USING A CARD TRICK TO TEACH DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

Abstract. We present a card trick that can be used to review or teach a variety of
topics in discrete mathematics. We address many subjects, including permutations,
combinations, functions, graphs, depth first search, the pigeonhole principle, greedy
algorithms, and concepts from number theory. Moreover, the trick motivates the use
of computers in mathematical research. The ultimate solution to the card trick makes use
of Hall’s Distinct
Representative Theorem.

1. Introduction

An interesting card trick is presented while telling the story of how our discrete
mathe- matics class analyzed, attacked and solved some of its mysteries. The trick is a
model for engaging students in mathematical research using computers and
programming as tools. The presentation is based loosely on what actually transpired in
class. We discover the- orems, refute conjectures, verify others, and leave work for the
future. The story has a recurring theme of making progress just when it seems that
the options have been ex- hausted.

1.1. The Trick. The original trick appeared in 1950 in Math Miracles [L]. It was
invented by Fitch Cheney. It was largely ignored until 1986, when Art Benjamin showed
this trick at the Hampshire College Summer Studies in Mathematics. Several
mathematicians have since analyzed it, discovered strategies, and performed it around
the country [K2], [M1], [M2].

The trick makes use of a variety of combinatorial ideas, including a neat application of
Hall’s Theorem (see, for example, [CL], [BM], or almost any introductory graph theory
text). It provides a good review for the many concepts discussed in a discrete
mathe- matics course. In addition, the mathematics behind the trick is a natural
candidate for experimentation using computers. The trick is also fun and entertaining on
its own.
1
2 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

1.2. The Class. The students involved in this report were from ArsDigita University
(ADU). ArsDigita University was an experiment in computer science education. ADU
offered bright and motivated college graduates an undergraduate level major in computer
science in one intensive year. The students were at the school 10+ hours a day attending
lectures and recitations, and working on problem sets. Each semester course was com-
pressed into four six-day weeks. The students’ efforts on this card trick took place over the
last week of the month.

Admission to ADU was extremely competitive, and 50 students were admitted from some
400 applications. The background of the students included English, History, Psychology,
Law, Medicine, Engineering and every likely major except computer science. What the
students lacked in mathematical background, they made up for in maturity, experience,
and effort. ADU offered a quality (MIT caliber) undergraduate computer science education,
free of charge, preparing its graduates for jobs in the industry or graduate school in
computer science. More information about ADU can be found at [Si1] and
http://aduni.org.

In other words, we had a great audience, and the report here must be taken in
context. Some of the things that worked with our group may not work with a typical
undergrad- uate class at the sophomore level. However, a similar lab based on this
card trick was successfully classroom tested at Stonehill College, in a “learning
community” course com- bining mathematics and computer science. The students at
Stonehill were typical college sophomores majoring in either mathematics or computer
science. That lab can be found at http://www.stonehill.edu/compsci/LC/card trick.html.

2. The Card Trick

A professor and teaching assistant (TA) enter class and announce that they will begin
class today by performing a magic trick. The professor turns his back to the class, as the
TA offers a deck of cards to a student and instructs her to choose any five cards
randomly
from the deck. The cards are the 4♦, 7♦, 9♠, J♣, and 9♥. The five cards are held up so
that the TA and everyone except the professor can see them. The TA takes the five
cards and gives one back to the student telling her to show it to everyone and put it
away. The
student holds up the 7♦, and puts it in her pocket. The professor is finally invited to turn
4 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

around, whereupon the TA in a grand exaggerated display places the four cards, one by
one, on a table for everyone, including the professor, to see. The cards in order are 4♦, 9♠,
J♣, and 9♥. The professor watches her, looks at the students, looks up at the sky,
and
after an appropriate suspenseful patter, correctly announces the card that the student has
put away, the 7♦.

2.1. Is it Magic or Mathematics? In the discussion that follows, the reader should
note that the students’ first suggestions are not always correct, but that the suggestions
eventually evolve and lead to a correct analysis.

One skeptical student claims that there must be some trick. There are 48 cards that
are hidden, and the professor needs to choose one of these 48, but the TA can only
convey
24 pieces of information, because there are only 4! = 24 ways to order the four cards
she shows.

A number of students suggest that the TA is using some method of conveying more than
24 pieces of information. There might be some trick in how the cards are oriented, or
read out to the professor. In order to test this hypothesis, the class demands to see the
trick again, but this time the professor must leave the room, the TA must neatly stack
the four cards in a pile face down all in the same direction and leave the room before the
professor returns, no talking is allowed, and a student is designated to hand the pile of
four cards to the professor.
We (Professor and TA) follow the demands precisely and the trick still succeeds. When
the class asks to shuffle the four cards before the professor sees them, we say that this will
cause the trick to fail. The TA insists on both choosing and ordering the four cards
herself.
The skeptical student now realizes his error. There are more than 24 pieces of
information, precisely because the TA can choose which four cards to show and which to
hide. There are five ways to choose which card to hide, and there are 24 ways to order
the four remaining cards. This gives 120 possibilities altogether, and plenty of room for
the TA to relay the necessary information to the professor. Thus, the trick can in
principle be done with a deck containing as many as 124 cards. The maximal deck size
for a given n is the maximum
number of cards d such that the number of unseen cards (d − (n − 1)) is at most the
number
6 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

of pieces of information that can be conveyed by the n − 1 cards that are shown. Thus,
for
n = 5, the maximal deck size is d = 124. The maximal deck size then is an upper bound
on the size of the deck for which our trick still works.

Theoretically, the trick for n = 5 can be done with a deck of up to 124 cards;
however, how it is actually accomplished with even 52 cards is, at this point, still a
mystery to the students.

2.2. Upper and Lower Bounds. The students decide to consider simpler cases of this
trick, trying to determine exactly how to do the trick for a given size deck. Suppose we
only choose three cards from a deck rather than five. Applying our previous analysis, there
are three ways for the TA to choose two cards from the set of three, and two ways to
order each of the two card sets. This allows us to identify a maximum of six cards.
Adding the two visible cards gives a maximal deck size of eight. The class is not able to
find a way to do the three card trick with a deck of eight cards. However, they are easily
able to do the three card trick with a deck of four cards.

Suppose we choose three cards from a four card deck. The TA shows the professor
two cards. There are 2! ways to order the two cards shown by the TA. We make
the low-high permutation represent the lower of the two remaining numbers, and the
high-low permutation represent the higher of the two remaining numbers. For example,
order the cards one through four, and imagine that the TA shows two and four in order.
Then the professor knows that the missing card is the smaller of the two remaining
cards one and three, namely one. This implies that the trick can be done with a deck of
four cards, when we choose three of them. We will call a number d the lower bound
on the deck size if have a method for performing the trick, choosing n cards from a deck
of size d. Using this terminology, our current lower bound for n = 3 is d = 4.
The maximal deck size described in § 2.1 and the method just described in the last
paragraph can be generalized to get an upper bound and a lower bound, respectively on
the deck size for the n-card trick. The upper bound is n (the number of ways to
choose
n − 1 cards from n), times the number of permutations of n − 1, plus the number of
visible
cards, n − 1. This equals n(n − 1)! + n − 1 = n! + n − 1. Currently, our best lower
bound is
8 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

the number of permutations of n − 1, plus the number of visible cards, n − 1. This

equals
(n − 1)! + n − 1. Our bounds are summarized in the table below.

Number of Lower Bound Upper Bound

Cards Chosen on Deck Size d on Deck Size d
n=3 4 8
n=4 9 27
n=5 28 124
n (n − 1)! + n − 1 n! + n − 1

A student, who until now listened quietly and doodled, announces that she can push the
lower bound up to five, for n = 3. She showed us the table below.

123 124 125 134 135 145 234 235 245 345
1−2 2−1 2−5 3−4 3−5 4−5 2−3 3−2 2−4 4−3

The top row lists all ten possible ways to choose a set of three cards from a set of five.
Below each one is the ordered pair of cards chosen from this set of three cards. The TA
and the professor use this table to both code and decode their communication. For
example, if the three cards chosen are 4, 5 and 2, then the TA shows 2 and 4 in that
order. When the professor sees 2-4, he knows that the original three cards were 2, 4 and 5,
hence the missing card is 5. Unfortunately, the students realize, this strategy is neither
easily generalized, nor easily computable. The easiest way to use it is to memorize it.

2.3. What is a Strategy? A strategy is a table like the one above where each
ordered set in the bottom row occurs at most once. Let d be the size of the deck of
cards, and n the number of cards we choose from the deck. Then a strategy is a one-one
function

l l
Unordered subsets of Ordered subsets of size
size n from a set of size d
1−1
−→ .
n − 1 from a set of size d

We work together as a class to try and determine a strategy for n = 3 and d = 7. We

succeed by trial and error in a completely ad-hoc way. The successful result is shown
below.
10 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

123 124 125 126 127 134 13

1−2 1−4 1−5 1−6 1−7 1−3 3−
136 137 145 146 147 156 15
3−6 7−1 4−5 4−6 4−7 5−6 5−
167 234 235 236 237 245 24
6−7 2−3 3−2 2−6 2−7 2−5 6−
247 256 257 267 345 346 34
2−4 5−2 7−5 7−6 3−4 4−3 3−
356 357 367 456 457 467 56
3−5 5−3 6−3 5−4 7−4 6−4 6−

This moves the lower bound for n = 3, from five to seven.

2.4. Can we reach the upper bound? The class wonders whether we can move the
lower bound upwards for other values of n. Can we move it up with a simply
computed strategy instead of one that needed to be memorized? Can we ever achieve
the upper bound, simple strategy or not?

Attempts at moving up to a deck of size 8 for n = 3, proves difficult. We often hit

dead ends and have to backtrack. We feel there are good chances to succeed, because not
all the ordered pairs appear in our strategy for d = 7. For example, the strategy above
does not use the pairs 2-1, 4-1, 4-2, 5-1, 6-1, 7-2, 7-3. One attempt at building
inductively on our ad-hoc method for d = 7 is shown below. We use all the old values
appearing in the case for d = 7, inserting new values under a triple with an 8 in it, by
first trying in order, all the unused pairs listed above, and then trying the pairs with an 8
in them in lexicographic order. Here is the failed result.
 123 124 125 126 127 128 13
1−2 1−4 1−5 1−6 1−7 2−1 1−
135 136 137 138 145 146 14
3−1 3−6 7−1 3−8 4−5 4−6 4−
148 156 157 158 167 168 17
4−1 5−6 5−7 5−1 6−7 6−1 7−
234 235 236 237 238 245 24
2−3 3−2 2−6 2−7 2−8 2−5 6−
247 248 256 257 258 267 26
2−4 4−2 5−2 7−5 5−8 7−6 6−
278 345 346 347 348 356 35
8−7 3−4 4−3 3−7 8−3 3−5 5−
358 367 368 378 456 457 45
8−5 6−3 8−6 7−3 5−4 7−4 4−
467 468 478 567 568 578 67
6−4 8−4 Stuck 6−5 ··· ··· ··

When we get stuck at 478, we need to backtrack and change some old entries, in order
to free up some possibilities. If there is no possible way to fill in this table, we will
eventually backtrack and try every single possible table before we stop and report that
there are no
successful strategies.

Some of the hackers in the class start paying attention. One suggests that we use a
computer to search for an appropriate strategy. “How difficult could the search be for a
deck of size 8 and n = 3?”, he wonders aloud. “At least then we will know one way or
the other whether we can achieve the maximal deck size for n = 3.” The class agrees that
if we have no better plan, then this will at least give us some results. While the hackers
write the program, the theoreticians compute the worst-case scenario.
(d)
If d is the size of the deck, and we choose n cards from the deck, then there are n slots in
our table, and each slot must hold an ordered subset of size n − 1. Therefore, the number
of
different tables for a given n and d is exactly (n!)(n) . That is quite a large number. Even if
d

we assume that each table could be generated by a computer and checked for duplicates in
one billionth of a second, then for n = 3 and d = 8, we get 656 tables. Dividing by a
billion we find that the program could run for approximately 3.77 × 1034 seconds, or 1.195
× 1025 centuries. This is not a promising approach.
12 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

A sensible person from the back of the class suggests that we analyze the simplest case,
when n = 2. Maybe we can easily construct a strategy for the upper bound by hand in this
case. The maximal deck size for n = 2 is 2! + 1 = 3. In this version of the trick there
are
only three cards. A strategy is easily computed. In fact, there are exactly two strategies.

12 13 23 12 13 23
and
1 3 2 2 1 3

For the first strategy, if the professor sees 1 he knows the hidden card is 2, if 3 then
1, and if 2 then 3. It is even easy to memorize. If he sees x then the hidden card is x
+ 1 mod 3. The second strategy has a similar description. Thus, for n = 2, we see that
the upper bound on deck size is the same as the lower bound.

2.5. A working computer model. At this point, one student’s program finds a strategy
and displays the following solution.

123 124 125 126 127 128 13

2−1 1−2 5−1 6−1 7−1 8−1 3−
135 136 137 138 145 146 14
1−3 1−6 1−7 1−8 4−1 1−4 7−
148 156 157 158 167 168 17
8−4 1−5 7−5 8−5 7−6 8−6 8−
234 235 236 237 238 245 24
3−2 2−3 6−2 7−2 8−2 4−2 2−
247 248 256 257 258 267 26
2−7 2−8 5−2 2−5 5−8 2−6 6−
278 345 346 347 348 356 35
7−8 4−3 3−4 7−3 8−3 5−3 3−
358 367 368 378 456 457 45
3−8 6−3 3−6 3−7 5−4 4−5 4−
467 468 478 567 568 578 67
6−4 4−6 4−7 6−5 5−6 5−7 6−

Here is how the program works. It uses a greedy algorithm to fill each entry of the
table, one at a time. For every entry labeled abc, it generates the six possible
permutations in reverse lexicographic order, namely cba, cab, bca, bac, acb, abc. The
program hides the first card and displays the remaining two. If the ordered pair has not
been used for a previous entry, then the program uses it and moves on to the next entry.
Otherwise, it tries the next one of the six permutations, in order.
 For example, the slot labeled 123 gives rise to the list 321, 312, 231, 213, 132, 123. We
hide 3, display 2-1, and move on to the next slot. The next slot is 124 and gives rise to
the list 421, 412, 241, 214, 142, 124. We try to hide 4 and display 2-1, but 2-1 taken, so
we end up hiding 4 and showing 1-2. This continues on similarly. The neat thing about
this method is that for this example, it never backtracks. It considers at most six choices
for each entry, always succeeding by the sixth choice. This is fortunate but will it
also succeed without backtracking for larger values of n? Just as important, is there any
simple computation underlying the strategy, which can be reproduced efficiently during a
real time presentation by the magicians?
The theoreticians point out that even if the program is so lucky as never to have to
(d)
backtrack, it still will need to examine n! · n tables in the worst case. For d = 8 and
n = 3, this is a mere 336 tables. But for d = 124 and n = 5 it is already 1,350,900,144
tables. More importantly, how do we know that it never needs to backtrack? Maybe it
just got lucky?

The hacker tries his program for n = 4 and d = 27, and the program returns a
successful strategy in a modest few minutes. Unfortunately, it runs out of stack space
when n = 5 and d = 124.

2.6. How Many Strategies for the Upper Bound? Is there a unique solution or strat-
egy for handling the upper bound? It seems that there was flexibility in our choices
when n = 3 and d = 7, but maybe when d = 8 all strategies are equal to the one we
considered above? Silence reigns for a while, while more students work on their
programs. A second student comes up with a new program that creates a strategy for n =
3 and d = 8 different from the first one shown above. The uniqueness conjecture is
quickly shot down.
The second student looks at things from the other direction. There are 8 · 7 = 56
(8)
ordered pairs of eight numbers, and = 56 unordered triples of eight numbers.
Thus, in the 3

maximal deck size case, a strategy is a bijection between these two sets. Thus, instead of
listing the unordered triples, this second program lists the ordered pairs as the first row in
the table. To do this, it generates all pairs a − b, with a ≤ b, in lexicographic order,
and then inserts the pair b − a after each corresponding pair a − b. For each pair, the
14 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

program
creates a table of unordered triples in lexicographic order, fills the first unused triple into
the empty slot, and moves onto the next ordered pair. The result is shown below.

1−2 2−1 1−3 3−1 1−4 4−1 1−

123 124 134 135 145 146 12
5−1 1−6 6−1 1−7 7−1 1−8 8−
156 126 136 127 137 128 13
2−3 3−2 2−4 4−2 2−5 5−2 2−
234 235 245 246 256 257 23
6−2 2−7 7−2 2−8 8−2 3−4 4−
267 237 247 238 248 345 34
3−5 5−3 3−6 6−3 3−7 7−3 3−
356 357 367 368 347 378 34
8−3 4−5 5−4 4−6 6−4 4−7 7−
358 456 457 467 468 147 47
4−8 8−4 5−6 6−5 5−7 7−5 5−
148 458 567 568 157 578 15
8−5 6−7 7−6 6−8 8−6 7−8 8−
258 167 678 168 268 178 27

The first hacker stares for a while and announces that the new strategy is the same as
the old if every ordered pair x − y is replaced with y − x. Perhaps outside of that
trivial difference, there are no other strategies?

The students are gaining interest. We still do not know whether these programs will
generate strategies in general, nor do we know if either is guaranteed not to backtrack. At
this point, we decide to take a look at the 52 card strategy. We finally explain the
details of how we did it to the class.

3. The 52-card Strategy (d = 52, n = 5)

(5)
The TA chooses which four cards to show, as well as their order. There are 4 ways of
choosing four cards from five, and 4! ways of ordering the cards. Hence she can send 120
different pieces of information. The hard part is that the professor cannot easily decode
which of these 120 was sent. He can easily decode 24 pieces of information, but not so
easily the extra factor of five.

One method that allows the professor to decode more than the obvious 24 is to
notice, by the pigeonhole principle, that among the five cards chosen, there must be at
least two of the same suit. The first card shown by the TA is one of these two cards, and
the second is
16 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

the hidden card. Suppose we order the cards clockwise A, 2, 3, etc. through K in a circle,
and define the distance between card x and card y, distance(x,y) to be the length of the
path clockwise from x to y. Then given any two cards, x and y, either distance(x, y) ≤
6
or distance(y, x) ≤ 6. This is due once again to the pigeonhole principle: if they were each
distance 7 or more from each other, then there would have to be at least 14 cards in the
circle. The TA shows the card x such that distance(x, y) ≤ 6. For example, given the 3
and the Jack, the TA shows the Jack, since distance(J, 3) = 5.

The TA then chooses an ordering of the remaining three cards to encode a number from
1 to 6. The professor decodes this number and adds it to the first card in order to
recover the identity of the missing card.

There are many ways to identify the 3! permutations of three cards with the numbers
1 through 6. We do it in a way that allows fast decoding, but any way is fine as long as
a convention is agreed upon. Our order of the six permutations from 1 to 6 is: (123)
(213) (231) (132) (312) (321). In order to decode a given permutation, the position of the
lowest card tells us 1, 2 or 3. The order of the higher two cards, tells us whether or not
to add
3 to this number: if they are in order, do not add 3; otherwise add 3. For the purposes
of ordering we assume that if there is a tie then we break it by the bridge order of the
suits which is Clubs, Diamonds, Hearts and Spades (♣, ♦, ♥, ♠). This is also
alphabetical
order, in English. For example, the sequence 3♦, A♣, 2♥ decodes to the number 5. This is
because the smallest value is the A, which is in position two, and the remaining two
cards
3♦ 2♥ are not in order, so we add three to two giving the value
5.

3.1. A complete example. Suppose the TA is given the cards 4♦, 7♦, 9♠, J♣, and 9♥.
Since there are two diamonds, the TA will hide either the 4♦ or the 7♦. Since 4♦ is three
below 7♦, the TA shows the 4♦, hides the 7♦, and then arranges the remaining three
cards to encode 3. This permutation is (231), so the TA ends up showing the four cards, in
order,
4♦, 9♠, J♣, and 9♥.
From the other point of view, the four cards seen by the professor are in order: 4♦,
9♠, J♣, 9♥. Because the first card is the 4♦, the professor knows that the hidden card
is between the 5♦ and the 10♦. The permutation of 9♠, J♣, 9♥ is (231), the third
18 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

permutation on our list, so the professor adds three to the 4♦. This gives the correct
answer 7♦ for the hidden card.

3.2. Generalizing the 52-card Strategy. Our strategy will not work for 53 cards. We
use the choice of the first card shown to narrow the missing card down to one of six
cards in a particular suit. We use the order of the last three cards to identify which one
of the six cards. Altogether this allows us to identify exactly 48 cards. Adding in the four
visible cards, this works for a deck of size at most 52 cards.

This can be generalized for any n. For example, when n = 4, we use only three suits.
The deck would be divided into cards of suits A, B and C. Any set of four cards has to
have at least two cards of the same suit. One of these cards is chosen as before, leaving two
cards to be ordered. The number of orderings of two cards is two, so we can manage
suits of length 2(2) + 1 = 5. There are three such suits, making 15.
Our strategy works for any n, but the size of the deck for which it works is limited.
The maximum size deck equals the number of suits, n − 1, times one more than twice
the number of orderings of n − 2. This equals (n − 1)(2(n − 2)! + 1).

3.3. What we know so far. Now we can update our

progress:

Number of Lower Bound Upper Bound

Cards Chosen on Deck Size d on Deck Size d
n=2 3 3
n=3 6 (8 by computer) 8
n=4 15 (27 by computer) 27
n=5 52 124
n (n − 1)(2(n − 2)! + 1) n! + n − 1

We have a simple computable strategy that improves on our original na¨ıve lower
bound strategy, but this still leaves quite a gap between the lower and upper bounds. We
can actu- ally reach the upper bound for the cases when n is 2, 3 or 4. However, the actual
strategies for the latter two cases are computer-generated, and as far as we can tell, not
easily mem- orized. Furthermore, we have no guarantee that these computer methods
generalize to higher values of n.
 The skeptical student in the class points out that there are redundancies in the 52 card
model. For example, if the cards A♠, 5♠, 6♥, Q♥, and 3♣ are drawn, then there are
two choices for the set of four cards (A♠ 3♣ Q♥ 6♥) or (6♥ 5♠ A♠ 3♣). There are
many
other cases where there are multiple choices, and the TA just picks whichever one is
easiest to calculate. It seems that we could manage our strategy more efficiently,
avoiding these redundancies, and perhaps thereby handle a deck of greater than 52
cards.

The appendix describes a complicated method to move to a 53 card deck discovered by

Weiping Shi [Sh]. It is an ad-hoc, ingenious, but complex method whose details are not as
important as the fact that some method exists.

4. An Existence Proof: Lower bound = Upper bound

After learning the method for 53 cards, the class is discouraged and skeptical about
finding a method for a 124 card deck. We reassure the class that although finding an
explicit strategy for a 124 card deck may seem daunting, with the appropriate viewpoint
and theorems, we can prove that such a strategy must exist.
There is a proof that a strategy exists for the maximal deck size, thereby showing
once and for all, that the lower bound is equal to the upper bound. Consider the case
where n = 3 and d = 8. In this case, the number of ordered pairs equals the number of
sets of three cards from eight, both are equal to 56. A strategy can be thought of as a
bijection between these two sets. Each unordered triple abc where 1 < a < b < c <
8, can be
assigned one of six ordered pairs, namely a − b, b − a, a − c, c − a, b − c, c − b. On the
other
hand, each ordered pair x − y can be assigned to six unordered triples xyz for all z /=
x
and z /= y. For example, 3 − 2 can be assigned to 123, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238; and 234
can
be assigned to 2 − 3, 3 − 2, 2 − 4, 4 − 2, 3 − 4, and 4 − 3. It helps to think about
these
bijections by abstracting the problem to a bipartite graph matching
problem.
20 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

4.1. The Puzzle as a Graph. Let’s consider the case of a deck of size d from which we
choose n cards. Another way to think of a strategy is to model the problem with a graph.
The nodes of the graph are the ordered subsets of size n − 1 and the unordered
subsets of size n. The edges of the graph connect every unordered subset of size n with
all of the
ordered subsets of size n − 1 that are contained in the unordered n-element set. Note that
there are no edges between any two nodes both of which represent unordered n-element
sets, and there are no edges between any two nodes both of which represent ordered n −
1- element sets. All the edges connect ordered n − 1-element sets to unordered n-element
sets,
and vice versa.

4.2. Bipartite Graphs, Perfect Matchings and Hall’s Theorem. This kind of graph
is called a bipartite graph, because you can partition the nodes into two parts, such that
all the edges in the graph are between nodes in the two different parts. In our case, the
sizes of the two partitions are equal. A strategy, from the graph point of view, is a
collection of disjoint edges where every node is contained in exactly one edge. Such a
collection of edges in a bipartite graph with equal size partitions is called a perfect
matching. Finding a perfect matching in a bipartite graph is equivalent to the so-called
marriage problem, where you are given a list of n men and n woman, and a list of pairs
(man, woman) who are willing to get married, and you must find a subset of these pairs
that allows each man and woman to be part of exactly one marriage.

There is a theorem about bipartite graphs with equal size partitions and perfect
matchings called Hall’s Theorem. The theorem states intuitively that unless something
really obvious gets in your way, then you can always solve the marriage problem. What
could get in your way? What if six men were willing to be paired with a total of only five
women? Then you would be stuck for a perfect matching because there would not be
enough women for that set of men. We state this more precisely.

Theorem 4.1 ([BM, 72–73]). Suppose G is a bipartite graph, with a partition of equal
size sets A and B. Then the following three facts are equivalent:

(1) G has a perfect matching.

(2) Every subset of k nodes in A connects to at least k nodes in B.
(3) every subset of k nodes in B connects to at least k nodes in A.

Technically, Hall’s Distinct Representative theorem is more general than the one
above. It works for any bipartite graph regardless of the degree and size of the two
partitions,
22 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

and talks about matchings that are not necessarily perfect. It guarantees a matching that
includes all the nodes on one side of a partition if and only if every subset of k nodes on
that side connects to at most k nodes on the other side. In our situation, however, we only
require the special case of Hall’s theorem stated above.

4.3. What Does Our Graph Look Like? Our graph is a bipartite graph with equal
size partitions. For general n and d, the number of nodes in each part of the bipartite
graph
( ) ( )
is nd and (n − 1)! · n−d1 respectively. The upper bound on the deck size d is given by
(n!+n−1)
d = n! + n − 1. The bipartite graph for such a case has n nodes in one part, and
(n!+n−1)
(n − 1)! · n−1 nodes in the other. The reader can check that these are equal. The degree
( n)
of each node in the first part is n−1 · (n − 1)! = n!. The degree of each node in the

second
part is d − (n − 1) = n!. The bipartite graph, however, is not symmetrical in the
following
sense. If you draw the graph with one partite set of vertices on the left, and the other set
on the right, then the mirror image graph, with left and right sides reversed, is not
isomorphic.
For example, in the case n = 3, the ordered pair 1 − 2 connects to the same six triples as
2 − 1, but no two unordered triples connect to the same six ordered pairs. Fortunately,
this
asymmetry can be largely ignored.

4.4. Does our graph have a perfect matching? We prove by contradiction that our
graph must have a perfect matching. The key point is that every node in our graph has
the same degree; it is a regular graph. Assume there is a subset of k nodes on one side of
the graph that connects to fewer than k nodes on the other side. The number of edges
incident to the nodes in this subset is exactly k · n!. If the number of distinct nodes
incident to these edges on the opposite side of the graph is less than k, then by the
extended pigeonhole principle one of the nodes on the opposite side of the graph must
k·n!
have strictly more than k = n! edges incident to it. But we know that every node in
the graph has degree n!, hence this is a contradiction. It is therefore impossible for a
subset of nodes of size k to connect to fewer than k nodes on the other side. Therefore,
Hall’s theorem implies that there must be a perfect matching.

Our puzzle turns out to be a perfect matching problem in disguise. Because the graph
of our puzzle is a regular bipartite graph it has a perfect matching. Therefore there
exists
24 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

a strategy for the upper bound value of cards in a deck. Of course this implies that
there are strategies for all smaller size decks as well, by just deleting the entries from
the table using cards that were deleted from the deck.

The remaining questions now are:

(1) Is there some memorizable or easily computable strategy?

(2) How many different strategies are there for the maximal size deck?

5. A “Memorizable” or “Simply Computed” Strategy

It is a struggle to find a strategy that is easy to compute or memorize. We can extend

our 52 card strategy to 53, and ultimately 56 cards. For each extension, however, we
must work very hard to glean enough extra information. See Section A for the 53 card
strategy. The details of the 56 card strategy are left as a challenge to the reader.

The TA arrives one day and announces that she received an email from the friend who
introduced her to this trick, and he has a strategy for n = 5 and d = 124 cards [K1]. It
is even a memorizable strategy! Suppose you have a deck of 124 cards. Let’s think of
them as numbers from 1 to 124. Given five of the numbers, the assistant adds the five
numbers together, and divides by five. The remainder is a number between 0 and 4. If the
remainder is r, then the assistant will hide the (r + 1)st number of the five, in ascending
order. For example, if the TA sees the numbers 23, 27, 59, 87, and 93, these numbers
have the sum
289, which is 4 mod 5. Thus, she removes the 5th number in the sequence, which is 93.
She will show the remaining four numbers to the professor, in some order.

Using the remainder automatically reduces the number of possible answers we are
120
looking for from 5120 to = 24. When the professor sees the numbers 23, 27, 59, and 87,
he sums these to 1 mod 5. Thus, if the missing number occurs before 23, then the
sum of the five numbers must have been 0 mod 5, and so the missing number must be
4 mod 5. Similarly, if the number is between 23 and 27, then the missing number must
be 0 mod 5. If it is between 27 and 59, the missing number must be 1 mod 5.
Between 59 and 87, it must be 2 mod 5, and above 87, the missing number must be 3
mod 5. We summarize this in the table below. The twenty-four X ’s signify the
possible positions of the missing
number, the ∗’s signify the showing numbers, and the ·’s signify impossible choices for the
missing number. The reader should check for herself that exactly 24 (and in general (n−1)!)
X ’s appear in this table.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
· · · X · · · · X ·
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
· · · X · · · · X ·
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
· · ∗ · X · ∗ · · ·
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
X · · · · X · · · ·
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
X · · · · X · · · ·
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
X · · · · X · · ∗ ·
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
· X · · · · X · · ·
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
· X · · · · X · · ·
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
· X · · · · ∗ X · ·
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
· · X · · · · X · ·
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
· · X · · · · X · ·
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
· · X · · · · X · ·
121 122 123 124
· · X ·

At this point, a permutation will encode which of the possible 24 numbers is the
hidden number. We will use the lexicographic order on the permutations for this
encoding. That is, the permutation (1234) will encode the first X , the permutation (1243)
will encode the second X , and the permutation (4321) will encode the last X . The TA
wants to encode the 18th X , and the 18th pemutation in lexicographic order is (3421).
Thus, the TA shows
the professors the numbers, in order, 59, 87, 23, and 7.

Now let’s work out an example from the other direction. Suppose that the professor
sees the numbers 119, 32, 7, and 95. The sum of these four numbers is 3 mod 5. Thus,
if the hidden number were to occur before 7, then the sum of all five of the numbers
would have to be 0 mod 5, so he knows that the missing number would have to 2 mod
5: it would have to be 2. If it were between 7 and 32, then it would have to be 3 mod
5: it could be
8, 13, 18, 23, or 28. If it were between 32 and 95, then it would have to be 4 mod 5. If
it were between 95 and 119, it would have to be 0 mod 5, and finally if it were between
26 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM
119
and 124, it would have to be 1 mod 5. Again, we summarize this in a table, as above.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
· X · · · · ∗ X · ·
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
· · X · · · · X · ·
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
· · X · · · · X · ·
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
· ∗ · X · · · · X ·
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
· · · X · · · · X ·
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
· · · X · · · · X ·
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
· · · X · · · · X ·
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
· · · X · · · · X ·
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
· · · X · · · · X ·
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
· · · X ∗ · · · · X
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
· · · · X · · · · X
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
· · · · X · · · ∗ ·
121 122 123 124
X · · ·

Now, since the professor sees the numbers in the permuation (4213), this is the 21st
permutation on the list, and so it corresponds to 105.

There are various tricks which allow this to be more easily computable. For
example, suppose the numbers are in the order of the k th permutation. Then the
professor can
compute the first X and add (k − 1) · 5 that number. This will be close to correct. The
professor must still make sure that he has a number with the correct remainder. To
do this, he adds the number of ∗’s that are below the total sum. For example, if the
professor sees 119, 32, 7, and 95, as above, then he knows the first possible X is 2. Then,
because he
has the 21st permutation on the list, he adds 20 · 5 = 100 to 2 to get 102. Finally he
must correct the remainder: 7, 32 and 95 are below 102, so he adds 3 to get the final
answer of
105 as the missing number.

6. Open Questions

Our class worked fulltime on this trick for half a week, but left many questions unan-
28 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM
swered. The following list is left as a challenge for the reader and other classes.
 (1) Is there a way to determine whether a given search method will require
backtracking? (2) How many different strategies are there for a given n and deck size
d?
(3) How many of the strategies for some n and d are extendable to the maximal deck
of size D?
(4) We can define equivalences on strategies. For example, any permutation of n −
1 will allow us to find a different, but somehow equivalent, strategy. Similarly,
permutations of d will give us equivalent strategies, although they may not all be
distinct. How many non-equivalent strategies are there?
(5) How should we define a “simply computed” or “memorizable”
strategy? (6) How many of these strategies are there?

7. Acknowledgements

The events described in this paper are loosely based on our Discrete Mathematics class
at ArsDigita University (http://aduni.org). We would like to thank all the people who
contributed to this effort. Michael Kleber first introduced us to this trick. Colm Mulc-
ahy generously shared his research about the origins of the trick. Students making guest
appearances include Shyam Visweswaran, Chris Crick, and Heather Van Aelst, with a vir-
tual appearance by Shyam’s wife. Weiping Shi provided the solution for the 53 card
deck. Todd Sjoblum read and critiqued our drafts. An anonymous referee gave extensive
helpful suggestions for revisions.

Appendix A. Improvements on the 52-card Strategy

Weiping Shi has found a clever strategy for a 53 card deck [Sh].

A.1. A Strategy for 53 Cards. Suppose we have a standard deck of cards, plus one ad-
ditional card. Call the extra card the Jester (Je) of spades. From the professor’s
viewpoint, he decodes the same way he did before, unless the ordered four cards he sees
contain exactly two spades, one of which is the first card, that are separated by distance
seven. From the TA’s viewpoint, she encodes in the same way except when the five cards
she sees contain exactly two spades, one club, one diamond and one heart.
30 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

The details of the TA’s encoding are described below, and the professor’s decoding
can be derived. The distribution of the five cards can be divided into one of the following
cases:

(1) There is at most one spade.

This implies (via the pigeon principle) that there must be at least two cards in
another suit, because there are at least four cards in three suits. Use our regular
method choosing two cards in the same suit and hiding one of them according to
our usual procedure.
(2) There are three or more spades, along with one or two cards in different suits.
Choose two spades at most of distance six apart, so that the third spade is not
distance seven from the “higher” of the first two spades. This can always be
done. We do this to avoid confusion with the next case. We use our regular
method with the two chosen spades. We show the “lower” of the two spades.
The remaining three cards indicate a number from one to six as before.
(3) (a) There are exactly two spades, and there are at least two cards in another suit.
Use the regular method with the other suit and don’t hide any
spades. (b) There are exactly two spades, one heart, one diamond, and
one club.
We can use the regular method except for the case when the two spades
are distance seven apart, say A and 8. Then the TA shows both spades, one in
the first position, and hides one of the other three cards. We will explain later
how to choose which spade to show first and which card to hide. If the professor
sees two spades of distance seven apart, then it has to be case 3b, and by
looking at the other two suits among the four cards, he can immediately
identify the missing card’s suit.
The TA needs to choose an ordering of the last three cards, so that the
identity of the missing card can be determined. The missing card and the
appropriate ordering is chosen in this way. The cards A and 8 divide the
range of values from A to Je into two parts, between A and 7, and between 7
and Je. Since we have three other cards, we know (again by pigeonhole) that
two of them must lie within one of these parts. Assume that the two cards are
in between A and
7, then the TA will show A as the first card. (If the two cards were in between
32 SHAI SIMONSON AND TARA S. HOLM

8 and Je, then we would show 8 as the first card, and proceed
accordingly.) Either the lower card will have a distance of at most three from
A, or the higher card will have a distance of at most three from 8. In the
former case the TA hides the higher card, and in the latter case the TA hides
the lower card. The other three cards are used to indicate the values +1, +2,
+3 if we need to count up from A, or -1, -2, -3 if we need to count down from
8.

A.2. An Example for 53 Cards. For example, if the cards are 5♣, Q♥, A♠, 8♠, and
6♦, then the 5♣ and 6♦ have values in between A and 8. The 6♦ is distance two from 8,
so we hide the 6♦, and we show the A♠ as the first card. We order the remaining
three
cards to represent -2. (We will associate the permutations 123 132 213 231 312 321, with
the values +1, −1, +2, −2, +3, −3, respectively.) Hence we encode the five cards 5♣,
Q♥, A♠, 8♠, and 6♦ as A♠ Q♥ 8♠ 5♣. To decode this, the professor sees that there
are exactly two spades, where the A♠ is first and the 8♠ is distance seven away. This
implies
case 3b, so the missing suit is diamonds and the missing rank is between A and 8. The
permutation Q♥ 8♠ 5♣ represents 231, that in turn represents −2. Subtracting two from
eight gives us six, so the missing card is the 6♦.

References
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[CL] G. Chartrand and L. Lesniak, Graphs & Digraphs, Third Ed. Chapman & Hall, New York,
1996. [G] M. Gardner, Mathematics, Magic and Mystery, Dover, 1956, p. 32.
[KK] D. Kierstead and H. Kierstead, “Combinatorial Card Tricks,” manuscript. See
http://dimacs.rutgers.edu/drei/1998/week1.html. [K1] M.
Kleber, personal communication.
[K2] M. Kleber, The Best Card Trick, in preparation.
[L] W. Lee, Math Miracles, Seeman Printery, Inc., Durham, NC, 1950, 49–
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[M1] C. Mulcahy, personal communication.
[M2] C. Mulcahy, Fitch Cheney’s Five Card Trick, to appear in Math Horizons, February
2003. [Sh] W. Shi, personal communication.
[Si1] S. Simonson, A Post-Baccalaureate Undergraduate Level Program in Computer Science, On-Site
Article, Communications of the ACM, Volume 45, No. 7, July 2002.
[Si2] S. Simonson, “A Combinatorial Card Trick: Teaching discrete math to computer scientists
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notes, see http://www.stonehill.edu/compsci/Japan.htm

(Shai Simonson) Dept. of Math and Computer Science, Stonehill College, N. Easton, MA
02357
E-mail address : [email protected]

(Tara Holm) Department of Mathematics #3840, University of California, Berkeley, CA

94720-3840
E-mail address : [email protected]