THE GRADUATE STUDENT SECTION

WHAT IS...
Symplectic Geometry
Tara S. Holm
Communicated by Cesar E. Silva
2
depending smoothly on the point ∈ . A 2-form ∈ Ω ( ) is
In Euclidean geome-try symplectic if it is both closed (its exterior derivative satisfies =
Symplectic in a vector space over
ℝ, lengths and angles
0) and nondegenerate (each function is nondegenerate).
Nondegeneracy is equiva-lent to the statement that for each
structures are are the funda-mental
measurements, and
nonzero tangent vector ∈ , there is a symplectic buddy: a

floppier than objects are rigid. In vector ∈ so that ( , ) = 1. A symplectic manifold is a (real)
manifold equipped with a symplectic form .
symplectic geome-try, a
holomorphic two-dimensional area
measurement is the key Nondegeneracy has important consequences. Purely in
functions or ingredient, and the terms of linear algebra, at any point ∈ we may choose a basis
complex numbers are
metrics. the natural scalars. It
of that is compatible with , using a skew-symmetric analogue
of the Gram-Schmidt procedure. We start by choosing any
turns out that sym- nonzero vector 1 and then finding a
plectic structures are much floppier than holomorphic symplectic buddy 1. These must be linearly independent by
functions in complex geometry or metrics in Riemannian skew-symmetry. We then peel off the two-dimensional
geometry. subspace that 1 and 1 span and continue recursively,
The word “symplectic” is a calque introduced by Hermann eventually arriving at a basis
Weyl in his textbook on the classical groups. That is, it is a 1, 1,…, , ,
root-by-root translation of the word “complex” from the Latin
roots which contains an even number of basis vectors. So
com – plexus, symplectic manifolds are even-dimensional. This also allows us
meaning “together – braided,” into the Greek roots with the to think of each tangent space as a complex vector space
same meaning, where each and span a complex coordinate subspace.
2
– ó. Moreover, the top wedge power, ∈ Ω ( ), is nowhere-
vanishing, since at each tangent space,
Weyl suggested this word to describe the Lie group that
preserves a nondegenerate skew-symmetric bilinear form. ( 1,…, ) ≠ 0.
Prior to this, that Lie group was called the “line complex In other words, is a volume form, and is necessarily orientable.
group” or the “Abelian linear group” (after Abel, who studied Symplectic geometry enjoys connections to algebraic
the group). combinatorics, algebraic geometry, dynamics, mathemati-cal
A differential 2-form on (real) manifold is a gadget that at physics, and representation theory. The key examples
any point ∈ eats two tangent vectors and spits out a real underlying these connections include:
2 1
number in a skew-symmetric, bilinear way. That is, it gives a (1) = = ℂ with ( , ) = signed area of the parallelogram
family of skew-symmetric bilinear functions spanned by and ;
(2) any Riemann surface as in Figure 1 with the area for as
∶ × →ℝ in (1);

Tara S. Holm is professor of mathematics at Cornell University and Notices

consultant. She is grateful for the support of the Si-mons Foundation.
Her e-mail address is [email protected]. ⋯
For permission to reprint this article, please contact:
[email protected].
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/noti1450 Figure 1. The area form on a Riemannian surface
defines its symplectic geometry.

1252 Notices of the AMS Volume 63, Number 11

 THE GRADUATE STUDENT SECTION
2
(3) = ℝ with =∑ ∧ ;
the second type. Let us briefly examine results of each kind.
∗
(4) = , the cotangent bundle of any manifold , thought of
as a phase space, with -coordinates coming from being If a symplectic manifold exhibits a certain flavor of
positions, -coordinates in the cotangent directions symmetries in the form of a Lie group action, then it admits a
representing momentum directions, and = ∑ ∧ ; momentum map. This gives rise to conserved quantities such
(5) any smooth complex projective variety with induced as angular momentum, whence the name. The first example
from the Fubini-Study form (this includes smooth of a momentum map is the height function on a 2-sphere
normal toric varieties, for example);
(Figure 2).
(6) = a coadjoint orbit of a compact connected semisimple
Lie group , equipped with the Kostant-Kirillov-Souriau
form . For the group = ( ), this class of examples
1
includes complex projective space ℂ ,
Grassmannians G ( ), the full flag variety ( ), and all
other partial flag varieties.
Plenty of orientable manifolds do not admit a symplectic
structure. For example, even-dimensional spheres that are at
1 2
least four-dimensional are not symplectic. The reason is that Figure 2. The momentum map for acting on by rotation.
on a compact manifold, Stokes’ theorem guarantees that [ ] ≠
2
0 ∈ ( ; ). In other words, compact symplectic manifolds In this case, the conserved quantity is angular momen-tum,
must exhibit nonzero topology in degree 2 cohomology. The and the height function is the simplest example of a perfect
2 2
only sphere with this property is . Morse function on When the Lie group is a
1
Example (3) gains particular importance because of the product of = × × , we say that the mani-
nineteenth century work of Jean Gaston Darboux on the fold is a Hamiltonian -space, and the momentum map is
structure of differential forms. A consequence of his work is denoted Φ ∶ → ℝ . In 1982 Atiyah and independently Guillemin
and Sternberg proved the Convexity Theorem (see Figure 3):
Darboux’s Theorem. Let be a two-dimensional symplec-tic
Convexity Theorem. If is a compact Hamiltonian - space, then (
manifold with symplectic form . Then for every point ∈ , there
exists a coordinate chart about with coordinates 1 , … , , 1, … , ) is a convex polytope. It is the convex hull of the images ( )
so that on this chart, of the -fixed points.

=∑ ∧ = .
=1

This makes pre-

cise the notion that
symplectic geome-try Tools from the 1970s
is floppy.
Riemannian geome-
In and 1980s set the stage Figure 3. Atiyah and Guillemin-Sternberg proved that if a
symplectic manifold has certain symmetries, the image of its
try there are local for dramatic progress momentum map is a convex polytope.
invariants such as
curvature that dis- in symplectic This provides a deep connection between symplectic and
algebraic geometry on the one hand and discrete geometry
tinguish metrics.
Darboux’s theorem geometry and and combinatorics on the other. Atiyah’s proof demonstrates
that the momentum map provides Morse functions on (in the
says that symplectic
forms are all lo-cally topology. sense of Bott), bringing the power of differential topology to
identical. What bear on global topological questions about . Momentum maps
remains, then, are are also used to construct symplectic quotients. Lisa Jeffrey will
global topological discuss
questions such as, What is the cohomology ring of a particular the cohomology of symplectic quotients in her 2017 Noether
symplectic manifold? and more subtle sym-plectic questions Lecture at the Joint Mathematics Meetings, and many more
such as, How large can the Darboux charts be for a particular researchers will delve into these topics during the special
symplectic manifold? session Jeffrey and I are organizing.
Two tools developed in the 1970s and 1980s set the stage Through example (2), we see that two-dimensional sym-
for dramatic progress in symplectic geometry and topology. plectic geometry boils down to area-preserving geometry.
Marsden and Weinstein, Atiyah, and Guillemin and Sternberg Because symplectic forms induce volume forms, a natural
established properties of the momentum map, resolving question in higher dimensions is whether symplectic ge-
questions of the first type. Gromov intro-duced ometry is as floppy as volume-preserving geometry: can a
pseudoholomorphic curves to probe questions of manifold be stretched and squeezed in any which way so

December 2016 Notices of the AMS 1253

 THE GRADUATE STUDENT SECTION
long as volume is pre-served? the common underlying tool. The constructions rely on subtle
arguments in complex analysis and Fredholm theory. These
Gromov proved Using pseudoholo-morphic
curves, Gromov dismissed techniques are essential to current work in symplectic
that symplectic this possibility, proving that topology and mirror symmetry, and they provide an important
symplectic maps are more alternative perspective on invariants of four-dimensional
maps are more rigid than volume-preserving
2 2
manifolds.
ones. In ℝ we let ( ) Further details on momentum maps may be found in
rigid than volume- denote the ball of radius . In [CdS], and [McD-S] gives an account of pseudoholomorphic
preserving ones. 1985 Gromov proved the
nonsqueezing theorem (see
curves.

Figure 4): References

[CdS] A. Cannas da Silva, Lectures on Symplectic Geometry, Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, 1764, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2001. MR
Nonsqueezing Theorem. There 1853077
is an embedding [McD-S] D. McDuff and D. Salamon, Introduction to Symplec-
2 2 2 2 tic Topology, Oxford Mathematical Monographs, Oxford
( )↪ ( )×ℝ
University Press, New York, 1995. MR 1373431
preserving if and only if ≤.
2 2 2
One direction is straightforward: if ≤ , then ( )⊆ ( )×ℝ
2
. To find an obstruction to the existence of such a map, Gromov
2 2 2 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
used a pseudo-holomorphic curve in ( ) × ℝ and the In addition to mathematics,
2
symplectic embedding to produce a minimal surface in ( ),
Tara Holm enjoys gardening,
forcing ≤ . cooking with her family, and
On the other hand, a volume-preserving map exists for any exploring the Finger Lakes.
and . Colloquially, you cannot squeeze a symplectic camel This column was based in part
through the eye of a needle. on her AMS–MAA Invited Ad-
Gromov’s work has led to many rich theories of symplectic dress at MathFest 2016 held
invariants with pseudoholomorphic curves in August. Tara S. Holm Tara

A Decade Ago in the Notices: Pseudoholomorphic Curves

“WHAT IS…Symplectic Geometry?” discusses Gromov’s

“nonsqueezing theorem,” a key result in symplectic
geometry. Gromov proved the theorem using the notion of
a pseudoholomorphic curve, which he introduced in 1986.

Readers interested in these topics might also wish to

read “WHAT IS…a Pseudoholomorphic Curve?” by Simon
Donaldson, which appeared in the October 2005 issue of
the Notices. “The notion [of pseudoholomor-phic curve] has
Figure 4. The Nonsqueezing Theorem gives geomet-ric transformed the field of symplectic topology and has a
meaning to the aphorism on the impossibility of passing bearing on many other areas such as algebraic geometry,
a camel through the eye of a needle: A sym-plectic string theory and 4-manifold theory,” Donaldson writes.
manifold cannot fit inside a space with a nar-row two- Starting with the basic no-tion of a plane curve, he gives a
dimensional obstruction, no matter how big the target is highly accessible explanation of what pseudoholomorphic
in other dimensions. curves are. He notes that they have been used as a tool in
This cartoon originally appeared in the article “The sym-plectic topology in two main ways: “First, as geometric
Symplectic Camel” by Ian Stewart—published in the probes to explore symplectic manifolds: for example in
September 1987 issue of Nature—we thank him for Gromov’s result, later extended by Taubes, on the
his permission to use it. Cosgrove is a well-known uniqueness of the symplectic structure on the complex
cartoonist loosely affiliated with mathematicians. He projective plane…Second, as the source of numerical
did drawings for Manifold for a few years and most invariants: Gromov–Witten invariants.”
recently did a few sketches for the curious cookbook
Simple Scoff: Another related piece “WHAT IS…a Toric Variety?” by
https://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/ Ezra Miller appeared in the May 2008 issue of the Notices.
pressreleases/50th_anniversary_cookery.

1254 Notices of the AMS Volume 63, Number 11