LECTURE 2.

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
GL5534 FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

PAGE 1
Lecture 2 – Learning Outcomes part 1

1. Define the science of 2. Describe the layers that 3. Explain the principles
geology & its sub- make up the structure of of stratigraphy
disciplines the Earth
- Internal Structure of the Earth - Uniformitarianism
- Definition of Geology - The Crust and Tectonic Plates - The 7 laws/principles
- Sub-Disciplines of Geoscience - Plate Boundaries - Up-ness and Up Criteria
- Link to the Petroleum Industry - Geologic Structures

PAGE 2
Lecture 2 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Differentiate 5. Distinguish between 6. Explain the rock cycle

between the entities sedimentary, igneous and
of rocks, minerals and metamorphic rocks - Identify igneous, sedimentary
fossils and metamorphic rocks and the
steps of the rock cycle related to
- Fossils and microfossils - Formation of Igneous rocks
their formation.
- Rocks vs Minerals - Formation of Sedimentary rocks
- Mineral Features - Formation of Metamorphic rocks

PAGE 3
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 – DEFINE GEOLOGY AND ITS SUB-DISCIPLINES

PAGE 4
GEOLOGY, THE BASICS...
geo = earth logos = knowledge or study of

“Knowledge of the Planet Earth”

Geology is one of (if not the) most broad ranging of the sciences
Incorporates substantial elements of - mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology & astronomy
1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
GEOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

• Geosciences in relation to the

pure sciences
• Geology has numerous sub-
disciplines
• Key to the petroleum industry
shown here
• But…
• Not all captured in this chart
• Application to the Petroleum
Industry is varied
• Different parts of value chain

1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
GEOLOGY IN THE VALUE CHAIN

• How does geology fit in the value chain?

• How and when do Geologists and PE’s
interact?

1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
1. Define geology & its sub-disciplines

• Geology - The branch of science concerned with the physical structure and
substance of the earth, the processes which act on these, and the Earth's
development since its formation
• Broad ranging science with numerous sub-disciplines

Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…

• Some of the key practitioners you may encounter in the Petroleum Industry:
• Geologists
• Geophysicists
• Petrophysicists
• Biostratigraphers
• Geochemists

1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
 Reading for Learning Outcomes
1. Define geology & its sub-disciplines

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

Elements of Petroleum Geology – 3rd Edition
R.C.Selly and S.A.Sonnenberg
Chapter 1
In particular Section 1.2 The Context of Petroleum Geology

1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 – THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

PAGE 10
 The Structure of the Earth – The Crust

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 11

 The Structure of the Earth

The Earth’s interior

A section through the Earth’s interior
12
From the Making of a Land Geology of Norway (2008)
 • Continental crust is thick and old -
approximately 2 billion years old and covers
THE CRUST approximately 30–40% of the Earth. The
continental crust is highly nonuniform.
• Oceanic crust is made of a rock called
basalt, which is darker and more dense than
continental crust. It is thinner (~7 km) than
oceanic crust.
• The Mohorovicic Discontinuity or Moho
(named for the Croatian seismologist) is the
boundary below which the rock changes to
one rich in iron and magnesium, and the
main rock type is called peridotite. This rock
is characteristic of the upper parts of the
Earth's mantle.
• Below the Moho, the mantle extends to the
https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap2-What-is-a- surface of the Earth's outer core - about
Plate/Chemical-composition-crust-and-mantle 2890 km down.
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 13
 The Structure of the Earth – Tectonic Plates

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion

 The Structure of the Earth – The Crust

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 15

 Plate Boundaries
Transform

Divergent

Kullerud, 2003. Plate Tectonics Convergent

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 16

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES

Faults Folds Unconformities

https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/siccar_point

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 17

 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
2.Describe the layers that make up the structure of the Earth

• The structure of the Earth can be considered from a compositional or a mechanical perspective
• There are two types of crust:
• Continental crust – 30 -70km thick, made of less dense material (granitic)
• Oceanic crust – 5-15km thick, made of denser material (basaltic)
• The crust is divided into a number of internally rigid blocks or plates
• The plates can move relative to each other in 3 ways resulting in the formation of geological
structures (faults, folds and unconformities) on a variety of scales

Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…

• The crust (or lithosphere) contains all of the Earth’s mineral deposits and fossil fuel resources

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 18

 Reading for Learning Outcomes
2.Describe the layers that make up the structure of the Earth

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/3-1-earths-
layers-crust-mantle-and-core-2/

https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap2-What-is-a-
Plate/Chemical-composition-crust-and-mantle

http://webgeology.alfaweb.no/webgeology_files/english/earthsinte
rior.html - for more detail

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 19

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 – EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

PAGE 20
 In the beginning (kind of)...
James Hutton -
1785 – Theory of the Earth
The Father of
Modern Geology

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 21

 The age of the Earth…
The Earth is around
4.5 billion years old…

Bishop Ussher James Hutton

Earth …but at the time that Hutton was writing

created in the popular belief, based upon an analysis
4004BC of the bible by Bishop Ussher in 1650, was
that the earth was created in 4004 BC.
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 22
 James Hutton
James Hutton produced

“... Irrefutable evidence that the modern hills, mountains and

valleys were not everlasting, but had themselves been
sculptured by processes such as erosion, uplift and
deformation; processes taking millions of years”.

“We find no vestige

of a beginning - no
prospect of an end”

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion

 Uniformitarianism
“The present is the key to the past”

Foundation of stratigraphy

“the study of the order and relative position of strata

and their relationship to the geological timescale”

Accompanies 7 principles:
1. Superposition 5. Baked Contacts
2. Original horizontality 6. Cross-cutting relationships
3. Lateral Continuity 7. Fossil Succession
4. Inclusions

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 24

1. SUPERPOSITION Grand Canyon, Arizona
US Geological Survey
Each layer of rock in a tectonically Youngest strata
undisturbed sequence is:
- younger than the layer below it
- older than the layer above it

Oldest strata

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 25

2. ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY
• Most sediment is laid down horizontally in
depressions in the crust
• Each time a new layer of sediment is
deposited it is laid down horizontally on
top of an older layer.
• This is the principle of original
horizontality: layers of strata are deposited
horizontally or nearly horizontally.
• Thus, any deformations of strata must have
occurred after the rock was deposited.
© 2013 Nature Education

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 26

2. ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY

Death Valley California, US Geological Survey

• Applies mostly to sedimentary
rocks
• Particles settle from fluids under
the influence of gravity
• Peaks are eroded, holes are filled
• Sediments are deposited in layers
that are approximately
horizontal; although exceptions
are not uncommon.
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 27
3. LATERAL CONTINUITY – An Exercise
Two valleys have been carved in to these rocks…
What do you think these rocks looked like before the rivers cut through?

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 28

3. LATERAL CONTINUITY

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 29

3. LATERAL CONTINUITY
• Rocks are originally deposited in units which
are laterally continuous in all directions
• Deposits do not extend indefinitely. They
thin out against the margins of the
sedimentary basin.
• Lateral variations may be recognised due to
sediment transport directions and
environmental changes
• Where rocks of the same type are
recognised either side of a break caused by
erosion then it can reasonably be assumed
that the rocks were originally continuous

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 30

 https://slideplayer.com/slide/16686680/

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 31

 https://slideplayer.com/slide/16686680/

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 32

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
https://slideplayer.com/slide/16686680/ 33
4. INCLUSIONS

• If rock “A” contains fragments of rock “B”, then

rock “B” must have existed before the creation
of rock “A”

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 34

5. BAKED CONTACTS
• Igneous (volcanic) rocks are hot
• As they come into contact with other rocks that heat is
transferred
• The area in contact with the igneous body becomes “baked” http://www.volcanicsapphire.com

http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/05/geologic-principles-for-dening-relative.html

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 35

6. CROSS CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS

• If one geological feature cuts across

another, the feature that has been cut
is the older

https://www.eoas.ubc.ca/courses/eosc326/resources/Stratigra
phy/unconformities-v2.htm

• A band of igneous rock within

sedimentary rocks, Grand
Canyon, Arizona
• The diagonal band is roughly
1-2 metres thick

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 36

7. FAUNAL or FOSSIL SUCCESSION

• Evolution has produced a succession of

unique fossils that correlate to the units
of the geologic time scale
• Assemblages of fossils contained in strata
are unique to the time they lived, and can
be used to correlate rocks of the same
age across a wide geographic distribution
• Assemblages of fossils refers to groups of
several unique fossils occurring together

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 37

STRATIGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES - REVIEW

1. Superposition 5. Baked Contacts

2. Original 6. Cross-cutting
horizontality relationships
3. Lateral Continuity 7. Fossil Succession
4. Inclusions
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 38
 Up-ness – Which way up? This way or…

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 39

 Up-ness – Which way up? That way?

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 40

 Way Up Criteria – Cross-bedding
• Picture is desert sandstones (Aeolian)
• Cross-bedding
• Wind
• Water
• Slopes as dunes advance tell us way up

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 41

 Way Up Criteria – Erosion and Graded Bedding
Erosion
• Rivers only erode down
• Erosion surface shows way up

Graded bedding
• Settling from turbid water
• Coarser  Fine grains
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 42
 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
3. Explain the principles of stratigraphy

• The Stratigraphic Principles/Laws are basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the spatial and temporal
relationships of rock layers.
1. Principle of superposition - in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer of rock is older than the one above it and
younger than the one below it. The oldest rocks in a sequence are at the bottom and the youngest rocks are at the top.
2. Original horizontality - layers of strata are deposited horizontally or nearly horizontally
3. Lateral Continuity - Within the depositional basin, strata are continuous in all directions until they thin out at the edge of that basin.
4. Inclusions - When one rock formation contains pieces or inclusions of another rock, the included rock is older than the host rock.
5. Baked Contacts - an igneous intrusion “bakes” (metamorphoses) surrounding rocks, so the rock that has been baked must be older than
the intrusion
6. Cross-cutting relationships Deformation events like folds, faults and igneous intrusions that cut across rocks are younger than the rocks
they cut across.
7. Fossil Succession - Assemblages of fossils contained in strata are unique to the time they lived, and can be used to correlate rocks of the
same age across a wide geographic distribution.
Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…
• Stratigraphic understanding forms the basis for all upstream activity from basin exploration through field evaluation
to reservoir development and production. The overarching need of the petroleum industry to correlate between
what are essentially 1-dimensional representations of stratigraphies (well-bores) is the driving force for the science.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 43

 Reading for Learning Outcomes
3. Explain the principles of stratigraphy

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

Earth : portrait of a planet
Marshak, Stephen
Section 12.3 Principles for Defining Relative Age (p402-406 in the international
student 4th edition – page and section number may vary by edition)
Various versions available in the library 5th floor

http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/05/geologic-principles-for-
dening-relative.html

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 44

5 MINUTE
BREAK

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-ND

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 5 – ROCKS, MINERALS & FOSSILS

PAGE 46
FOSSILS
Remnants or traces of ancient living organisms now preserved in rock

4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. 6. Conclusion 47
MICROFOSSILS

• Microfossils have many applications to petroleum

geology
• The two most common uses are:
• Biostratigraphy - the differentiation of rock units
based upon the fossils which they contain
• Paleoenvironmental Analyses - the interpretation of
the depositional environment in which the rock unit
formed, based upon the fossils found within the
unit.
• Many other uses of fossils besides these, including:
paleoclimatology, biogeography, and thermal
maturation.
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fosrec/ONeill.html
4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. Lower et al., 2013 6. Conclusion 48
ROCKS vs MINERALS

The solid Earth is composed of rocks and minerals. These two

words are often lumped together, but they mean different things…
Minerals = Crystals

Rocks = Aggregated Crystals

4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. 6. Conclusion 49
 Minerals – Crystal Habit
The habit of a mineral describes the form(s) it naturally takes

4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. 6. Conclusion 50
BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 5 – DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
SEDIMENTARY, IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

PAGE 51
 3 Key Types of Rocks

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 52

 1. IGNEOUS ROCKS

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 53

 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks develop as molten magma cools and

crystallizes either:

• Deep underground (plutonic or intrusive igneous)

or
• At the Earth’s surface (volcanic or extrusive).

Over 95% of the earth's crust is formed of igneous rock

Sampling near an eruption, US Geological Survey

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 54

 Igneous Rock Textures

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 55

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Classified according to their chemical
composition:

Ultramafic (Basic) rocks

very low levels of Quartz and high levels of the
heavier iron and magnesium rich minerals. Found in
Oceanic crust and below the crust in the Mantle.
They melt at around 1200°C

Felsic (Acid) rocks

>63% silica content by weight percent, they are less
dense than the iron-rich Basic rocks and form much
of the Continental Crust. They melt at around 700-
800 °C.
https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/7-3-classification-of-igneous-
rocks-2/igneous-rock-classification_revised_med/

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met

45 52 6.% Sio
Rock 63Cycle
0%
Conclusion 56
2
 Common Igneous Rocks

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 57

 2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 58

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks form from sediment.
• "Sediment" is a general term that indicates loose
grains (such as the sand at the beach) and chemical
precipitates (such as crystals of salt).
• Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided in three
categories: clastic, chemical, and biochemical
sedimentary rocks.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 59

 Sedimentary Rocks
Commonly classified according to their depositional environment

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 60

 Transport of Sediments

https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1216/tz/tz.html

Further travel  smaller, rounder

and more similar in terms of their
mineralogy and size/shape

Image from Ala, M. 2017

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 61

 Transport of Sediments

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 62

 Grain Size
- Wentworth Scale
• The size of the grains of rocks or minerals that
make up any sedimentary rock can tell us a
good deal about it.

• As a result, grain size analysis has been one of

the fundamentals of the science for a long time.

• A well established framework (first used in

1922) is established by the Wentworth Scale
which sets specific grain sizes to classify rocks
into Clay, Silt, Sand and Pebble grades.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 63

Sedimentary Classification - Ternary Plots

Ternary Plots to plot out 3 components of a

rock use relative proportions to classify the
rocks.

Proportions of:
- Quartz
- Feldspar
- Lithic Fragments

Resulting fields are divided to show the likely

provenance, or area of origin, for the final rock.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 64

 Identifying Common
Sedimentary Rocks

Working through a few questions allows us to identify

and classify a basic suite of sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentologists may make careers our of refining

such classification systems and developing ever more
specific naming conventions for sub-categories of
these rock types.

However, these 15 classes are enough for most people

most of the time.

After: http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/fichter/SedRx/basickey.html

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 65

 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Clastic – The result of weathering and erosion at the
surface so Exposed rocks  smaller pieces
• Chemical by precipitation of crystals from aqueous
(water) solutions and from chemical residues
• Biochemical - formed from the remains (whole or
broken) of organisms

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 66

CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Clastic sedimentary rocks are named

according to the characteristics of clasts (rock
and mineral fragments) that comprise them
• These characteristics include grain size, shape,
and sorting

Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, Photos by

James St. John and R. Weller/ Cochise College.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 67

CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL
Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks are dominated
by components that have been transported as ions in solution
(e.g., Na+, Ca2+, HCO3–, etc.)

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 68

 https://deepcarbon.net/mapping-growth-seafloor-carbonates-deep-time

Carbonate rocks - the result of the action of living creatures capturing

Carbon Dioxide from the atmosphere, various dissolved minerals in
CHEMICAL AND water and combining them to form a skeleton or causing them to
precipitate as some form of Calcium Carbonate, or Calcium Magnesium
BIOCHEMICAL - Carbonate.
CARBONATES Carbonate sedimentology is in many ways more complex and involved
than the clastic equivalent.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 69

 CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL - CARBONATES
• Classification of carbonate rocks – Dunham and Folk schemes

http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?pageid=89
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 70
 3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 71

 What is a Metamorphic Rock?
When high temperature and pressure combine and change the
texture, mineral composition, or chemical composition of a rock
without melting it, a metamorphic rock forms.

During metamorphism, the

minerals in a rock undergo
solid state alterations,
which means that they
change into new minerals
that are stable under the
new temperature and
pressure conditions.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 72

METAMORPHISM

Metamorphism is
classified according to
the original cause of
the change:

a. Thermal/Contact
b. Dynamic (Faults)
c. Regional
d. Hydrothermal
e. Impact (no picture)

73
 METAMORPHIC TEXTURES – What happens to the Rock?
Changes that may take place during metamorphism are:

• Recrystallisation of existing minerals, especially in to larger minerals

• Development of new minerals and disappearance of some old ones
• Deformation and reorientation of existing mineral crystals and
growth of new ones with a distinctive orientation

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 74

 METAMORPHIC TEXTURES – What happens to the Rock?

Two fundamental classes:

1. Foliated rocks
The parallel arrangement of certain mineral grains
that gives the rock a striped appearance.

Develops when pressure is applied from opposite

directions. The foliation develops perpendicular to
the pressure direction.

2. Non-foliated rocks
Lack flat mineral crystals with parallel alignment.
Instead, crystals typically are all about the same size
and are interlocked in a crystalline texture

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 75

METAMORPHISM
Metamorphic Rocks can be described in
terms of their Grade:
• Low
• Intermediate
• High
and their Metamorphic Facies

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 76

 METAMORPHISM

Top left image is

unmetamorphosed

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 77

 METAMORPHISM

Top left image is

unmetamorphosed

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 78

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 6 – EXPLAIN THE ROCK CYCLE

PAGE 79
 THE ROCK CYCLE Geologists recognize 3 basic rock types:
• Igneous
• Metamorphic
• Sedimentary

The transformation of Earth materials

from one rock type to another is called
the rock cycle

Truly ancient rocks are very rare. Once

exposed rocks are eroded and become
incorporated into younger rocks

No rocks on the 4.6 billion year old

From www.bbc.co.uk
Earth are older than 4 billion years

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
80
 THE ROCK CYCLE

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
81
 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
6. Explain the Rock Cycle

• The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the
three rock types igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Conversion to metamorphic
rocks requires conditions of increased temperature and/or increased pressure,
conversion to sedimentary rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of sediments, and
conversion to igneous rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of magma.

Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…

• The oil and gas industry is most concerned with sedimentary rocks because hydrocarbons are typically
found in sedimentary rocks. Looking at the way these rocks are formed, we can see that of all rock types, it
is easier for organic matter to be found in sedimentary rocks than in any other rock type.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
82
 Reading for Learning Outcomes
6. Explain the Rock Cycle

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

Earth : portrait of a planet
Marshak, Stephen
Interlude C: The rock cycle (p239 in the international student 4th edition)
Various versions available in the library 5th floor

A basic introduction to the Rock Cycle can be found here:

The Rock Cycle – The Geological Society Fact Sheet
https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/~/media/shared/documents/education%20and%20c
areers/Resources/FactSheets/Rock%20cycle%20factsheet%20draft%20KS2%20v2
/Rock%20cycle%20factsheet%20FINAL.pdf?la=en

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
83
 Reading for this lecture

Recommended General Reading for this Lecture:

The Imperial College Lectures in Petroleum Engineering – An introduction to
Petroleum Geoscience
Ala, Michael. 2017
For this lecture Pages 1-36 give a good introduction
Available in the library 5th floor or at
https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9781786342072_0001

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle

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 Lecture 2 Summary
Here is what we learned
• Learning Outcome 1 - Define the science of geology & its sub-disciplines
Geology is a broad discipline applied across the upstream value chain

• Learning Outcome 2 - Describe the layers that make up the structure of the Earth
The structure and internal composition of the Earth. The two types of crust (oceanic and
continental) and their characteristics. Tectonic plates and their relative motions and resulting
boundaries (Convergent, Divergent and Transform)..

• Learning Outcome 3 - Explain the principles of stratigraphy

The Stratigraphic Principles/Laws are basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the
spatial and temporal relationships of rock layers.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle

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 Lecture 2 Summary
Here is what we learned
• 4. Differentiate between the entities of rocks, minerals and fossils
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and
characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties. A rock is an aggregate of one or
more minerals, or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter. A fossil is the remains of an organism that has
been buried by natural processes and become permanently preserved. The remains can include
microscopically small fossils as well as more familiar fossils such as trilobites and ammonites.
• 5. Distinguish between sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) have cooled down and solidified. Sedimentary
rocks are formed by the accumulation of other eroded substances, while Metamorphic rocks are formed
when rocks change their original shape and form due to intense heat or pressure.
• 6. Explain the rock cycle
The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock types
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Conversion to metamorphic rocks requires conditions of increased
temperature and/or increased pressure, conversion to sedimentary rocks occurs via the intermediate stage
of sediments, and conversion to igneous rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of magma.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle

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Conclusion
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