Chapter 2 Design Algorithms

For multi-valued design combinations, such as those involving response spec-

trum, time history, moving loads and envelopes, where any correspondence
between forces is lost, the program automatically produces sub-combinations
using the maxima/minima values of the interacting forces. Separate combina-
tions with negative factors for response spectrum load cases are not required
because the program automatically takes the minima to be the negative of the
maxima response when preparing the sub-combinations described previously.

The program allows live load reduction factors to be applied to the member
forces of the reducible live load case on a member-by-member basis to reduce
the contribution of the live load to the factored responses.

2.5 Second Order P-Delta Effects

The AISC 360-10 steel frame design options include the use of the Direct
Analysis Method. The software is well suited to make us of the Direct Analysis
Method because each program can capture the second-order P- and P-
effects, provided the user specifies that a nonlinear P-Delta analysis be
performed.

Original position of frame

element shown by vertical
line

Final deflected position of the

frame element that includes the
global lateral translation, , and
the local deformation of the
Position of frame element
element,
as a result of global lateral
translation, , shown by
dashed line

P
Figure 2-1 System sway and element order effects

For more details about the program capabilities and limitations, see Appendix A.

Second Order P-Delta Effects 2-5

Steel Frame Design AISC 360-10

2.6 Analysis Methods

The code requires that stability shall be provided for the structure as a whole
and for each of the elements. Any method of analysis that considers the influ-
ence of second order effects of P- and P- , geometric imperfections, out-of-
plumbness, and member stiffness reduction due to residual stresses are permit-
ted by the code. The effects of geometric imperfection and out-of-plumbness
generally are captured by the use of notional loads. The effect of axial, shear
and flexural deformations and the effects of residual stresses on the member
stiffness reduction has been considered in a specialized method called “Direct
Analysis Method.” This method can come in different incarnations (formats)
according to the choice of the engineer as allowed in the code.

The program offers the user seven analysis options for design:

Direct Analysis Method

General Second Order Elastic Analysis with

b variable (user option 1, Default)
b fixed (user option 2)

Amplified First Order Elastic Analysis with

b variable (user option 3)
b fixed (user option 4)

Equivalent Length Method

General Second Order Elastic Analysis

(AISC C1.2, App. 7.2) (user option 5)
Amplified First Order Elastic Analysis
(AISC C1.2, App. 8.2) (user option 6)

Limited First-Order Analysis (AISC C1.2, App. 7.3) (user option 7)

A summary of all of the user options and requirements is provided in

Table 2-1. The main difference between the various options concerns the use of
the Direct Analysis Method or the Equivalent Length Method. Within each of
the categories, the user can choose the method to calculate the second-order

2-6 Analysis Methods

 Chapter 2 Design Algorithms

effects, namely, by a General Second Order Analysis or an Amplified First-

Order Analysis. When the amplified first-order analysis is used, the force
amplification factors, B1 and B2 (AISC App. 8.2), are needed. The B1 factor is
calculated by the program; however, the B2 factor is not. The user will need to
provide this value using the overwrite options that are described in Appendix
B.

When the user selects one of the options available under the Direct Analysis
Method, the user must further choose how the stiffness reduction factors for
EI and AE are to be considered. For options 1 and 3, Table 2-1, the stiffness
reduction factors ( b ) are variable because they are functions of the axial force
in the members, while for methods 2 and 4, the stiffness reduction factors are
fixed (0.8), and not a function of axial force. If the user desires, the stiffness
reduction factors ( b ) can be overwritten. When options 2 and 4 are used, a
higher notional load coefficient (0.003) must be used compared to methods 1
and 3 for which the notional load coefficient is 0.002. Also, all the direct anal-
ysis methods (methods 1 through 4) allow use of K -factors for sway condition
( K 2 ) to be equal to 1, which is a drastic simplification over the other effective
length method.

The AISC requirements to include notional loads are also summarized in Table
2-1. The notional load coefficients (AISC C2.2b) are summarized as well. The
program automates creation of notional load combinations for all gravity loads
but does not automate the creation of notional load combinations that include
lateral wind or seismic loads. Combinations for notional loads with lateral
loads are required for the Direct Analysis Method when the 2nd 1st exceeds
1.7 (AISC E2.2b(4)). Additionally, combinations for notional loads with lateral
loads are required if the Limited First Order Analysis, option 7, is used (AISC
App. 7.3.2).

The Limited First Order Analysis, option 7, does not include the secondary
P- and P- effects. This method has very limited applicability and might be
appropriate only when the axial forces in the columns are very small compared
to their Euler buckling capacities.
When using the LRFD provision, the actual load combinations are used for
second order P- effects. When using the ASD provision, the load combina-

Analysis Methods 2-7

Steel Frame Design AISC 360-10

tions are first amplified by 1.6 before the P- analysis and then the results are
reduced by a factor of 1 1.6 (AISC C2.1(4)).

Table 2-1 The Essentials and Limitations of the Design Analysis Methods
Direct Analysis Method
Limitation or
Option Variable Essentials of the Method
Applicability
2nd Order Analysis
Reduced stiffness
EI * 0.8 b EI
EA* 0.8EA
Pr
1.0 for 0.5
Py
Variable b
Factor Stiffness No limitation Pr Pr Pr
4 1 for 0.5
Reduction Py Py Py

B1 and B2 not used

K2 1 (used for Pn )
General Second Notional load with all combos, except for 2 nd 1st 1.7 for
Order Analysis which notional load with gravity combos only
Notional load coefficient = 0.002 (typically)
2nd Order Analysis
Reduced stiffness
EI * 0.8 b EI
EA* 0.8EA
Fixed Factor b 1.0
Stiffness No limitation B1 and B2 not used
Reduction
K2 1 (used for Pn )
Notional load with all combos, except for 2 nd 1st 1.7
for which notional load with gravity combos only
Notional load coefficient = 0.003 (typically)
1st Order Analysis
Reduced Stiffness
EI * 0.8 b EI
EA* 0.8EA
Pr
1.0 for 0.5
Py
Amplified First Variable b
Pr Pr Pr
Order Analysis 4 1 for 0.5
Factor Stiffness No limitation Py Py Py
Reduction
K1 1 for B1
K2 1 for Pn and B2
Notional load with all combos, except for 2 nd 1st 1.7
for which notional load with gravity combos only
Notional load coefficient = 0.002 (typically)

2-8 Analysis Methods

 Chapter 2 Design Algorithms

Table 2-1 The Essentials and Limitations of the Design Analysis Methods
Direct Analysis Method
Limitation or
Option Variable Essentials of the Method
Applicability
2nd Order Analysis
Reduced stiffness
EI * 0.8 b EI

Fixed Factor EA* 0.8 EA

Amplified First 1.0
Stiffness No limitation b
Order Analysis
Reduction K2 1 (used for Pn )
Notional load with all combos, except for 2 nd 1st 1.7
for which notional load with gravity combos only
Notional load coefficient = 0.003 (typically)
Effective Length Method
Limitation or
Option Essentials of the Method
Applicability
2 nd
2nd Order Analysis
1.5 Unreduced Stiffness
1st

General Second K K 2 (used for Pn )

(for all stories)
Order Elastic Notional load with gravity combos only
Pr Notional load coefficient = 0.002 (typically)
any
Analysis Py B1 = 1
(for all columns) B2 = 1
2 nd
1st Order Analysis
1.5 Unreduced stiffness
1st
K1 for B1
(for all stories)
Amplified First Pr K 2 for B2
any
Order Analysis Py K K 2 (used for Pn )
Notional load with gravity combos only
(for all columns)
Notional load with coefficient = 0.002 (typically)
Use of B1 and B2
Limited First Order Analysis
2 nd
1st Order Analysis
1.5 Unreduced stiffness
1st
Limited First K 2 for Pn (not B2 )
(for all stories)
Order Elastic Notional load with all combos
Pr
Analysis 0.5
Py Notional load with coefficient = 2 0.0042
L
(for all columns)

The program has several limitations that have been stated in Section 1.5 and
the preceding paragraphs. Additionally, the user must be aware that it is possi-
ble to choose a design option that violates certain provisions of the AISC code
that will not be identified by the program. The limitation for the use of the

Analysis Methods 2-9

Steel Frame Design AISC 360-10

2 nd Pr
effective length method, namely, the requirement that 1.5 and must
1st Pe
be verified by the user. To assist users to in making validity checks, the ratio
Pr
and are now reported in tabular form for each member.
Pe

2.7 Notional Load Patterns

Notional loads are lateral loads that are applied at each framing level and are
specified as a percentage of the gravity loads applied at that level. They are
intended to account for the destabilizing effects of out-of-plumbness, geometric
imperfections, inelasticity in structural members, and any other effects that
could induce sway and that are not explicitly considered in the analysis.

The program allows the user to create a Notional Load pattern as a percentage
of the previously defined gravity load pattern to be applied in one of the global
lateral directions: X or Y. The user can define more than one notional load
pattern associated with one gravity load by considering different factors and
different directions. In the ANSI/AISC 360-10 code, the notional loads are
typically suggested to be 0.2% (or 0.002) (AISC C2.2b(3)), a factor referred to
as the notional load coefficient in this document. The notional load coefficient
can be 0.003 (AISC C2.3(3)). In some cases, it can be a function of second
order effects measured by relative story sway (AISC App. 7.3(2)). The code
also gives some flexibility to allow the engineer-of-record to apply judgment.

The notional load patterns should be considered in combination with appropri-

ate factors, appropriate directions, and appropriate senses. Some of the design
analysis methods need the notional loads to be considered only in gravity load
combinations (AISC C2.2b(4)), and some of the methods need the notional
loads to be considered in all the design load combinations (AISC C2.2b(4)).
For a complete list, see Table 2-1 in the preceding “Second Order Effects and
Analysis Methods” section of this chapter.

Currently, the notional loads are not automatically included in the default
design load combinations that include lateral loads. However, the user is free to
modify the default design load combinations to include the notional loads with
appropriate factors and in appropriate load combinations.

2 - 10 Notional Load Patterns