Chapter 2.

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Energy Exchange in Turbo machine

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 Chapter 2: INTRODUCTION
Knowing the states of a fluid at the inlet and outlet, and by some losses, it is
possible to find the power of the machine.
However, details of the rotor vanes or blades, in the form of their profiles, with
the required angles at the inlet and outlet, as well as the radii at the inlet and
outlet are important.
This chapter aims at understanding the basic details of the mechanism of energy
transfer between the flowing fluid and rotating vanes of a rotor of a turbo
machine.
One of the most fundamental equations for energy transfer, that is, the Euler
turbine equation.
Euler's turbo machine equation, plays a central role in turbo machinery as it
connects the specific work (W) and the geometry and velocities in the impeller.
The equation is based on the concepts of conservation of angular momentum
and conservation of energy.

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Velocity Triangles

A velocity triangle with reference to a turbo machine is the representation of three

important velocities as the sides of a triangle. The three velocities are as follows:

1. The peripheral velocity of the rotor blade, U.

2. The relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the rotor blade Vr.
3. The absolute velocity of the fluid V.

The three velocities form a triangle only when they satisfy the condition V = U +
Vr. This means that the fluid smoothly glides over the blade surface without impact
or separation.

Therefore, the relative velocity is tangential to the blade profile at the point
considered. The “solution” of such a triangle is nothing but finding the three sides
of the triangle and its three angles, either graphically or by a simple trigonometric
analysis.

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The following points serve as the guidelines in understanding the velocity triangles:

1. All the velocities are vector

quantities. Each velocity
has a magnitude and a
direction.
2. The blade velocity U is
tangential to the circular
path of the blade, with
positive direction in the
direction of rotation.
The choice of the point of
the tangent can be
anywhere on the circular
path, but it is taken at the
uppermost point to keep U
horizontal, as shown in Fig.
1.
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3. The instantaneous relative velocity of the fluid (Vr) with respect to the blades is
always tangential to the stream line of the flow of the fluid in the passage
between the blades of the rotor.
Hence, Vr is tangential to the blade profile also. The vane-congruent flow is
schematically shown in Fig. 2, taking the radial flow rotor as an example.
Some blade profiles are shown in Fig. 3 along with the direction of relative
velocity. The sense of the direction of Vr (inward or outward) has to be
prescribed clearly, depending on the flow of the fluid.
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4. The absolute velocity V of the fluid is
the vectorial sum of U and Vr Thus,
V = U + Vr.
With this relationship, it can be
understood that any two known
quantities are sufficient to know the
third one.
5. The disposition or orientation of the
imaginary plane, on which the
velocity triangle is visualized, is
described in two separate ways:
one for the radial flow rotor and the
other for the axial flow rotor.
6. For the radial flow rotor, the plane of
velocity triangles is perpendicular to
the axis of rotation of the rotor
(Fig.4). The rotor blades look as if
they are encased between the two
circular arcs.
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 7. For the axial flow rotor, the
velocity triangles are drawn on a
plane that is tangential to the
rotor.
The direction of rotation of the
rotor drum is seen as parallel to
the two parallel lines encasing the
row of blades. This is shown in
Fig. 5.

8. The directions of fluid flow are radial, axial, or mixed at the entry or exit.
Radial flows are seen on planes perpendicular to the axis and axial flows on
planes tangential to the rotor.

9. The fluid angles (inlet α1, outlet α2) and blade angles (inlet β1 and outlet β2)
are specified with respect to the blade velocity vector U.

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 10. Finally, perception of the situation is
of utmost importance. The situation
in radial flow machines is very easy to
perceive.
FOR AN AXIAL FLOW MACHINE,
THE “PHYSICS” OF THE
SITUATION CAN BE FURTHER
EXPLAINED AS PER THE
FOLLOWING THOUGHTS:
“General flow” of fluid is from one
parallel line to the other [Fig. 6(a)].
The flow direction is from the “nose”
to the “tail” of the air-foil section of
the blades [Fig.6(b)].
If the fluid flow “strikes” on the
concave side of the blades, the fluid
Fig. 6 Orientation of rotor blades in axial flow
“drives the blades,” forcing the
rotor, related with fluid flow: movement of the blades in that
(a) General flow of fluid; (b) Fluid flow from direction. Hence, this type of blade
nose to tail of blades; (c) Turbine blade assembly is meant for a turbine [Fig.
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assembly: fluid forces the blades. 6(c)].
 If the fluid flow “strikes” on the
convex side of the blades, this type
of blade assembly is meant for a
compressor [Fig.6(d)]. In this case,
the blades force the fluid and move
to “scoop” the fluid. (Imagine a
shovel scooping sand or a spoon
scooping food from a plate. How
does the shovel move? How does
the spoon move?) This is illustrated
in Fig. 6(e).
General flow is as in Fig. 6(a). But
the “particular flow direction” (at
some angle to the parallel
lines) must be decided to conform
Fig. 6 (d) Compressor blade assembly: blades with the geometry of guide vanes,
force the fluid; blade profiles, and the velocity
(e) Examples of shovel and spoon. triangles.

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Velocity Triangles for Radial Flow Machines

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Velocity Triangles for Axial Flow Machines

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Problem 1. A rotor is shown in Fig. 3.14. The entry of fluid is radial and the
flow is outward. The blades are radial at the outlet. Draw representative
velocity triangles.

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Problem 2. A rotor is shown in Fig. 15. The entry of fluid is radial and the flow
is outward. The blades are bent forward at the outlet. Draw representative
velocity triangles.

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Problem 3. A rotor is shown in Fig. 16. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the flow
is inward. The blades are radial at the inner diameter. Draw representative velocity

triangles .

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Problem 4. A rotor is shown in Fig. 17. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the
flow is inward. The blades are such that at the outer diameter they are at 900 to
blade velocity and the flow is radial at the inner diameter.
Draw representative velocity triangles.

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Problem 5. A rotor is shown in Fig. 18. The entry of fluid is at an angle and the
flow is inward. The blades are inclined at the outer diameter as shown and the
flow is radial at the inner diameter. Draw representative velocity triangles.

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Problem 6. An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 19. State the direction of the flow,
whether this is turbine or compressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the
representative velocity triangles.

Turbine: because V1 is greater than V2.

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Problem 7. An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig.20. State the direction of the flow,
whether this is turbine or compressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the
representative velocity triangles.

Compressor: because V1 is less than V2.

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Problem 8. An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 21. State the direction of the flow,
whether this is turbine or compressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the
representative velocity triangles.

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Problem 9. An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig. 22. State the direction of the flow,
whether this is turbine or compressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch the
representative velocity triangles

Turbine: because V1 is greater than V2.

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Problem 10. An axial flow rotor is shown in Fig..23. State the direction of the
flow, whether this is turbine or compressor and the direction of rotation. Sketch
the representative velocity triangles.
Solution: The velocity triangles are as shown.

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Basic Equations: Linear Momentum Equation, Impulse
Momentum Equation, Moment of Momentum Equation,
and Euler Turbine Equation
The assumptions made while deriving the SFEE hold good for the Euler
turbine equation also. Thus, the constancy of states of fluid separately at the
inlet section and outlet section, non-accumulation of mass and steady
invariable states over time intervals are also the assumptions in the case of the
Euler turbine equation. Acceleration
during starting and deceleration during stopping are excluded from the
application of this equation.
According to Newton’s second law, we have F =ma, which is now written as

This form of equation is known as a linear momentum equation.

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 Again, the same equation when written as
is known as impulse momentum equation (Fdt is the impulse of the force F).
In continuation of the above, the equation applicable to turbo machines is

Here, r is the radial distance of the force, Fr is the moment of the force and is known
as the torque of the machine.

rmdV/dt or rd(mV)/dt is the moment of the rate of change of momentum or “angular

momentum”. In words, the above equation means that “the applied torque is the rate
of change of angular momentum.” Thus, the equation

This equation is known as the angular momentum equation.

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Here, Absolute velocities of fluid = V1 at the inlet and V2 at the outlet.
Vu = component of the absolute velocity of fluid, along U; this is the “whirl”
component, contributing to the torque due to change in angular momentum.
Vax = component of the absolute velocity of fluid, along the axial direction; this
causes the axial thrust (Vf).
Vrad = radial component of the absolute velocity of fluid (Vr). 27
• In Fig. 24, a generalized rotor of a turbo machine is shown, with a typical flow of fluid.
For a purely axial flow machine, the radial components Vrad1 and Vrad2 are reduced to zero.
The axial components Vax1 and Vax2 become the flow components Vf1 and Vf2.
Similarly, for a purely radial flow machine, Vrad1 and Vrad2 become the flow components Vf1
and Vf2. In this case, Vax1 and Vax2 are reduced to zero.
However, the torque and power developed in a turbo machine are due to the tangential
components only, while the axial thrust developed is due to the axial components.
The radial components have the effect of producing a couple or moment of forces on the
bearings, without any contribution to the torque.
Thus, Tangential momentum of fluid at entry = Vu m
Angular momentum at entry = Vu1 mr1
Angular moment of momentum at outlet = Vu2 m r2
T = Torque on the wheel = Change of angular momentum = m(Vu1r1 - Vu2 r2 )

Work done (W) = rate of energy transferred = Torque x Angular velocity

U1
W = m(Vu1r1 - Vu2 r2 ) ω = m(Vu1U1 - Vu2 U2 ) [because = ω1 r1]

This is Eulers equation, This equation is for all kinds of Turbo machines including power
generating and power absorbing machine.

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 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation
Let us consider velocity diagram for generalised rotor as shown in figure 2.3.

LetV= Absolute velocity of fluid

α= Angle made by V w r t tangential direction
or nozzle angle or guide vane angle
Vr= Relative velocity of the fluid
β= Rotor angle or blade angle w r t tangential direction
U= Tangential velocity of the rotor
Vu= Tangential component of the absolute velocity or whirl velocity
Vf = Vm= Va = Radial component or axial component of the absolute velocity or
flow velocity.

Suffix 1 and 2 represents the values at inlet and outlet of the rotor.

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Consider outlet velocity triangle, OBC
--
(1)
From outlet velocity triangle, OAC

(2)

Compare equations (1) and (2), we get

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• Substitute U1 Vu1 and U2Vu2 in Eulers equation, i.e., W = = m(Vu1U1 - Vu2 U2 )

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Note:
If directions of Vu1 and Vu2 are same then,

if directions of Vu1 and Vu2 are opposite to each other then

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 Alternate Form of the Euler Turbine Equation – (From Book)
One more form of the Euler turbine equation in terms of the six velocities
(three from each velocity triangle) can be derived.
Consider a general velocity triangle ABC, with V = U + Vr, as shown in
Fig. 25, without subscripts “1” and “2” for the velocities.
From triangle ACM

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 From the above two equations, for Vf 2 , one can write

Substituting these values into the Euler turbine Eq., we get

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The specific work, as given by above Eqs., is sometimes denoted by WE
subscript E signifying the name Euler.
Last equation is the second form of Euler turbine equation.
This expression for the specific work, along with the equation obtained as a
consequence of the first law of thermodynamics (and SFEE), gives a lot of
information regarding the design of the blade profiles.
The actual flow differs from the ideal flow due to various factors such as fluid
viscosity, skin friction, eddies, turbulence, etc., as studied in fluid mechanics.

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Example: General velocity triangle of steam turbine

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 Components of Energy Transfer
The energy transfer between a fluid and a rotor has been expressed in different
ways.
One common component in all the equations is the quantity (V12 – V22)/2,
which is the kinetic component of the energy transfer.
The other components from all equations are as follows:

The kinetic component can directly interact between the fluid and rotor.
whereas the other components, in suitably formed groups, (that is, different
groups in different equations) can have the interaction somewhat in an indirect
way.
The indirect way stated in simple terms is that the components have to
simultaneously “transform and transfer.” 37
 Energy Equation of Relative Velocities
The relative velocities at the inlet and outlet of the blades form a group,
(Vr22 –Vr22 )/ 2
Suppose, that it is possible to consider the reference frame (i.e., the flow
channel in the rotor) in isolation, or alternately, the observer also moves along
with the frame. It can be realized that the variation of the relative velocity is
directly connected to the area of flow by the equation
ρ1A1Vr1 =ρ 2 A2Vr2
where A1 and A2 are the areas at the inlet and outlet of the blade passage,
respectively. If further the density remains constant, as it is in a large number of
cases, then
A1Vr1 =A2Vr2

Hence, Vr1 and Vr2 can be designed to be in a definite required proportion by

designing the area ratio accordingly. As a result, the flow can now be like the
conduit flow, where Bernoulli’s equation can be applied (as a first
approximation), the flow channel acting as a diffuser or nozzle, with the
pressure being developed or consumed.
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However, the development of pressure is not totally due to this variation of Vr1
and Vr2 because the centrifugal component (U2 -U1 ) /2 also participates in the
mechanism by acting like the external force on the fluid.
The effects have to be overlapped, as readily seen in the grouping of this
component in the energy equation.

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 Impulse and Reaction
The process of energy transfer in a turbo machine is by the dynamic action. The
“dynamic action” is named so because the transfer process is during the flowing
of the fluid. In fact, the transfer of energy, whether from or to the fluid, is
possible only if that energy is in the kinetic form.
What happens when the energy of the fluid is of some other form (like pressure
or enthalpy)?
1. In the case of turbines, the transformation of other forms of energy into kinetic
form must take place before the transfer process, as in nozzles, as shown in the
schematic view in Fig.26.

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2. In the case of pumps or compressors, the transformation must take place after
the transfer process, as in diffusers, as shown in the schematic view in Fig. 3.27.

The above two cases are presented as if

1. The two processes, transfer of energy and transformation of energy, are totally
decoupled.
2. The two processes are one after the other.
3. The two processes take place separately in different parts.

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 In actual practice, any design is one of the following three possible designs. It is
possible to design a turbo machine in three different categories in such a way
that:

1. The two processes, transformation or conversion of energy (of the fluid) and
transfer of energy (between the rotor and the fluid), are really decoupled, that is,
they occur separately in different parts, as depicted in Figs.26 and 27.
2. The two processes, the conversion and the transfer, occur together,
simultaneously, in the flow passages between the blades of the rotor.
3. The process of transformation of energy or conversion of energy from one form
to another form takes place “partly separately” and “partly simultaneously” with
the transfer of energy, that is, the process of expansion or compression occurs
partly in nozzles or diffusers and partly in the flow passages of the rotor. The
process is shared between the parts.

The above three cases are distinctly different from one another. In the light of the
above, the equations for the specific work W are recalled for further discussion
(completely dropping gc):

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In all the expressions for W, the first component (V21 - V22) /2 is the change in the
kinetic energy of the fluid between the inlet and outlet of the rotor, and this
component gets transferred between the fluid and rotor directly, without
requiring the presence of either nozzles or diffusers.

The remaining components

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(all are equal to one another) are the components that require the transformation
in the rotor itself, simultaneously with the process of transfer of energy. These
components are termed as “reaction components” .
The ratio of the components of energy transferred, due to the change in the
pressure of fluid between the inlet and outlet of the rotor, to the total energy
transferred is known as the degree of reaction, R. Thus

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Example: It is possible to visualize the reaction in different ways. Imagine a
skating board in which the wheels are locked, “braked,” or restrained by
stoppers. Unless the brakes are released, the skating board cannot move.
Let there be a person on the board. If this person tries to jump from the board,
he/she can jump over a long distance, the board remaining firmly.
Suppose the brakes on the wheels are released. The board is now free to move.
The person on the board is ready to jump. He/she bends and his/her powerful
thigh muscles and calf muscles, having their stored energy, suddenly unwind,
releasing the energy.
What happens? The person jumps, but now his/her forward movement is much
less. Instead, the skating board moves backward. This backward movement is
due to the reaction. The stored energy of the person on the board is released and
the muscles expand, but, the effect is to push the board backward in the
opposite direction.

A water sprinkler in a garden is yet another example of the movement by

reaction. All the movements, seen above, can be precisely quantified and related
to the energy spent.

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 Utilization Factor of Turbines
The utilization factor of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the ideal work output
of the turbine to the energy available for conversion into work at the inlet stream
of the fluid:

Here, W is the ideal specific work, as defined by the Euler turbine equation. The
energy available in the fluid at the inlet,
Wa, has two parts: its kinetic energy, V12 /2, and the energy that is possible to be
obtained due to the pressure drop (known as the reaction component). Thus

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The utilization factor is defined only for turbines, which may be of any type,
either axial flow or radial flow or mixed flow type.
The fluids can be either compressible or incompressible.
The utilization factor of a turbine is a performance parameter: It indicates how
well the turbine performs.
This factor can be maximized, or conditions for the maximum utilization factor
can be laid down, while designing the blades.
The utilization factor is not defined for work-absorbing type of turbo machines.
Now, from Eq. we have

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 • Substituting last eq. into the expression for the utilization factor of

the utilization factor is obtained as

Clearly, the equation does not hold good for the condition R = 1, but otherwise, for
any value 0 ≤ R < 1,it is applicable for any turbine in general. Thus, the utilization
factor can be seen as a function of the fluid velocities V1, V2 and the degree of
reaction R. As mentioned earlier, the degree of reaction can be taken as a design
parameter and therefore can have a prescribed value. The inlet velocity V1 is also a
part of the prescribed data.
Hence, the utilization factor can be varied by varying the exit velocity V2. By the
very definition of the utilization factor, the least value of V2 gives rise to the
maximum possible utilization factor. The minimum value of V2 occurs when the exit
angle α2 is 900, with V2 being perpendicular to U2.

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Now, for axial flow machines (U1 = U2 = U) and for Vf1 = Vf2 = V2 = V1 sinα1, the
expression for utilization factor readily reduces to

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50
 Speed Ratio
The speed ratio (Ø) is the ratio of the blade peripheral velocity U1 to the
absolute fluid velocity V1 at the inlet.
In the context of the design of a turbo machine, these two velocities U1 and V1
are two important parameters.

V1 the fluid inlet velocity, is guided by the available head of fluid or available
pressure drop or enthalpy drop that is accepted as the basic data.
U1, the blade velocity, is a function of the diameter and speed of the rotor
(U1DN/60). The speed, N (rpm), is an assumed value that is selected from the
synchronous speeds for turbines or “slip speeds” for pumps or compressors.
Any logical conclusion to arrive at a particular value of speed ratio (Ø),
therefore, leads to the determination of a suitable value of the diameter of the
rotor and the speed of the machine.
The speed ratio (Ø = U1/V1), therefore, is a representation of all the basic and
assumed data. In fact, along with the maximization of the utilization factor, the
speed ratio is also to be “suitably” arrived at.

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From Equation of utilization factor we have

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The equations for utilization factor and slip speed equations indicate that for a
given inlet fluid velocity V1 and inlet fluid angle α1, the blade speed U for the
impulse turbine (R = 0) is half that of the 50% reaction turbine (R = 0.5).
Hence, if both types of the turbines were to run under the same values of V1 and
α1 , at the same speed, the diameter of the impulse-type machine would be half
that of the 50% reaction-type machine.
Alternately, if the diameters were to be the same, the speed (rpm) of the
impulse-type machine would be half that of the 50% reaction-type machine.

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 Problem 1
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 30. State with reasons
the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W. (d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R. (f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.

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Solution:
(a) Because U2 ˃ U1, this is a radial outward flow machine.
(b) Because V2 ˃V1, this is a work-absorbing-type machine, pump or compressor.
(c) We know that

Inlet velocity angle α1 = 900, therefore Vu1= 0,

Vu1 and Vu2 = Absolute velocity component
Vf1 and Vf1 = Flow components of absolute velocity
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This is the work input.

Total output is due to both kinetic and reaction, therefore, reaction component is
= Total - Kinetic energy.

Degree of reaction is the ratio of the components of energy transferred due to the
change in the pressure of fluid between the inlet and outlet to the total energy
transferred

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(f) Axial thrust: This is a radial flow machine; therefore, there is no axial thrust due
to the flow in the rotor. However, the fluid moves initially in the axial direction,
because of which an axial thrust is created.
So

(g) Utilization factor is applicable only to turbines; hence it is not applicable here.

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 Problem 2
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 31. State with reasons
the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W. (d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R. (f ) Utilization factor, if applicable.

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 Solution:
(a) Because U1 = U2, this is an axial flow machine.

(b) Because V2 ˂ V1, this is a work-producing machine, that is, turbine.

(c) To calculate Specific work:

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Outlet velocity triangle is shown in Fig. 32.

Let ---- X = U2 – Vu2. Now

Therefore the specific work

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(d) Power P = 109.05 W per unit flow rate.

(e) Degree of reaction R:

We have

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(f ) Utilization factor :

Note:
The utilization factor of a turbine is defined as the ratio of the ideal work output of the
turbine to the energy available for conversion into work at the inlet stream of the fluid:

Here, W is the ideal specific work, as defined by the Euler turbine equation. The energy
available in the fluid at the inlet,
Wa, has two parts: its kinetic energy, V12 /2, and the energy that is possible to be obtained
due to the pressure drop (known as the reaction component). Thus

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 Problem 3.
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are
given in Fig. 33. State with reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial
flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or
work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.

Solution:
(a) Because U1 = U2, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Because V2 ˂ V1, this is a work-producing machine (i.e., turbine).
(c) We have

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(d) Power = W m --- (m=1 kg/s)
= 19.47 kW per unit mass flow rate

(e) Kinetic component is given by

(f ) Axial thrust is zero because Vf1 = Vf2.

(g) Utilization factor is given by

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Problem 4:
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 34. State with reasons
the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W. (d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R. (f ) Axial thrust.
(g) Utilization factor, if applicable.

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Solution:
(a) Because U1 = U2, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Because V2 ˂ V1, this is a work-producing machine (i.e., turbine).
(c) From the inlet velocity triangle

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Problem 5:
The velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet are given in Fig. 3.35. State with
reasons the following:
(a) Whether the machine is radial flow type or axial flow type.
(b) Whether the machine is work-producing type or work-absorbing type.
(c) Specific work W.
(d) Power per unit flow rate.
(e) Degree of reaction R.
(f ) Utilization factor, if applicable.

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Solution:
(a) Since U1 = U2 = U, this is an axial flow machine.
(b) Since V2 ˂ V1, this is a turbine.
(c) We have
Vu2 = 0; Vu1 = 40 cos60= 20 m/s
So specific work is
W = UVu1 = 30 x 20 = 600 J/kg
(d) Power (P) = W m = 600 W per unit flow rate.
(e) We have
V 2 =Vf2 = Vf1 = 40 sin60 = 34.64 m/s

The kinetic component is:

Therefore,
Reaction component = W - Kinetic component = 6 00 -200 = 400 Jkg
Therefore, the degree of reaction is

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Suppose it is not possible to change the magnitude and direction of the inlet fluid
velocity V1. The other option is to increase the velocity of blades U, that is, to
increase the speed of the machine. The increased values of U can be tried, and it is
easy to trace the steps. (The kinetic component 200 J/kg is not altered.)

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