Chapter 7

Injective and Surjective

Functions

This chapter does not discuss a proof technique but applies some of the proof tech-
niques from earlier in the book to propositions and problems dealing with func-
tions, in particular, injections and surjections. These are concepts that some stu-
dents struggle with when they first study them in an introduction to proofs course.
So we give a few examples of such proofs in this chapter.
To understand the proofs discussed in this chapter, we need to understand func-
tions and the definitions of an injection (one-to-one function) and a surjection (onto
function). It is assumed that students have studied these concepts before, but the
definitions are stated below for reference.

7.1 Definitions and Notation

Definition. A function from a set A to a set B is a rule that associates with

each element x of the set A exactly one element of the set B. A function from
A to B is also called a mapping from A to B.

Function Notation. When we work with a function, we usually give it a name.

The name is often a single letter, such as f or g. If f is a function from the set A
to be the set B, we will write f W A ! B. This is simply shorthand notation for the
fact that f is a function from the set A to the set B. In this case, we also say that
f maps A to B.

39
40 Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions

Definition. Let f W A ! B. (This is read, “Let f be a function from A

to B.”) The set A is called the domain of the function f , and we write
A D dom.f /. The set B is called the codomain of the function f , and we
write B D codom.f /.
If a 2 A, then the element of B that is associated with a is denoted by f .a/
and is called the image of a under f. If f .a/ D b, with b 2 B, then a is
called a preimage of b under f.

Some Function Terminology. When we have a function f W A ! B, we often

write y D f .x/. In this case, we consider x to be an unspecified object that can
be chosen from the set A, and we would say that x is the independent variable of
the function f and y is the dependent variable of the function f .

Definition. Let f W A ! B. The set ff .x/ j x 2 Ag is called the range of the

function f and is denoted by range .f /. The range of f is sometimes called
the image of the function f (or the image of A under f ).

The range of f W A ! B could equivalently be defined as follows:

range.f / D fy 2 B j y D f .x/ for some x 2 Ag:

Notice that this means that range.f /  codom.f / but does not necessarily mean
that range.f / D codom.f /. Whether we have this set equality or not depends on
the function f .

Definition. Let f W A ! B be a function from the set A to the set B. The

function f is called an injection provided that

for all x1 ; x2 2 A, if x1 ¤ x2 , then f .x1 / ¤ f .x2 /.

When f is an injection, we also say that f is a one-to-one function, or that

f is an injective function.

Notice that the condition that specifies that a function f is an injection is given
in the form of a conditional statement. As we shall see, in proofs, it is usually
easier to use the contrapositive of this conditional statement.
Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions 41

Let f W A ! B.

“The function f is an injection” means that

 For all x1 ; x2 2 A, if x1 ¤ x2 , then f .x1 / ¤ f .x2 /; or

 For all x1 ; x2 2 A, if f .x1 / D f .x2 /, then x1 D x2 .

“The function f is not an injection” means that

 There exist x1 ; x2 2 A such that x1 ¤ x2 and f .x1 / D f .x2 /.

Definition. Let f W A ! B be a function from the set A to the set B. The

function f is called a surjection provided that the range of f equals the
codomain of f . This means that

for every y 2 B, there exists an x 2 A such that f .x/ D y.

When f is a surjection, we also say that f is an onto function or that f maps

A onto B. We also say that f is a surjective function.

One of the conditions that specifies that a function f is a surjection is given in

the form of a universally quantified statement, which is the primary statement used
in proving a function is (or is not) a surjection.

Let f W A ! B.

“The function f is a surjection” means that

 range.f / D codom.f / D B; or

 For every y 2 B, there exists an x 2 A such that f .x/ D y.

“The function f is not a surjection” means that

 range.f / ¤ codom.f /; or

 There exists a y 2 B such that for all x 2 A, f .x/ ¤ y.

One last definition.

42 Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions

Definition. A bijection is a function that is both an injection and a surjection.

If the function f is a bijection, we also say that f is one-to-one and onto
and that f is a bijective function.

7.2 Some Examples and Proofs

Many of us have probably heard in precalculus and calculus courses that a linear
function is a bijection. We prove this in the following proposition, but notice how
careful we are with stating the domain and codomain of the function.

Proposition 7.1. Let The function f W R ! R by f .x/ D mx C b for all x in R is

a bijection.

Proof. We let m be a nonzero real number and let b be a real number and define
f W R ! R by f .x/ D mx C b for all x in R. We will prove that f is a bijection
by proving it is both an injection and a surjection.
To prove that f is an injection, we let x1 and x2 be real numbers (hence, in
the domain of f ) and assume that f .x1 / D f .x2 /. This means that mx1 C b D
mx2 C b. We can then subtract b from both sides of this equation and then divide
both sides by m since m ¤ 0 as follows:

mx1 C b D mx2 C b
mx1 D mx2
x1 D x2

So we have proved that for all x1 ; x2 2 R, if f .x1 / D f .x2 /, then x1 D x2 , and

hence, f is an injection.
To prove that f is a surjection, we choose a real number y in the codomain of
f . We need to prove that there exists an x 2 R such that f .x/ D y. Working
y b
backward, we see that if mx C b D y, then x D (since m ¤ 0). We see that
m
x 2 R (the domain of f ) since the real numbers are closed under subtraction and
Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions 43

division by nonzero real numbers. This is done as follows:

 
y b
f .x/ D f
m
 
y b
Dm Cb
m
D .y b/ C b
Db

This proves that for each y 2 R, there exists an x 2 R such that f .x/ D y, and
hence, f is a surjection.
Since we have proved that f is both an injection and a surjection, we have
proved that f is a bijection. 

We will now discuss some examples of functions that will illustrate why the
domain and the codomain of a function are just as important as the rule defining
the outputs of a function when we need to determine if the function is an injection
or a surjection.

Example 7.2 (The Importance of the Domain and Codomain)

Each of the following functions will have the same rule for computing the out-
puts corresponding to a given input. However, they will have different domains or
different codomains.

1. A Function that Is Neither an Injection nor a Surjection

Let f W R ! R be defined by f .x/ D x 2 C 1. Notice that

f .2/ D 5 and f . 2/ D 5:

This is enough to prove that the function f is not an injection since this
shows that there exist two different inputs that produce the same output.
Since f .x/ D x 2 C 1, we know that f .x/  1 for all x 2 R. This implies
that the function f is not a surjection. For example, 2 is in the codomain
of f and f .x/ ¤ 2 for all x in the domain of f.

2. A Function that Is Not an Injection but Is a Surjection]

Let T D fy 2 R j y  1g, and define F W R ! T by F .x/ D x 2 C 1. As in
Example 1, the function F is not an injection since F .2/ D F . 2/ D 5.
Is the function F a surjection? That is, does F map R onto T ? As in
Example 1, we do know that F .x/  1 for all x 2 R.
44 Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions

To see if it is a surjection, we must determine if it is true that for every y 2 T ,

there exists an x 2 R such that F .x/ D y. So we choose y 2 T. The goal is
to determine if there exists an x 2 R such that
F .x/ D y, or
2
x C 1 D y:
One way to proceed is to work backward and solve the last equation (if
possible) for x. Doing so, we get
x2 D y 1
p p
xD y 1 or x D y 1:
Now, since y 2 T , we know that y  1 and hence that y 1  0. This
p p
means that y 1 2 R. Hence, if we use x D y 1, then x 2 R, and
p 
F .x/ D F y 1
p 2
D y 1 C1
D .y 1/ C 1
D y:
This proves that F is a surjection since we have shown that for all y 2 T,
there exists an x 2 R such that F .x/ D y. Notice that for each y 2 T, this
was a constructive proof of the existence of an x 2 R such that F .x/ D y.

An Important Lesson. In Examples 1 and 2, the same mathematical formula

was used to determine the outputs for the functions. However, one function
was not a surjection and the other one was a surjection. This illustrates the
important fact that whether a function is surjective not only depends on the
formula that defines the output of the function but also on the domain and
codomain of the function.

3. A Function that Is an Injection but Is Not a Surjection]

Let Z D fx 2 Z j x  0g D N[f0g. Define gW Z ! N by g.x/ D x 2 C1.
(Notice that this is the same formula used in Examples 1 and 2.) Following
is a table of values for some inputs for the function g.

x g.x/ x g.x/
0 1 3 10
1 2 4 17
2 5 5 26
Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions 45

Notice that the codomain is N, and the table of values suggests that some nat-
ural numbers are not outputs of this function. So it appears that the function
g is not a surjection.
To prove that g is not a surjection, pick an element of N that does not appear
to be in the range. We will use 3, and we will use a proof by contradiction
to prove that there is no x in the domain .Z / such that g.x/ D 3. So we
assume that there exists an x 2 Z with g.x/ D 3. Then

x2 C 1 D 3
x2 D 2
p
x D ˙ 2:

p
But this is not possible since 2 … Z . Therefore, there is no x 2 Z with
g.x/ D 3. This means that for every x 2 Z , g.x/ ¤ 3. Therefore, 3 is not
in the range of g, and hence g is not a surjection.
The table of values suggests that different inputs produce different outputs,
and hence that g is an injection. To prove that g is an injection, assume that
s; t 2 Z (the domain) with g.s/ D g.t /. Then

s2 C 1 D t 2 C 1
s2 D t 2 :

Since s; t 2 Z , we know that s  0 and t  0. So the preceding equation

implies that s D t . Hence, g is an injection.

An Important Lesson. The functions in the three preceding examples all

used the same formula to determine the outputs. The functions in Examples 1
and 2 are not injections but the function in Example 3 is an injection. This
illustrates the important fact that whether a function is injective not only de-
pends on the formula that defines the output of the function but also on the
domain of the function.
46 Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions

7.3 Practice Problems for Chapter 7

1. Let RC D fy 2 R j y > 0g. Define

f W R ! R by f .x/ D e x, for each x 2 R, and
x
gW R ! RC by g.x/ D e , for each x 2 R.
Determine if each of these functions is an injection or a surjection. Justify
your conclusions. Note: Before writing proofs, it might be helpful to draw
the graph of y D e x . A reasonable graph can be obtained using 3  x 
3 and 2  y  10. Please keep in mind that the graph does not prove any
conclusion, but may help us arrive at the correct conclusions, which will still
need proof.

2. For each of the following functions, determine if the function is an injection

or a surjection (or both, and hence, a bijection). Justify all conclusions.

(a) F W R ! R defined by F .x/ D 5x C 3, for all x 2 R.

(b) GW Z ! Z defined by G.x/ D 5x C 3, for all x 2 Z.
3x
(c) f W .R f4g/ ! R defined by f .x/ D , for all x 2 .R f4g/.
x 4
3x
(d) gW .R f4g/ ! .R f3g/ defined by g.x/ D , for all
x 4
x 2 .R f4g/.

3. Let s be the function that associates with each natural number the sum of
its distinct natural number divisors. This is called the sum of the divisors
function. For example, the natural number divisors of 6 are 1, 2, 3, and 6,
and so
s.6/ D 1 C 2 C 3 C 6
D 12:

(a) Calculate s.k/ for each natural number k from 1 through 15.
(b) Is the sum of the divisors function an injection? Is it a surjection?
Justify your conclusions.

4. Let M2 .R/ represent the set of all 2 by 2 matrices over R.

(a) Define detW M2 .R/ ! R by

 
a b
det D ad bc:
c d
Chapter 7. Injective and Surjective Functions 47

This is the determinant function on the set of 2 by 2 matrices over the

real numbers. Is the determinant function an injection? Is the determi-
nant function a surjection? Justify your conclusions.
(b) Define tranW M2 .R/ ! M2 .R/ by
   
a b a c
tran D AT D :
c d b d

This is the transpose function on the set of 2 by 2 matrices over the

real numbers. Is the transpose function an injection? Is the transpose
function a surjection? Justify your conclusions.
(c) Define F W M2 .R/ ! R by
 
a b
F D a2 C d 2 b2 c2 :
c d

Is the function F an injection? Is the function F a surjection? Justify

your conclusions.