasting changes in students' general cognitive capacities' and the construction
of new knowledge. Salomon et al. refer to 'effortful' and metacognitively-
guided learning as a state of 'mindful' engagement. In other words, the
learner takes responsibility for constructing meaning.
With the technology of independent study via pre-packaged course materials
there is little opportunity for choice or mindful engagement. Content,
activities, and evaluation are prescribed and carried out with minimal
interaction. If the goal is to engage learners in a mindful interaction where
they are encouraged and supported to construct their own meaning, not
simply asked to assimilate other's understanding, then the activity itself
must change. The technology must have the effect of developing transferable
cognitive abilities, not simply more efficient recall of prescribed information.
This goal will only be reached from a paradigm and with technologies that
recognize and support interdependence, not physical independence.
Independence of mind and thought, paradoxically, is best achieved through
sustained two-way communication where scepticism and the challenging of
assumptions are modelled and encouraged.
While it is not always possible to have all the dialogue that ideally would
maximise learner control and critical learning, distance educators should
have an ideal to strive toward. It is the assumption concerning the necessity

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 D.R. Garrison

of sustained two-way dialogue that distinguishes the paradigms and

technologies of distance education. As Duffy and Jonassen (1991:7) state,
'our theory of learning is implicit in our design'. However, the structural
constraints of practice blur the distinctions and ideals that we hold with
regard to distance education. The critical question concerns the ideals and
guiding principles we strive for. Assumptions and guiding principles
provide direction to future plans and funding priorities. Whether our
guiding principles are to be free from the constraints of time and place—and
hence reliant on pre-packaged content—or maximising teacherAeamer
collaboration will go a long way in mapping the design directions of our
distance education delivery systems. At the risk of setting up a false
dichotomy the choice of ideals may be seen as prescription versus
collaboration; or in terms of learning theory—behaviourism versus cognitive
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constructivism.
Mezirow (1991: 199) suggests that ideals are not unattainable goals of
perfection, but are 'present in every action, as a judgement of better and
worse' (p. 199). The ideal of sustained two-way communication and
collaboration is easily within the reach of developed nations. Existing low-
cost technologies such as audio-teleconference and computer-mediated
communication are readily available. At the same time it is recognized that
many countries will have to rely on print and the mail system for their
communication. However, the ideal educational transaction that maximises
communication should not be lost. Distance educators must maximise
communication—not isolation. It is the nature of the educational transaction
and the type of learning that is to be achieved that should be the focus of
discussion in distance education. We simply do the best we can and make
the trade-offs that least compromise the learning process. Those of us that
have the technology must design the learning process not just to learn
information faster or easier but that will encourage and challenge learners
to construct their own meaning and create new knowledge.

Conclusion
Education is a search for meaning and truth. Without the opportunity for
critical discourse, meaning cannot be challenged. We must recognize the
tentativeness and contextually constrained nature of knowledge.
Understanding and validating knowledge is dependent upon communicative
action. Mezirow (1991:96) states that
Communicative competence, a condition necessary for significant learning
and development in adulthood involves an individual's ability to negotiate
meanings and purposes instead of passively accepting the social realities
defined by others—in other words, to participate in rational communicative
action.

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The question is whether print-based, self-instructional distance education

materials can simulate such interaction or even whether the assumption of
communicative action is tenable with these methods of delivering education
at a distance.
If the goal of distance education is to facilitate learners in their construction
of meaning then methods, materials and evaluation must be congruent with
that goal. As Ramsden (1984: 145) states, 'a student's perception of the
learning context is an integral partofhisorherexperience'.Thatis,teaching
and assessment affect what they ultimately leam. A cognitive or meaning
orientation must include the expectation and opportunity to critically
interact with new information and relate it to previous knowledge. Thus, an
independent learning experience implicitly encourages a different kind of
learning from that of a collaboratively and socially situated learning
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transaction. Ramsden (1984:163) suggests that the most important message

from his research on the context of learning
is that intense effort must be made in course planning, and in the setting of
assessmentquestions.toavoidpresentingalearningcontext which isperceived
by students to acquire, or reward, surface approaches.
It is difficult to see how pre-packaged self-instructional course materials by
themselves can do otherwise but encourage surface approaches.
The argument presented here is that excessive reliance on pre-packaged
self-instructional materials represents serious limitations with regard to
cognitive development. The implications of this conclusion for distance
education are substantial and far-ranging. As has already been indicated,
what one would view as an appropriate and effective distance education
system differs substantially from a behavioural or a cognitive perspective.
Winn (1990) has described how these two perspectives would affect one's
approach to instructional design. In addition, this distinction affects in a
fundamental way understanding of commonly held rubrics in distance
education such as interaction, independence, and communication. Even the
long-established metaphoric language that has grown up around distance
education assumes a very different flavour and meaning depending on
whether we embed the language in a cognitive or behavioural context.
Distance educators should become aware of their ethical positions. That is,
they should be prepared to examine and defend the assumptions which
underlie the practice of adult education. It is these assumptions which reflect
distance educators' ideals and norms of what constitutes quality distance
education practice. Reed and Sork (1990: 30) state that 'there has thus far
been no attention given to ethical considerations in the practice of distance
education'. Awareness of ideals (i.e. ethical sensitivity) can discourage
capricious and unethical distance education practice. Do the ideals of prepackaged
of content? Or as Reed and Sork (1990: 36) ask, 'to what extent is the

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 D.R. Garrison

developer obligated to include exercises or provide delivery mechanisms

that encourage the learner to be critical about knowledge and ideas?' (p. 36).
Such ethical questions may be reduced to balancing often-conflicting issues
of access versus quality. At a minimum, understanding the assumptions and
ideals of distance education practices will encourage ethical sensitivity in
distance education.
In the attempt to reach mass audiences in an open and cost-effective manner
distance educationmay risk the diminution of essential educational processes;
perhaps to the point where the learning can no longer be considered
educational. It is the position taken here that, if we continue with and
logically extend the behaviourally-based assumptions of self-instructional
materials, the end product may be of questionable educational quality. In
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any case, such a paradigm is significantly different from a collaborative

view of the educational process where the goal is to bring teacher(s) and
students together in a real or virtual manner. Clearly the ethical and
educational implications of these two views need to be explored more fully.
It is recognized that adhering to a cognitive constructivist paradigm risks
setting often unreachable goals or ideals, because of the environmental
constraints with which distance education must contend. These ideals,
however, help us understand where we want and ought to be heading. It is
better if they are explicitly stated and recognized. In any case, assumptions
do exist that guide our practice and reflect the methods we use whether they
are implicitly or explicitly understood. But what are the ideals of prepackaged self-instructional
isolated individual assimilating fragmented information without proper
consideration of the realities of social life or consensual knowledge validation.

Clearly the realities and constraints of many educational contexts demand

self-instructional materials but this does not excuse us as educators to ignore
fundamental assumptions of the teaching-learning transaction. There are
serious dangers from an educational and quality learning context if we
choose to ignore the essence of and assumptions underlying a learning
experience. The issue is that we must be aware of the assumptions which
guide our practice and recognize the limitations of a learning approach that
inherently has set limits on communicative action (i.e. true two-way
sustained communication). Perhaps a cognitive constructivist view of the
learner taking responsibility for constructing meaning may provide a model
and vision for distance educators to clarify their ideals and design learning
that goes beyond faster and easier assimilation of prescribed information.

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