UNIT-I

Urban Transportation Problem Travel Demand:

Urban Issues, Travel Characteristics, Evolution of Planning Process, Supply and Demand–
Systems approach. Travel Demand: Trends, Overall Planning process, Long term Vs Short
term planning, Demand Function, Independent Variables, Travel Attributes, Assumptions in
Demand Estimation, Sequential, and Simultaneous Approaches, Aggregate and
Disaggregate Techniques

Urban Transportation Problem Travel Demand:

Transportation management is a major part of urban planning and development. Urban

areas worldwide are rapidly expanding and so is the urban population. Urban planning
majorly impacts how much a city supports business growth, and of which transportation
management has a key role to play.
City transportation influences per capita expenditure and revenues to a large extent and
thus a country’s GDP. If examples are to be drawn from my home country, Mumbai owes
much of its business capital status to a well-laid out public transportation management.
And Bangalore is known for its inability of city planning to cope with a sudden and prolific
growth of IT establishments.
Typical man-hours spent in traffic in a day, traffic hazards and the pollution levels, following
which the livability depend on traffic modes and sizes in the city; additionally the pride value
of a city and the country lies with traffic behavior along with other factors.
Urban travel demand has been continuously growing in both developed and
developing countries. Overall population growth and increasing urbanization have
led to rapid growth of large cities, which are crippled by the sudden rise in travel
demand. The supply of transport infrastructure and services, by comparison, has
lagged far behind demand. Land prices and rental rates also escalate in city centers,
which force establishments and housing to move to the city peripherals and thus
further increasing everyday commuting. Certain developed countries have been quite
successful in keeping traffic demands in checks. Some policies also appear as
unfriendly towards private vehicle ownership/usage
Urban transportation trends
Urban travel demand has to be understood from the context of differentiated urban
growth. To some extent, capacity increase is possible by slight modifications with
little or no investments such as signaling changes, widening of roads and extricating
encroachments. But what works for one city may not work for the other, though
some valuable lessons can be learned. Despite investments in road infrastructure,
land use and transport planning and development, several cities face problems of
heavy influx, congestion, traffic accidents, and air and noise pollution
Urban Issues
Problems of Urban Transport (Explained With Diagram)
Traffic Movement and Congestion: ...
Public Transport Crowding: ...
Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport: ...
Difficulties for Pedestrians: ...
Parking Difficulties: ...
Environmental Impact: ...
Traffic Noise: ...
Atmospheric Pollution:

Traffic Movement and Congestion:

Traffic congestion occurs when urban transport networks are no longer capable of
accommodating the volume of movements that use them. The location of congested
areas is determined by the physical transport framework and by the patterns of
urban land use and their associated trip-generating activities. Levels of traffic
overloading vary in time, with a very well-marked peak during the daily journey-to-
work periods.
Public Transport Crowding:

The ‘person congestion’ occurring inside public transport vehicles at such peak times
adds insult to injury, sometimes literally. A very high proportion of the day’s journeys
are made under conditions of peak-hour loading, during which there will be lengthy
queues at stops, crowding at terminals, stairways and ticket offices, and excessively
long periods of hot and claustrophobic travel jammed in overcrowded vehicles.
Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport:
If public transport operators provide sufficient vehicles to meet peak-hour demand
there will be insufficient patronage off-peak to keep them economically employed. If
on the other hand they tailor fleet size to the off-peak demand, the vehicles would be
so overwhelmed during the peak that the service would most likely break down.
Difficulties for Pedestrians:

Pedestrians form the largest category of traffic accident victims. Attempts to increase
their safety have usually failed to deal with the source of the problem (i.e., traffic
speed and volume) and instead have concentrated on restricting movement on foot.
Needless to say this worsens the pedestrian’s environment, making large areas ‘off-
limits’ and forcing walkers to use footbridges and underpasses
Parking Difficulties:

Many car drivers stuck in city traffic jams are not actually trying to go anywhere: they
are just looking for a place to park. For them the parking problem is the urban
transport problem: earning enough to buy a car is one thing but being smart enough
to find somewhere to park it is quite another. However, it is not just the motorist that
suffers. Cities are disfigured by ugly multi-storey parking garages and cityscapes are
turned into seas of metal, as vehicles are crammed on to every square metre of
ground.
Environmental Impact:
The operation of motor vehicles is a polluting activity. While there are innumerable
other activities which cause environmental pollution as a result of the tremendous
increases in vehicle ownership, society is only now beginning to appreciate the
devastating and dangerous consequences of motor vehicle usage. Pollution is not
the only issue.
Atmospheric Pollution:
Fumes from motor vehicles present one of the most unpleasant costs of living with
the motor vehicle. The car is just one of many sources of atmospheric pollution and
although prolonged exposure may constitute a health hazard, it is important to view
this particular problem in perspective. As the Royal Commission on Environmental
Pollution has stated, “there is no firm evidence that in Britain the present level of
these pollutants is a hazard to health
Travel Characteristics
Traffic Surveys The characteristics
of Regional Transport System were studied and assessed through conduct of
following major primary surveys:
 Road Inventory Surveys
 Traffic Volume Surveys
Origin-Destination Surveys
Speed and Delay Surveys
Commuter Surveys The characteristics of road network for NCR based on these
surveys are described in the following paragraphs:
3.1.1 Traffic Characteristics
The traffic characteristics on the basis of traffic volume survey, origin-destination
survey and speed and delay surveys are briefly described below. The traffic volume
1locations on different categories of roads spread over the entire NCR network. The
traffic survey locations are presented in Figure 3.1. The list of survey locations are
presented in Annexure 3.1. The traffic characteristics such as ADT, directional
distribution of traffic, traffic composition, temporal variation, etc. at outer cordon &
urban cordon and along road corridors are presented below:
3.1.1.1 Outer Cordon (OC) Traffic Characteristics
A large number of count stations fall along the outer cordon around the NCR. The
traffic survey data at these locations have been analysed to appreciate the
development at the outer cordon of NCR.
Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) About 2,21,575 vehicles (3,50,694 PCUs) enter and exit NCR on an average
day. Amongst the count locations along the outer cordon, the highest ADT was
50,858 vehicles (90,853 PCUs) at Babarpur on Karnal road (NH-1). The lowest traffic
volume (ADT) of 2,407 vehicles (3,008 PCUs) were observed at Gohana-Butana
road. National Highways account for 74.57% (vehicles) of the total traffic entering
and exiting the NCR. Directional Distribution There is no major directional imbalance
(in – 50.3%; out – 49.7%) at the different count stations along
Evolution of Planning Process
The study of development and planning is basically a study of interaction between
man, land and activity in the form of spatial organisation of economy. After industrial
revolution and rapid growth of urbanisation, development in the field of transport is
enormous both in infrastructures, speed as well as in transport technology.
Nowadays every country of the world is having its own national transport system, not
in isolation but as a part of international system of transportation
Planning Process:

The primary aim of transport planning is the identification and evaluation of the
future transport needs. The basis of transport planning process has been depicted in
Figure

The four main stages of the transportation planning process are:

(i) Transportation survey, data collection and analysis;
(ii) Use of transportation model;

(iii) Future land use forecasts and alternative policy strategies; and
(iv) Policy evaluation.
Survey and Data Collection:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The entire planning process of transportation, may be local, regional or national, is
based on survey and data collection. This includes all types of literature and data
(both government and non-government) available on transportation, journey
behaviour patterns, nature and intensity of traffic, freight structure, cost and benefits,
i.e., income, employment estimates, etc.
The comprehensive knowledge of traffic flows and patterns within a defined area is
essential. In addition to traffic data, planners also require land use and population
data for their study area. In this connection West Midlands Transportation Study
(1968) provides a format, which is useful for transport survey and data collection
Trip Generation:
The first stage of model building process is that of trip generation. Trips are made for
a variety of purposes and for various land uses. For convenience, trips are often split
into two groups:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(i) Home-based trips:
Such trips have one trip end at the home of the person making the trip, which may
be either the origin or destination of the given trip.
(ii) Non-home-based trips:
These have neither origin nor destination trip-end at the home of the person making
the trip.
This initial part of the transport model expresses trip-making relationships in a
mathematical form so that ultimately we can calculate the total number of trips-ends
originating from the defined survey zones.
Multiple regression technique are often used to calibrate a trip-generation model
incorporating the above household variables. This model takes the following general
form:
Y = a +b1 x1 + b2 x2 +….. + bn xn
where Y = number of trips (by mode and purpose) generated in a given zone
a = constant term
b1…bn = regression coefficients relating to independent variables (e.g. household
income, car-owner- ship, house-hold structure, etc.)
Trip Distribution:
This is the next stage in the transportation model, it involves on analysis of trips
between zones. Lane (1971) states the function of this stage of the model:
It is the function of trip distribution to calculate the number of trips between one
zone and another, given the previously determined numbers of trip ends in each zone
together with further information on the transport facilities available between these
zones

Travel Demand
Traffic demand and supply are in mutual interaction and mutually coordinated.
Transport needs (of goods and passengers) cause an increase in consumption, and
on the other hand influence the construction and improvement of available traffic
capacities, which in turn provides conditions for new increase in transport demand.
As a result, traffic acts in return on the development of industry and also for the
needs of people. It precedes the development of demand, i. e. its interaction
provides the possibility of increase in the transport service demand.
Elasticity of transport demand[edit]
For roads or highways, the supply relates to capacity and the quantity consumed
refers to vehicle miles traveled. The size of the increase in quantity consumed
depends on the elasticity of demand.
A review of transport research suggests that the elasticity of traffic demand with
respect to travel time is around −0.5 in the short term and −1.0 in the long
term.[18] This indicates that a 1.0% saving in travel time will generate an additional
0.5% increase in traffic within the first year. In the longer term, a 1.0% saving in
travel time will result in a 1.0% increase in traffic volume
Trends, Overall Planning process
Transportation planning plays a critical role in a State’s, region’s or community’s
vision for its future. It includes
(1) a comprehensive consideration of possible strategies,
(2) an evaluation process that encompasses diverse viewpoints,
(3) the collaborative participation of relevant transportation-related agencies and
organizations, and
(4) open, timely, and meaningful public involvement.
The Transportation Planning Process:
Key Issues 2015 Update 3 Transportation planning typically follows the following
steps:
• Engaging the public and stakeholders to establish shared goals and visions for the
community.
• Monitoring existing conditions and comparing them against transportation
performance goals.
• Forecasting future population and employment growth, including assessing
projected land uses in the region and identifying major corridors of growth or
redevelopment.
• Identifying current and projected transportation needs by developing performance
measures and targets.
• Analyzing various transportation improvement strategies and their related tradeoffs
using detailed planning studies.
 • Developing long-range plans and short-range programs of alternative capital
improvement, management, and operational strategies for moving people and
goods.
• Estimating how recommended improvements to the transportation system will
impact achievement of performance goals, as well as impacts on the economy and
environmental quality, including air quality.
• Developing a financial plan to secure sufficient revenues that cover the costs of
implementing strategies and ensure ongoing maintenance and operation.
, Overall Planning process

transportation planning is a complex problem. Increased facilities will change the

environment and land use patterns and result in increased trips invalidating the
original criteria and projections used. Increased use of operations research and
systems approach to transportation planning in recent times seeks to optimise the
system performance for deriving maximum benefit from the facilities.
The use of mathematical models to simulate the problem leads one to understand
the variables involved to a reasonable degree; this helps in arriving at the best
possible solution under a given set of circumstances.
Transport planning for urban areas and big cities is much more complex.

Long term Vs Short term planning

faster life has caused the exponential growth in No. of vehicles on streets. The
adverse effects include frequent traffic congestion, less time efficiency, unnecessary
fuel consumption, pollution, accidents, etc. One of most important solution for
resolving these problems is efficient transportation management system. Data
science introduces different techniques and tools for overcoming these problems and
to improve the data quality and forecasting inferences. The proposed long-term
forecasting model can predict numerical values of effective attributes for a particular
day on half-hourly basis, at least 24 hours prior to the time of prediction. The
proposed forecasting model for short-term analysis will be having access to data as
close as 30-minute difference from the time of prediction. Our proposed solution has
integrated use of Holt-Winters (HW) method along with comparability schemes for
seasonal approach.
Many transportation management systems keep data of
transportation behaviours. This data can be used to resolve the
issues mentioned above. But, the data quality and usefulness
may be compromised sometimes based on collection methods,
conditions and volume. Data science introduces different
techniques and tools to improve the data quality and
forecasting inferences
Demand Function

One of the important objectives of traffic demand forecast in a transportation master

plan study is to examine the concepts and policies in proposed plans by numerically
indicators. It is, thus, to check whether plans provide sufficient capacity and structure
performs functionally and effectively for the estimated demand, and to provide most
favorable plans responding to the demand.
In general, the future transportation demand will be estimated by models. Modeling
means the development of mathematical formulations that represent the travel
patterns of persons living in a city, such as travel mode, travel speed, and traffic
volume on a transport system and network. For this context, there are two major
approaches. One approach is that the relation between demand and statistical
information will be analyzed, and functional equations will be produced. The
traditional four-step methodology is famous in this approach. The other one is an
approach to focus travelers’ behavior, in which representative models are ‘Discrete’
and ‘Activity’ model. In this Study, the former approach shall be taken.

, Independent Variables

To estimate the economic loss due to road traffic injuries (RTIs) of the World Health
Organization (WHO) member countries and to explore the relationship between the
economic loss and relevant health system factors. Data from the World Bank and the
WHO were applied to set up the databases. Disability-adjusted life year (DALY) and
gross domestic p
Travel Attributes

study of ten different travel attributes and their relative importance as influences on choices
among car, bus, and BART for traveling to work in the San Francisco Bay Area. The
attributes were: (1) cost, (2) total travel time, (3) dependability, (4) relaxation, (5) safety from
accidents, (6) use of time while traveling, (7) flexibility, (8) seat availability, (9) safety from
crime, and (10) waiting time. A sample of 258 commuters were interviewed. Each was asked
to rate his satisfaction with car, bus, and BART on each of the ten attributes. Each commuter
was also asked how he usually traveled to work. The relative importance of the attributes was
inferred by examining the attribute ratings and the relationships, over the study sample,
between the ratings and the usual choice of travel mode

The first step in the data analysis was to examine the intercorrelations of the attribute ratings.
The purpose was to identify any groups of highly intercorrelated variables for which the
relationships to behavior might reflect the influence of common underlying determinants.
Three groups of intercorrelated attribute ratings variables were identified: (1) total time,
dependability, waiting time, and, to a lesser extent, flexibility, (2) relaxation, time use, and to
a lesser extent, safety and seat availability, and (3) crime safety and waiting time. None of the
groups of variables was sufficiently intercorrelated to suggest that the variables measured
predominantly the same phenomena; however, the intercorrelations should be considered
when evaluating the study results.

INFLUENCE OF TRAVEL ATTRIBUTES ON MODAL CHOICE IN AN INDIAN CITY

Modal split models tried for Indian cities have not gone in depth in studying the impact of
the attitude of users towards various travel attributes. The main difficulty with this has been
non-availability of data. The study presented here tried two methodologies, attitude
measurement and trade-off game approach, using data collected through household
surveys conducted for the purpose on limited stratified samples in some locations in
Madras. The results indicate how commuters value time and comfort factors more than the
cost, given a choice. Due to prevailing economic conditions, cost plays a vital role, but
analysis shows that users are prepared to incur additional costs, if they are assured of
quicker and more comfortable services. Relative quantification between the influence of
different attributes is also possible.
Assumptions in Demand Estimation

Travel simulations require that an urban area be represented as a series of small

geographic areas called travel analysis zones (TAZs). Zones are characterized by
their population, employment and other factors and are the places where trip making
decisions are made (trip producers) and the trip need is met (trip attractors).

Trip making is assumed to begin at the center of activity in a zone (zone centroid).
Trips that are very short, that begin and end in a single zone (intrazonal trips) are
usually not directly included in the forecasts. This limits the analysis of pedestrian
and bicycle trips in the process.

Zones can be as small as a single block but typically are 1/4 to one mile square in
area. A planning study can easily use 500-2000 zones. A large number of zones will
increase the accuracy of the forecasts but require more data and computer
processing time.

Zones tend to be small in areas of high population and larger in more rural areas.
Internal zones are those within the study area while external zones are those outside
of the study area. The study area should be large enough so that nearly all (over
90%) of the trips begin and end within the study area.

The highway system and transit systems are represented as networks for computer
analysis. Networks consist of links to represent segments of highways or transit lines
and nodes to represent intersections and other points on the network. Data for links
includes travel times on the link, average speeds, capacity, and direction. Node data
is more limited to information on which links connect to the node and the location of
the node (coordinates). Node data could also include data on intersections to help
calculate delay encountered at intersections.
The Travel Demand Modeling Process

Specification

In this step, the model's mathematical form is specified (e.g., regression, cross
classification, logit, lookup table) and the variables of interest are identified.

Estimation

In model estimation, one or more mathematical procedures are used to determine

the likely values of the model parameters and coefficients. For example, when
estimating the likely coefficient values for a logit model, the method of maximum
likelihood estimation (MLE) is generally used. Empirically estimated models rely upon
data, which is derived from surveys (e.g., Census, household travel surveys, air
passenger surveys), traffic counts, or transit counts. Most estimation work is done
with software packages such as SAS, SPSS, R, Stata, Alogit, LIMDEP/NLOGIT, or
Biogeme.

Implementation

Once a model is estimated, it needs to be implemented so that it can be applied.

Most travel models are implemented and applied using computer software. The TPB
travel model makes use of software packages that are designed both specifically for
travel demand forecasting (e.g., Cube Voyager and Cube Base) and more general
software packages (e.g., Fortran, ArcGIS, Visual Basic).

Calibration/validation

Model calibration and validation generally occur in an iterative fashion. The model is
validated in a "base year" against observed data to make sure that it is performing
adequately and reasonably. Based on the performance of the model in model
validation, small adjustments are made to the model ("model calibration") until the
model accurately replicates observed patterns and behavior. Ideally, the model is
validated to a different set of observed data than was used for model estimation. A
"future year" validation can also be performed. Although there are no observed data
for a future year, one can make sure that the model forecasts are reasonable and
consistent with expectations. All travel models are validated against observed data.

Application

In the final step of the process, models are applied, generally using computer
software, so that they may be used for developing forecasts.

Sequential

Few studies, however, have attempted to analyze the incident duration by

incorporating chronological incident information gathering. Khattak et al. (1995)
applied a simple time-sequential procedure to predict freeway incident duration using
a truncated ordinary least squares (OLS) regression model (22). The study
emphasized the sequential availability of incident-related information during the life
of an incident, which brings forth the need for a more practical prediction method.
Their results showed that the OLS model has limited prediction accuracy and that
hazard-based survival models may outperform OLS in relation to prediction
accuracy. A more advanced ANN technique was applied to sequentially predict
duration at 10 time points, and it was found to outperform non-sequential forecast
(23), but this method has limited interpretability to tract direct effects

Five stages are identified and used for sequential predictions based on availability
of incident-related information at each stage according to traffic operation
procedures (including time and information characteristics; see Figure 1). In
general, limited traffic incident information is available at early stages, and more
comprehensive and complete information will be available at later stages. The five
stages are:

 Stage 1: roadway, temporal information, weather;

 Stage 2: earlier stages’ information plus incident characteristics (incident type,
lanes blockage, vehicles involvement, ramp);
 Stage 3: earlier stages’ information plus incident response (first-response
agency and its response time, DMS, highway advisory radio (HAR), and
flashing beacons activation);
 Stage 4: earlier stages’ information plus other response agencies’ information
(e.g., response time, the total number of response agencies);
 Stage 5: earlier stages’ information plus on-scene time for responded
agencies, DMS and HAR usage, lane-block duration.

Simultaneous Approaches

Simultaneous approaches allow aircraft to approach runways independently of

adjacent parallel runways. Aircraft may pass or be passed by aircraft on the adjacent
approach path, but must maintain standard separation behind aircraft on the same
approach path. The standards for simultaneous approaches are generally contained
in FAA Orde

The FAA began using simultaneous approaches to two parallel runways prior to
1962 at Chicago O’Hare International Airport (ORD), based on an analysis of the
lateral deviation of aircraft on ILS approaches at ORD.

Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach (SOIA) is a procedure used to conduct

simultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than 3,000' (915m), but at least
750' (230m) apart.

The SOIA procedure utilizes an ILS PRM approach to one runway and an offset
Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA) PRM approach with glide slope or an RNAV
PRM or GLS PRM approach utilizing vertical guidance to the adjacent runway.

SOIA require No Transgression Zone (NTZ) monitoring, special pilot training and a
dedicated Attention All Users Page (AAUP) as described in the Simultaneous Close
Parallel PRM Approach article. ATC directed breakout procedures are in force.

Whilst there are many common procedures and similarities between SOIA and
Simultaneous Close Parallel Approaches, there are also some notable differences.

Visual Segment –

The final segment of the offset approach, from the point that the NTZ ends, most be
flown using visual references. Information on the Attention All Users Page (AAUP)
will include the minimum ceiling and visibility requirements to allow SOIA approaches
to runways spaced less than 3000' apart. The "clear of cloud" point will be above the
decision

Contoller/Pilot Procedures –

The controller will vector and speed adjust the aircraft on the adjacent approaches
in such a way to ensure that the aircraft on the offset approach is slightly behind the
aircraft on the straight-in approach. Prior to the decision altitude for the offset
approach (coincident with the end of the NTZ and the beginning of the visual
segment) the pilot must:
, Aggregate and Disaggregate Techniques
aggregate travel demand between zones, determined as a function of policy
instruments, are a basic input to the transportation planning process. Traditionally,
these forecasts have been based on models of aggregate interzonal flows, calibrated
by using zonal average trip attributes and socioeconomic characteristics.
Interzonal travel demand is, tautologically, the result of aggregating individual travel
decisions for the zonal population.
Traditional aggregate models do not attempt to make this connection. By contrast,
the recent travel demand literature has emphasized the individual decision-making
unit and the behavioral foundations of travel demand (1, 2, 4, 8, 9). Aggregate and
disaggregate travel demand models are sometimes viewed by transportation
planners as mutually exclusive or competitive approaches to the forecasting
problem. We shall argue that, to the contrary, they are complementary.
[A good analogy can be made between the problem of modeling travel demand and
the physical theory of a perfect gas.
The observable macroparameters of a gas, such as pressure and temperature, are
linked by empirical laws such as Boyle's law; however, the behavior of individual gas
molecules is described by the kinetic theory of gases. If the gas is in equilibrium,
then Boyle's law predicts macrobehavior accurately, and it is unnecessary to
consider the molecul
The axioms of disaggregated behavioral demand modeling are that individuals
represent the basic decision-making unit and that each individual will choose one
alternative among those available that he or she finds most desirable or useful. This
depends on the attributes of the alternative and the socioeconomic characteristics of
the individual.

For simplicity, we will develop this model and the results only for the classical
problem of modal split for a work trip.

The substance of our conclusions continues to hold for more complex aspects of
travel behavior. The full power and generality of the disaggregated approach
become apparent primarily in forecasting complex demand sys

Suppose that the disaggregated behavioral model in Eq. 6 is a correct specification

of the distribution of individual modal choices in the population and that the
parameter vector {3 has been calibrated accurately in a statistical study.

We now wish to determine the aggregate modal split between zones i and j. The
formula for this aggregate is straightforward. Recall that N1 J is the set of individuals
k traveling from i to j and let n 1J be the nwnber of individuals in this set. Because Pk
= «i({3'zk) is our best prediction that an individual with a measured choice
environment described by zk will choose mode a, the best prediction for the
aggregate of individuals making the trip is
UNIT-II
Data Collection And Inventories:
Collection of data – Organisation of surveys and Analysis, Study Area, Zoning, Types and
Sources of Data, Road Side Interviews, Home Interview Surveys, Commercial Vehicle
Surveys, Sampling Techniques, Expansion Factors, Accuracy Checks, Use of Secondary
Sources, Economic data – Income – Population – Employment – Vehicle Owner Ship.

Collection of data
Good data is the basis for good analysis, and from a sight distance
measurement to a statewide origin-destination survey, KCI can provide
customized data resources for your project. We first understand how the
data is to be used, then determine efficient ways to collect it. When we sit
down with our client or stand in front of the public, we are confident in the
quality of our data and what it tells us.
Examples of our data collection expertise includes:
 Traffic volume counts (mainline and intersections)
 Traffic speed data
 Bicycle/pedestrian counts
 Origin-destination surveys
 Transportation network inventory
 Travel time data
 Vehicle classification counts
 Attitude and opinion surveys
 Safety data analysis
 Regulatory compliance inventory (ADA, etc.)
 Video data collection
 Parking occupa

 . Data Collection Layer

 The data-collection layer consists of real-time traffic data collected by road
traffic detection systems, which include the sensor type and location, the
penetration rate of probe vehicle, and mobile device information. The collection
 of this type of data needs the support of roadside detecting equipment, GSM
equipment, or vehicle-infrastructure communication equipment. Real-time
traffic data can be helpful to online traffic management, intelligent dispatching
of public transport modes or taxis.
 2.3. Application
 The following (including but not limited) are function modules which can be
realized based on the data warehouse of CUTD. These modules can support
the fulfillment of the urban transport development objectives of CUTD.(i)Urban
traffic simulation and evaluation [10, 11]. This module can provide simulation of
urban traffic conditions (road, urban rail, or pedestrian, etc.) and evaluate traffic
conditions.(ii)Traffic congestion monitoring and management. This module can
dynamically monitor urban road traffic condition and identify congestion links or
nodes.(iii)Energy consumption and emission monitoring and
calculation.(iv)Urban transport planning.(v)Urban transport investment cost-
benefit analysis and public transport enterprises’ operation cost-audit and
subsidy apportionment.(vi)Public transport policy making support.

Organisation of surveys and Analysis,

THE ROLE OF SURVEYS
All persons involved in transport and land-use planning will at some stage be involved
with data collection. Even if not directly concerned with the design and conduct of
surveys, they will certainly wish to use data at some time, and at that stage they will
realise what should have been done in the design and administration phases of the
survey. Each individual's introduction to survey data may have widely differing
emotional connotations. For some, it may be a horrific experience as they try to grapple
with data which has been collected by someone else, only to find that the
documentation associated with that dataset is incomplete, misleading or simply non-
existent. For others, who face the prospect of collecting a new set of data, it may be a
challenging professional experience with ample opportunity for initiative and the
exploration of new frontiers of knowledge in survey methodology. This book is
intended to guide the latter group, and console the former.
Types of Surveys Surveys
are of particular relevance to transport and land-use planning in several specific
areas. Land-use surveys are an integral component of transport planning information
requirements. This is due to the fact that travel is a so-called "derived demand". That
is, travel, in itself, has no inherent value; it is useful only insofar as it facilitates
participation in other activities. Thus with respect to passenger transport, travel
enables individuals to participate in an activity at a location some distance away from
their present location

Survey Purposes
Regardless of the subject matter to be covered within a survey, transport surveys
may serve several purposes, either alone or in combination. First, they may merely
attempt to describe existing conditions at a given time in order to ascribe an order of
magnitude to various transport phenomena. Secondly, they may seek to establish
causal explanations of conditions at a given time so that greater understanding of
transport system behaviour may be obtained. Thirdly, it may be desired that after
analysis of the survey results, predictive models

Study Area
Urban area 1. Population not less than 5,000. 2. Non-agricultural workers not less
than 75% of the total workers. 3. Population density not less than 400 per sq. km.
Towns with population of 0.1 million and above are termed as cities.

The first stage in the formulation of a transportation plan is to collect data on

all factors are likely to influence travel pattern. The work involves a number of
surveys so as to have:
1. An inventory of existing travel pattern.
2. An inventory of existing transport facilities.
3. An inventory of existing land use and economic activities.
Definition of the Study Area
The study area for which transportation facilities are being planned is first of all
defined. Transportation planning can be at the national level, the regional level
or at the urban area level.
For planning at the urban level, the study area should embrace the whole
contribution containing the existing and potential continuously built up areas
of the city. The imaginary line representing the boundary of the study area is
termed as the external cordon line
The area inside the external cordon line determines the travel pattern to a
large extent and as such, it is surveyed great detail. The land use pattern and
the economic activities are studied intensively and detailed survey (such as the
home-interview) are conducted in this area to determine the travel
characteristics. On the other hand, the area outside the cordon line is not
studied in such details.
Selection of External Cordon Line
The selection of the external cordon line for urban transportation planning
should be done carefully with due to consideration to the following factors:
1. The external cordon line should circumscribe all areas, which are already
built up, and those areas, which are considered likely to be developed during
the planning period.
2. The external cordon line should contain all areas of systematic daily life of
the people oriented towards the city center and should in effect be the
commuter shed.
3. The external cordon line should -be continuous and uniform in its courses so
that movements cross it only once. The line should intersect roads where it is
safe and convenient for carrying out traffic survey.
4. The external cordon line should be compatible with the previous studies of
the areas studies planned for the future.

Zoning
Zoning
The defined study area is sub-divided into smaller areas called zones or traffic
zones.
- The purpose of such a subdivision is to facilitate the spatial quantification of land
use and economic factors, which influence travel pattern. Subdivision into zones
further helps in geographically associating the origins and destinations of travel. -
Zones within the study area are called internal zones and those outside the study
area are called external zones. - In large study projects, it is convenient to divide the
study area into sectors, which are sub divided into zones. Zones can themselves be
sub divided into sub- zones depending upon the type of land use. - A convenient
system of coding of the zones will be useful for the study. One such system is to
divide the study area into 9 sectors.
The central sector CBD is designated 0, and the remaining eight are designated from
1 to 8 in clockwise manner. The prefix 9 is reserved for the external zones.
Each sector is subdivided into 10 zones bearing numbers from 0 to 9.
It would be helpful, if the following points are kept in view when dividing the area into
zones:
1. The zones should have a homogenous land use so as to reflect accurately the
associated trip making behavior.
2. Anticipated change in land use should be considered when sub- dividing the study
area into zones.
3. It would be advantages, if the subdivision follows closely that adopted by other
bodies ( e.g. census department) for data collection. This will facilitate correlation of
data.
4. The zones should not too large to cause considerable errors in data. At the
sometime, they should not be too small either to cause difficulty in handling and
analyzing the data. As a general guide, a population of 1000-3000 may be the
optimum for a small area, and a population of 5000- 10000 may be the optimum for
large urban areas. In residential areas, the zones may accommodate roughly 1000
households.
5. The zones should preferably have regular geometric form for easily determining
the centroid, which represent the origin and destination of travel.
6. The sectors should represent the catchment of trips generated on a primary route

Types and Sources of Data

This section comprises the main part of the paper and contains brief descriptions of data
sources that have a spatial dimension and highlights issues that arise. Particular attention is
given to relatively new sources or those that are valuable but under-used.
A Surveys of Transport CSRGT and Other Road Freight Surveys by DfT In order to obtain
information on the broad spatial pattern of road goods transport the DfT carries out three
continuing freight surveys:
• CSRGT – the Continuing Survey of Road Goods Transport
• IRHS – the continuing International Road Haulage Survey
• RoRo – the quarterly Roll-on/Roll-off Enquiry The CSRGT is the only national survey of road
haulage activity, and is a statutory survey of heavy goods vehicles over 3.5 tonnes gross
vehicle weight in the UK. The survey is based on a random sample of trips made by about
400 vehicles each week.
At present the geographic resolution is at County level, and this is insufficient for many
purposes. A number of suggested improvements to the CSRGT have been made, notably:
• Collect land use data of origins and destinations, to enable the reason for which the goods
were being moved to be identified (e.g. from factory, warehouse or modal terminal, etc.)
• Collect a finer geographic resolution of trips, at least to Local Authority District leve

l • Increase the sample size so that improved estimates of District to District freight
movement can be

Road Side Interviews

Road Side Interview (RSI) technique is one of the Origin - Destination survey
methods to identify the zone of influence. RSI is the best method which gives the
travel pattern of the vehicles at micro level for the calculation of traffic growth rates
using Econometric models. In this paper, an attempt has been made to utilize the
RSI data analysis results for the calculation of traffic growth rates for Sambalpur -
Jharsuguda section of SH-10 in the state of Odisha (India).
investment in the transport sector constitutes a significant part of the total
investment. This is especially factual in the case of developing nations, where
transport is the catalyst for all round development and is one of the basic
infrastructures. The traffic forecasting for any particular road depends upon the
population in the influence zone, per capita income, Gross domestic product (GDP).
So perceptive the travel characteristics of the traffic using a particular stretch is
important for forecasting

Roadside Interviews for Better Traffic Engineering and Management

Roadside interview data is manually collected from drivers travelling through a
specified study area. Its main purpose is to identify existing travel patterns.
Roadside interview surveys are generally used to collect origin and destination data, but
can also be used to collect additional information such as purpose of journey, frequency
of journey, vehicle occupancy, and purpose of trip.
The data is used to inform traffic modelling, environmental impact assessments and
junction improvement scheme

The Process
The survey is undertaken by our highly-trained team of enumerators who interview
drivers travelling through a study area. We can also interview residents and
pedestrians in the area to provide a larger range of existing travel patterns.
The roadside interview station is set up by a Traffic Management Company in
accordance with Chapter 8 of the Health and Safety Regulations. All roadside
interview stations require police assistance.
Our enumerators can also carry out door-to-door surveys and questionnaire
distribution.
Home Interview Surveys
Home-interview survey is one of the most reliable type of surveys for collection of
origin

and destination data. The survey is essentially intended to yield data on the travel
pattern of the

residents of the household and the general characteristics of the household

influencing tripmaking.

The information on the travel pattern includes number of trips made, their origin and

destination, purpose of trip, travel mode, time of departure from origin and time of
arrival at

destination and so on. The information on household characteristics includes type of

dwelling

unit, number of residents, age, sex, race, vehicle ownership, number of drivers,
family income

and so on. Based on these data it is possible to relate the amount of travel to
household and zonal

characteristics and develop equations for trip generation rates.

It is impractical and unnecessary to interview all the residents of the study area.
Since

travel patterns tend to be uniform in a particular zone. The size of the sample is
usually
, Commercial Vehicle Surveys

Commercial Vehicle Survey (CVS)

Ontario’s CVS provides information about the movement of trucks and goods on
provincial and municipal infrastructure and has been done approximately every five
years since the 1970s. The survey includes data collection at truck inspection
stations, road side lay-bys, border crossings, and some municipal roads.

see details in Ontario Commercial Vehicle Survey – Use of GIS for Data Collection,
Processing, Analyses and Dissemination. presentation and conference publication

CVS collects surveys at more than 200 survey sites across the province. The CVS
collects the following data:

 Vehicle
o Truck configuration
o Body Style
o Number of axles, location/use of lift axles and axle weights
o Distance between axles and vehicle length
o Energy saving features
o GPS and technology tracking brand
 Commodity
o Detailed commodity description
o Kg’s of commodity and estimated value
o Dangerous goods placard
 Trips
o Origin/destination and intermediate stops, confirmation of Highways
used.
o Facility type at origin/destination
 Geographic Coverage
o Province-wide coverage on major provincial highways
o Border Crossings
o Selected coverage on municipal roads
 Traffic Counts
o 2 weeks of traffic volumes by vehicle class

Sampling Techniques
SAMPLING METHODS
There are three main sampling methods that help to avoid bias in the
selection of your sampling sites:
 Random sampling
 Systematic sampling (which includes line transects)
 Stratified Sampling
1. RANDOM SAMPLING
Random sampling is usually carried out when the area under study is very
large, or there is limited time available. When using random sampling
techniques, large numbers of samples/records are taken from different
positions within the area. A numbered grid should be overlaid over a map
of the area. A computer generated random number table is then used to
select which squares to sample in. For example, if we have mapped a
representative zone in El Raval , and have then laid a numbered grid over
it as shown below, we could then choose which squares we should sample
in by using the random number table.

A numbered grid map of an area to be sampled

The advantage of using random numbers is that no human is involved in
the selection process.

2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling is when samples are taken at fixed intervals, (e.g.
every tenth building), usually along a line. This normally involves doing
transects, where a sampling line is set up across areas where there are
clear changes. For example you might use a transect to show how
gentrification or the price of a convenience item changes with increasing
distance from a zone of inner city redevelopment.
3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Stratified sampling is used where there are small areas within a larger study location
which are clearly different. For example, an area with more elderly and very young
people. We would therefore make sure that our sample included a representative
proportion of the elderly and very young. Sampling would still be carried out either
randomly, or systematically within each separate 'stratum' identified. This recognizes
major differences within communities before sampling begins.

Expansion Factors
commonly used measurement tool of traffic volume that gives a daily estimate of
traffic volume specific to particular locations. AADTs are essential for such planning
parameters as selection of project, pavement design, capacity and safety analyses,
air quality and traffic simulations (AASHTO, 1992). Conventionally, AADTs were
estimated for the majority of road segments from short-term traffic counts by
applying a set of expansion factors obtained from permanent traffic counts (FHWA,
2001). Usually, AADT is estimated using a combination of permanent and temporary
traffic counts. Normally, the field collection of traffic counts involves a significant cost;
therefore, the permanent traffic counts are used for main roads (Wang, 2012). These
are locations where traffic counting is conducted 24 hours a day, 365 days a year
using a variety of permanent detectors and data communication interfaces
The accuracy of AADT estimates from short-term counts can be improved by identifying the
expansion factors or so-called adjustment factors. Upon determining the expansion factors,
they can be used to estimate AADT values for road segments or any other feature by
multiplying the short-term counts by the identified adjustment factors using Equation

1. (2001, FHWA) (1…… (ࡲ × ࡲࡲࡲ = ࡲࡲࡲࡲ where:

AADT = Average Annual Daily Traffic;
ADT = Average Daily Traffic obtained from short-term traffic counts;
F = correction factor.
The shape of a daily flow profile can have distinct AM and PM peaks or
have a flat appearance over the daytime hours between peaks.
Such pattern is most common on busy arterial roads due to the existence of
traffic congestion, where demand exceeds road capacity. This limitation of
capacity can lead to spreading the peak flow into the hours in between the
AM and PM peaks, thus giving a flatter appearance to the traffic flow
profile. In some cases, due to severe congestion, the traffic flow profile can
show a reduction of traffic during peak hours, significantly affecting the
accuracy of estimation (NRA, 2012). In order to represent the peaks of
traffic flow over the 24-hour traffic flow profile, the Peak Hour Factor, or p-
factor, is used. P-factor can be evaluated using Equation
2. (2012, NRA) (2………… (ࡲࡲ − ࡲ + ࡲ = ࡲ where:
 p = p-factor;
a = the maximum hourly proportion of traffic between 0:00 and 12:00 on a
weekday;
b = the maximum hourly proportion of traffic between 12:00 and 24:00 on
a weekday;
c = the minimum hourly proportion of traffic between 08:00 and 18:00 on a
weekday.
The value of the p-factor ranges between 0 and
1. AADT is calculated using Equation
3. (2012, NRA) (3…… (ࡲ/ࡲࡲࡲ = ࡲࡲࡲࡲ where:
AADT = Average Annual Daily Traffic; ADT = Average Daily Traffic obtained
from shortterm traffic counts
; p = Peak Hour Factor
Accuracy Checks
TRAVEL ACCURACY CHECKS
The travel accuracy checks included comparisons of travel to work
characteristics as obtained from the ACS datasets and from the 2011 travel
survey.
The comparisons included mode of travel to work and work purpose travel
between the counties of the Region. In considering these comparisons, it
must be recognized that the ACS data and travel survey data are both from
sample surveys, and that the ACS data is not the same as the travel survey
data.
The ACS data represents the “usual” mode and location of work travel over
the prior week, and the Commission travel survey data represents travel on
a specific assigned survey day

Therefore, some difference between the travel survey and Census data
should be expected. Table B-10 provides comparisons of the distribution of
mode of travel to work by county as obtained from the 2009-2011 ACS data
and from the 2011 travel survey.

Table B-11 compares county to county travel within the Region from place
of residence to place of employment. The data from the two sources
closely compare, particularly when the differences between the two
surveys are considered.
To verify that travel into and out of the Region was adequately
represented by the 2011 travel inventory, travel accuracy checks were
conducted at the boundaries of the Region along a defined cordon line as
shown on Map B-1.2 The findings shown in Table B-12 indicated that the
travel survey data accurately represented external travel affecting the
Southeastern Wisconsin Region.

Another set of travel accuracy checks included comparisons of the travel

survey data with traffic counts of vehicle crossings at selected east-west
screenlines within the Region.
3 Three screenlines, as shown on Map B-1, were defined in the Milwaukee,
Racine and Kenosha urbanized areas which paralleled natural or manmade
barriers to minimize undetected crossings.
Use of Secondary Sources
 Economic data
Every day, governments, businesses, and individuals make many transportation
investments and decisions about the use of transportation. Location and development
decisions are also heavily influenced by transportation. People often use transportation
data in making these decisions. Are there any general indicators of transportation and
economic growth that could be developed systematically and that would be generally
helpful to all parties making transportation-related decisions?

The relationships between transportation and the economy are very complex and
poorly understood. Transportation is a massive enterprise with substantial direct and
indirect effects on economic productivity and economic growth. Transportation
industries—the provision of transportation services, the manufacture of vehicles, and
the construction of infrastructure—are major economic activities in themselves.
Transportation is a cost, to a greater or lesser extent, of virtually every other good or
service in the economy. Transportation is an enabler of economic activity and a
facilitator of international trade.

Income
For low- and moderate-income (LMI) and minority communities, though,
the outcomes of transportation policy and planning over much of the
past 50 years have been largely about isolation rather than access.

Arguably, in many places transportation policy and planning have served

to exacerbate the challenges that the community development field
seeks to confront, such as socioeconomic segregation and limited
economic development opportunities.

Consider the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, which authorized the

interstate highway system and sparked the large-scale construction of
roadways.

This, along with the post-war boom and the rise of the automobile,
accelerated and expanded the development of the suburbs. But the
suburban migration that ensued left behind minority households in
particular, who were unable to leave central cities for the suburbs due to
discrimination in housing and mortgage markets.

For example, exclusionary zoning practices and racially restrictive

covenants barred minorities from living or purchasing property in newly
developing suburban neighborhoods.

And as late as the mid-1960s, minorities were largely unable to qualify

for federally guaranteed mortgages, greatly limiting their ability to
purchase new homes being built in the suburbs.1 Jobs and capital,
however, did follow the mass suburban departure. Between 1963 and
1977, central city manufacturing employment in the 25 largest US cities
dropped by 19 percent, while growing by 36 percent in the suburbs.
Population
Transportation planning and public health have important historical
connections [1]. In the early 20th century transportation planning and
public health held similar objectives. In 1909 Marsh wrote, “city planning is
the adaptation of a city to its proper function. This conception can be
indefinitely expanded but its significance will be appreciated if we admit
that no city is more healthy than the highest death rate in any ward or
block and that no city is more beautiful than its most unsightly tenement
(p.27)” [2]. Since the early 20th century, the relationship between
transportation planning and public health has waxed and waned [1, 3].
There is growing recognition that integration of theories and methods from
each discipline is beneficial for advancing research and practice

The Majority of Cases Occur in Individuals at Average Risk

Building from the prevention paradox, the primary concept of Rose’s strategy is that
the majority of cases do not occur in individuals at high risk. Thus, “a large number of
people exposed to a small risk may generate many more cases than a small number
exposed to a high risk (p.59)” [9]. The recent study by Beck [12] provides an example
of this principle related to road traffic fatalitie

he population strategy acknowledges that interventions should address the fundamental

causes of road deaths and injuries, in our example, the level of exposure to moving
vehicles over the entire population, and for all intersections. The population approach
would ask whether it was possible to globally reduce the exposure to traffic volume
(Figure 3(b)) and subsequently reduce the risk of death and injury at any given
intersection for all road users. As the arrows show in Figure 3(b), the traffic volume and
subsequent risk are reduced at every intersection.
Employment
The transportation and warehousing sector (NAICS 48-49; box 4-2) directly
employed 5.2 million workers in the United States in 2017—3.5 percent of the
Nation’s labor force.
Transportation-related industries outside the sector employed 8.1 million
workers. Employment in this sector includes transportation and non-
transportation occupations and covers a diverse set of skills.
Figure 4-2 shows employment in the transportation and warehousing sector
from 1990 to 2017 by subsector (box 4-2).
Each subsector shows different patterns of employment because they face
different economic environments and require different mixes of job skills and
occupations. Truck transportation, the largest subsector, employed 28.2
percent of the
million employees in 2017. Truck transportation employment grew by 29.5
percent between 1990 and 2017, from 1.1 to 1.5 million employees, with
significant fluctuations related to major economic events, such as September
11, 2001, the Great Recession, and other recessions.
Warehousing and storage employment grew by 144.1 percent (from 406,600
in 1990 to 992,700 employees in 2017) to become the second-largest
subsector, overtaking air transportation in 2004.
The “support activities for transportation” subsector, the third-largest
subsector, provides services like air traffic control, marine cargo handling, and
motor vehicle towing.
It grew 89.5 percent from 364,100 in 1990 to 690,100 employees in 2017. Not
all subsectors experienced employment increases from 1990 to 2017.
Employment in air transportation increased from 1995 to 2001, but declined
after 2001, leading to a 9.8 percent decline in employment between 1990 and
2017 (from 529,200 to 477,500 employees).
In addition, rail transportation employment declined by 20.9 percent from
1990 to 2017 (from 271,800 to 215,000 employees) and pipeline
transportation employment declined 19.2 percent (from 59,800 to 48,300
employees).

vehicle ownership
vehicle ownership models for India and describes the results of nine experts’
interviews to gather insights about Indians’ travel patterns and vehicle choices.
According to the experts, vehicle price, fuel economy, and brand (in declining
importance) are the most decisive factors in Indians’ car purchase choices. This
study also estimated household vehicle ownership levels across India’s 35 states
using Census 2011 data. The results suggest that states with a higher proportion of
computer-owning households and higher share of households living in rural areas
with larger household size, ceteris paribus, are likely to have higher car ownership.

As India's economy grows, so too does the number of people who can afford to own
vehicles. A downside of this rapid increase in private vehicle ownership is a
corresponding increase in traffic congestion, air pollution, and carbon emissions.
Although affordability may be one reason for the shift toward commuting via private
vehicles, another contributing factor could be the quality of public transportation.
The objective of this paper is to determine whether private vehicle ownership in
large urban areas in India is influenced by the presence of high quality dedicated
public transit systems.
Consumer expenditure survey data acquired from the National Sample Survey Office
(NSSO) for the year 2009–2010 were used to develop a vehicle ownership model for
26 Indian cities with a
UNIT-III
Four Stage Demand Forecasting :
UTPS Approach, Trip Generation Analysis: Zonal Models, Category
Analysis, Household Models, Trip Attraction models, Commercial Trip
Rates. Trip Distribution: Growth Factor Methods, Gravity Models,
Opportunity Models, Time Function Iteration Models.
Four Stage Demand Forecasting

Four-Step travel demand modeling is the traditional procedure utilized

for transportation forecasts.

Step 1: Trip Generation – How many trips are generated?

The goal of trip generation (production) is to estimate the number of trips
that are produced or originate in each Traffic Analysis Zone (TAZ). A set
of equations is used to estimate the number of trips produced by and
attracted to each zone based on its residential and employment
characteristics. For example; the more employment a zone has, the
more work trips it attracts. The more retail employees in a zone, the
more shopping trips are assumed to be attracted there

Step 2: Trip Distribution

– Where do trips go?
This is the second component, where matches between origins and
destinations are developed. Trip ends are linked to create complete
trips. This can occur within the same zone, or between adjacent zones
with varying distance. For example; trips between residential
neighborhoods in West Pasco to employment cents in north Richland.

Step 3: Mode Choice

– What travel mode is used for each trip?
Mode Choice predicts the choices that individuals or groups make in
selecting their transportation modes. An important objective is to predict
the share of trips attracted to public transportation. This is new to BFCG
travel demand modeling. Other factors considered for mode choice
include: travel time, travel cost and access to mass transit options.

Step 4: Trip Assignment

– What is the route of each trip?
The final step is to determine the routes travelers choose to reach their
destinations. With the 2015 model, the regional transportation network
was updated, along with the addition of many network connectors.
Network connectors are used to represent the local streets/access
routes. For example, a congested corridor might change the route of a
user to take a different route with a longer distance but same travel time.

UTPS Approach
The Urban Transportation Planning System (UTPS) was designed to provide
planning and impact forecasting tools to meet the information demands of decision
makers regarding transportation and land use issues. Developed jointly by the Urban
Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) and the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), the entire UTPS system includes the UTPS computer package, supporting
manuals and technical guides to non-computer methods.

1 Transportation Modeling Approach Direct vs. Sequence Meeghat Habibian

Modeling approach

2 (1)the direct approach. MODELING APPROACHES (2) the sequenced choice

model approach. sequencing a series of models of choice and then combining them
a direct application of the concepts of microeconomic demand modeling Approaches
in travel demand modeling

3 (1)the direct approach. MODELING APPROACHES (2) the structured choice

model approach. predicting the number of trips made in an urban area as a function
of demand and supply characteristics Approaches in travel demand modeling

4 The Direct Approach: The following attributes need to be identified: 1 purpose 2

origin 3destination 4 mode 5 route 6time of day
 5 X p ijmrt the number of trips made by an individual during a given period of time,
p=purpose, origin=i, destination=j, mode=m, route =r, and at time of day= t demand
function: all the attributes of all the alternatives simultaneously The Direct Approach:

6 D p = vector of demand variables for trip purpose p S ijmrt = vector of supply

variables for trips with attributes given by i, j, m, r and t The Direct Approach:

7 the total number of variables in the demand function: d + ijmrt In the quite realistic
situation when d = 3, i= 3, j= 5, M = 3, R = 2, and T =3, the number would be 273
The Direct Approach:

8 Simplifications in the Direct Approach models:  Elimination of the cross-

elasticities of demand for different trip purposes, p, which has been assumed. 
Eliminating the t index and constructing demand functions for trips over all time
periods (i.e., typical weekday).

9 Simplifications in The Direct Approach models:  Another level of simplification is

when origins and destinations are left in the model (*aggregation on route and
modes), resulting in the origin-destination demand model or a generation-distribution
model:  The extreme of such a simplification is when all attributes are suppressed
except the trip origin or a trip-generation model: Simplifications in the Direct
Approach models:

10 Example of The Direct Approach: One of the earliest direct demand models for an
urban freeway bridge in the San Francisco Bay Area, The Kraft-Wohl model (1967) :
Trip volume purpose time of day income measure Population measure And …

11 The Sequenced Choice Approach: The Direct Approach: All the attributes of all
the alternatives simultaneously The Sequenced Choice Approach: The number of
trips is first decided, and then the other attributes. Sequential process

12 Sequenced Choice Approach UTPS Reverse modeling Two methods which are
different in modeling trip generation

13 The first method in sequence approach (UTPS) This method is common in

practice: Urban Transportation Planning System (UTPS) A trip-generation model is
defined X p i, then distributed among the alternatives available for mode, destination
and route choices, using models of travel choice.

14 UTPS process: trip-generation model Mode spilt Assignment distributing among

the available destinations

15  The total travel demand is not elastic with respect to the attributes of the
supply system and that trips are generated on the basis of demand variables only. 
Attempts to correct this are made by either incorporating aggregate measures of
supply in the trip-generation model (e.g., accessibility index)

16 proportion of all trips, that would select route r route choice function vector of
supply variables vector of supply variables set off all roads available for this i,j,m

Give a brief description of UTPS approach. ;

Sequential models view the travel as an interlinked chain of decisions having a
definite sequence. This can be described as how much travel, from where to where,
through which mode and through which route.

The analysis and the model building phase starts with the step commonly known as
trip generation.

This is the term used in the transportation planning process to include the estimated
number of trips that end in a given area (i.e., how much travel; for example, either
from homes or workplaces).

The objective of the trip generation stage is to understand the reasons behind the
trip-making behaviour and produce mathematical relationships to synthesise the trip-
making behaviour and analyse the trip-making pattern on the basis of observed trips,
land use data and the household characteristics.

Trip Generation Analysis

Trip generation is the first step in the conventional four-step transportation
forecasting process (followed by trip distribution, mode choice, and route
assignment), widely used for forecasting travel demands. It predicts the number
of trips originating in or destined for a particular traffic analysis zone.[1] Typically, trip
generation analysis focuses on residences, and residential trip generation is thought
of as a function of the social and economic attributes of households. At the level of
the traffic analysis zone, residential land uses "produce" or generate trips. Traffic
analysis zones are also destinations of trips, trip attractors. The analysis of attractors
focuses on nonresidential land uses.

1Input data

2Early Analysis

3Later Analysis

4Databases
 5Reference

Input data[edit]
A forecasting activity, such as one based on the concept of economic base analysis, provides
aggregate measures of population and activity growth. Land use forecasting distributes forecast
changes in activities in a disaggregate-spatial manner among zones. The next step in the
transportation planning process addresses the question of the frequency of origins and
destinations of trips in each zone: for short, trip geation.

Early Analysis
The first zonal trip generation (and its inverse, attraction) analysis in
the Chicago Area Transportation Study (CATS)[2] followed the “decay of activity
intensity with distance from the central business district (CBD)” thinking current at
the time. Data from extensive surveys were arrayed and interpreted on a-distance-
from-CBD scale. For example, a commercial land use in ring 0 (the CBD and vicinity)
was found to generate 728 vehicle trips per day in 1956. That same land use in ring
5 (about 17 km (11 mi) from the CBD) generated about 150 trips per day.
The case of trip destinations will illustrate use of the concept of activity decline with
intensity (as measured by distance from CBD) worked. Destination data are arrayed:

Table: Trip Destinations per unit (Acre) of Land

Ring Manufacturing Commercial Open Space etc.
0 X1m X1c etc.
. . . .
. . . .
7 x7m x7c etc.

Later Analysis
As was true for land use analysis, the approach developed at CATS was considerably modified
in later studies. The conventional four-step paradigm evolved as follows: Types of trips are
considered. Home-based (residential) trips are divided into work and other, with major attention
given to work trips. Movement associated with the home end of a trip is called trip production,
whether the trip is leaving or coming to the home. Non-home-based or non-residential trips are
those a home base is not involved. In this case, the term production is given to the origin of a trip
and the term attraction refers to the destination of the trip.
Sometimes cross-classification techniques are applied to residential trip generation problems.
The CATS procedure described above is a cross-classification procedure.
Classification techniques are often used for non-residential trip generation. First, the type of land
use is a factor influencing travel, it is regarded as a causal factor. A list of land uses and
associated trip rates illustrated a simple version of the use of this technique:

Table: Trips per day

Land Use Type Trips
 Department Store X

Grocery Store Y
etc.

Such a list can be improved by adding information. Large, medium, and small might be defined
for each activity and rates given by size. Number of employees might be used: for example, <10,
10-20, etc. Also, floor space is used to refine estimates.
In other cases, regressions, usually of the form trip rate = f(number of employees, floor area of
establishment), are made for land use types.
Special treatment is often given major trip generators: large shopping centers, airports, large
manufacturing plants, and recreation facilities.
The theoretical work related to trip generation analysis is grouped under the rubric travel demand
theory, which treats trip generation-attraction, as well as mode choice, route selection, and other
topics.

Databases

The Institute of Transportation Engineers's Trip Generation informational report provides trip
generation rates for numerous land use and building types. The planner can add local
adjustment factors and treat mixes of uses with ease. Ongoing work is adding to the stockpile of
numbers; over 4000 studies were aggregated for the current edition.
ITE Procedures estimate the number of trips entering or exiting a site at a given time (sometimes
the number entering and exiting combined is estimated). ITE Rates are functions of type of
development, and square footage, number of gas pumps, number of dwelling units, or other

standard measurable things, usually produced in site plans. They are typically of the form
OR They do not consider location, competitors, complements, the cost of transportation, or many
other obviously likely important factors. They are often estimated based on very few observations
(a non-statistically significant sample). Many localities require their use to ensure adequate public
facilities for growth management and subdivision approval.
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the TRICS database is commonly used to calculate trip
generation.

Zonal Models
Trip distribution (or destination choice or zonal interchange analysis) is the second
component (after trip generation, but before mode choice and route assignment) in
the traditional four-step transportation forecasting model. This step matches
tripmakers’ origins and destinations to develop a “trip table”, a matrix that displays
the number of trips going from each origin to each destination.[1] Historically, this
component has been the least developed component of the transportation planning
model.

Table: Illustrative trip table

Origin \ Destination 1 2 3 Z
1 T11 T12 T13 T1Z
2 T21
 3 T31
Z TZ1 TZZ

 But in the zonal interchange mode, we use numbers related to trip origins (T ;i) and trip
destinations (T ;j) rather than populations.
There are many model forms because we may use weights and special calibration
parameters, e.g., one could write say:
At this point in the transportation planning process, the information for zonal interchange
analysis is organized in an origin-destination table. On the left is listed trips produced in each
zone. Along the top are listed the zones, and for each zone we list its attraction. The table
is n x n, where n = the number of zones.
Each cell in our table is to contain the number of trips from zone i to zone j. We do not have
these within-cell numbers yet, although we have the row and column totals. With data
organized this way, our task is to fill in the cells for tables headed t = 1 through say t = n.
Actually, from home interview travel survey data and attraction analysis we have the cell
information for t = 1. The data are a sample, so we generalize the sample to the universe.
The techniques used for zonal interchange analysis explore the empirical rule that fits the t =
1 data. That rule is then used to generate cell data for t = 2, t = 3, t = 4, etc., to t = n.
The first technique developed to model zonal interchange involves a model such as this:
Category Analysis
Cross-classification models are may be extensions of the trip-rate models. They can
be calibrated as area or zone-based models, in trip generation studies they are used
as disaggregate models. In the residential-generation context, household types are
classified according to a set of categories that are highly correlated with trip making.
Three to four explanatory variables, each broken into about three discrete levels, are
sufficient. Typically household size, automobile ownership, household income and
some measure of land development intensity are used to classify household typ
Household Models
A single data bank, comprising over 60000 trips from sample household surveys in the Reading
area in 1962 and 1971, was used to compare two alternative types of trip generation model, one
based on household trip rates and the other on person trip rates for each household.
Their performance was found to be similar, each accounting for over 50 per cent of the variability
in household trip rates, but the person trip rate model has been shown to be simpler to use and
statistically more acceptable.
The most important variables for modelling home-based trips were household size and car
ownership in both types of model. Work trips required only household employment in a
household rate model and car ownership in an employed person rate model.
Household location and the year of study has a small but discernible effect on trip rates due to
some reduction in the inner and middle area rates between the two years. Although too small to
incorporate into the models, this effect illustrates the value of the statistical procedures for
detecting potentially important changes in travel behaviour so that they can be monitored as
further data become available.(a) /TRRL/

Growth factor modeling

Growth factor modes tries to predict the number of trips produced or
attracted by a house hold or zone as a linear function of explanatory variables.
The models have the following basic equation: Ti = fiti (7.1) where Ti is the
number of future trips in the zone and ti is the number of current trips in that
zone and fi is a growth factor.
The growth factor fi depends on the explanatory variable such as population
(P) of the zone , average house hold income (I) , average vehicle ownership (V).
The simplest form of fi is represented as
follows fi = P d i × I d i × V d i P c i × I c i × V c i (7.2) where the subscript ” d”
denotes the design year and the subscript ”c” denotes the current year.
Example Given that a zone has 275 household with car and 275 household
without car and the average trip generation rates for each groups is
respectively 5.0 and 2.5 trips per day.
Assuming that in the future, all household will have a car, find the growth
factor and future trips from that zone, assuming that the population and
income remains constant.
Solution Current trip rate ti = 275 × 2.5 + 275 × 5.0 = 2062.5 trips / day.
Growth factor Fi = V d i V c i = 550 275 = 2.0 Introduction to Transportation
Engineering 7.2 Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao CHAPTER 7.
TRIP GENERATION NPTEL May 3, 2007 Therefore, no. of future trips Ti = Fiti =
2.0 × 2062.5 = 4125 trips / day. The above example also shows the limitation of
growth factor method. If we think intuitively, the trip rate will remain same in
the future.
Therefore the number of trips in the future will be 550 house holds × 5 trips
per day = 2750 trips per day . It may be noted from the above example that the
actual trips generated is much lower than the growth factor method.
Therefore growth factor models are normally used in the prediction of external
trips where no other methods are available. But for internal trips , regression
methods are more suitable and will be discussed in the following section.
Trip Attraction models
The operation of the transport model requires the origin-destination trip vectors for
each analysis period, classified by trip purpose and demand category, as input data
(MIDEPLAN – FDC, 2010). Those trip vectors are estimated through the
generation/attraction models. Ideally, one origin and another destination vector
should be estimated for each purpose and demand category; however, in practice
the demand category classification is not always possible. Since these categories
are defined from the households’ levels of income and motorization rates, it is easy
to classify the trips whose origin is the home (trip productions), which are most of the
trips during the morning rush hour and an important part of the trips during the off-
peak hours. Nevertheless, most trips during these time periods have destinations
different from home; therefore, a prospective classification of the destinations (trip
attractions) would be arbitrary at best. Having regard to the above, the proposed
model assumes that only origins are classifiable according to demand purpose, while
destinations are classifiable only according to trip purpose. Thus, the transport model
has the following input data: i) an Origin vector for each trip purpose and each
demand category
Commercial Trip Rates.
Due to the high growth rate of urbanization in developing world leads to
increase in vehicular traffic. Travel demand models are useful in
managing the increased travel demand. Statistical Analysis: Trip
generation step is essential in planning of transportation facilities for any
city. This paper mainly focuses analyzing the trip attraction rates of
commercial land use in different cities of Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana states. As a part of the study, a total of seven commercial
centres are studied by defining the four broad commercial centre
typologies. Various factors considered for defining these typologies are
physical features of study area (sq. ft), parking spaces, number of
employees, number of stores, number of people attracting etc. Findings:
The very first step in traditional travel demand modelling process is trip
generation. It is very important for a planner to estimate the impact of
changes due to establishment of new facilities like offices, shopping
centres and any residential land use. In the study area, the shopping
trips constitute the second largest share of trips after the work trips.
Because of its major share, these trips not only influence the individual
travel behaviour but also showing great impact on transport network
Trip Distribution
The purpose of trip distribution is to produce a trip table of the estimated number of
trips from each TAZ to every other TAZ within the study area.

There are a variety of trip distribution formulations. Among recent travel models two
formulations dominate: the gravity “model” and the destination choice “model”. There
are variations to each formulation.

The gravity “model” allocates trips roughly in proportion to the number of productions
at the production end, roughly in proportion to the number of attractions at the
attraction end, and roughly in proportion to a measure of proximity (often called a
“friction factor”) of the two zones. A gravity “model” may be “singly-constrained” or
“doubly-constrained”. A singly-constrained gravity “model” assures that the PA table
is consistent with trip productions from trip generation. A doubly-constrained gravity
“model” also assures that the PA table is consistent with trip attractions from trip
generation.

A friction factor is a function of trip impedance (time, cost, distance, etc.) between
zones, with impedance usually expressed in units of travel time. There is an inverse
relation between the value of a friction factor and the value of impedance. This
inverse relation is largely empirical in practice, although theories such as “entropy
maximization” have been proposed to derive this relation. A functional form dubbed
the “gamma” function has been recommended by NCHRP Report 365 and NCHRP
Report 716; however, many travel models use a negative exponential function or a
power function with a negative power. Some travel models use a table lookup to
obtain friction factors.

A technical discussion of the gravity model, along with example friction factors, may
be found in NCHRP Report 716. An alternative to a gravity “model” is a destination
choice “model”. The preferred destination choice “model”
Trip distribution for multimodal forecasts needs a combined impedance across all
modes that reflect the various mode shares. A feedback from mode split to trip
distribution is not usually accomplished. Rather, multimodal trip distribution uses a
“combined impedance” for all modes
Gravity Models
The Gravity Model The gravity model is much like Newton's theory of gravity. The
gravity model assumes that the trips produced at an origin and attracted to a
destination are directly proportional to the total trip productions at the origin and the
total attractions at the destination. The calibrating term or "friction factor" (F)
represents the reluctance or impedance of persons to make trips of various duration
or distances. The general friction factor indicates that as travel times increase,
travelers are increasingly less likely to make trips of such lengths. Calibration of the
gravity model involves adjusting the friction factor. The socioeconomic adjustment
factor is an adjustment factor for individual trip interchanges. An important
consideration in developing the gravity model is "balancing" productions and
attractions. Balancing means that the total productions and attractions for a study
area are equal. Standard form of gravity model Where:
Tij = trips produced at I and attracted at j
Pi = total trip production at I
Aj = total trip attraction at j
F ij = a calibration term for interchange ij, (friction factor) or travel time factor ( F ij
=C/tij n ) C= calibration factor for the friction factor
Kij = a socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij i = origin zone n = number of
zones
Opportunity Models
a road network, there is an absolute limit to the volume of traffic which can
be carried. But previous attempts to measure this “limiting capacity” have
met with difficulties. First, there may not be enough vehicles to saturate the
section of road under observation. Second, the flow may be constrained by
a bottleneck upstream or downstream. Third, even under favourable
conditions, the flows actually observed at saturation point tend to vary over
a wide range, giving little clear indication as to what the value of the
limiting capacity might be. In this paper, consideration is given to the
variations in flow which occur over a time during normal traffic conditions,
and to the characteristics of the extreme values which occur from time to
time under these conditions. Two distinct types of statistical theory can be
applied to extreme values. First, one can apply straight- forward probability
theory, to predict the largest flows likely to be observed during a given
period, assuming an idealised traffic stream with a known flow counting
distribution

he basic idea behind the intervening-opportunities model is that trip making is

not explicitly related to distance but to the relative accessibility of
opportunities for satisfying the objective of the trip. The original proponent of
this approach was Stouffer (1940), who also applied his ideas to migration and
the location of services and residences. But it was Schneider (1959) who
developed the theory in the way it is presented today. Consider first a zone of
origin i and rank all possible destinations in order of increasing distance from i.
Then look at one origin-destination pair (i, j), where j is the mth destination in
order of distance from i. There are m-1 alternative destinations actually closer
(more accessible) from i. A trip maker would certainly consider those
destinations as possible locations to satisfy the need giving rise to the journey:
those are the intervening opportunities influencing a destination choice. The
basic hypothesis of this model given by Stouffer (1940) is that the number of
trips from an origin zone to a destination zone is directly proportional to the
number of opportunities at the destination zone and inversely proportional to
the number of intervening opportunities. This hypothesis may be expressed as:
tij = (k.aj/vj)

Where;
aj = the total number of destination opportunities in zone
j vj = the number of intervening destination opportunities between zones i and
j k =a proportionality constant to ensure that all trips with origins at zone i are
distributed to destination opportunities.
he basic idea behind the intervening-opportunities model is that trip making is
not explicitly related to distance but to the relative accessibility of
opportunities for satisfying the objective of the trip. The original proponent of
this approach was Stouffer (1940), who also applied his ideas to migration and
the location of services and residences. But it was Schneider (1959) who
developed the theory in the way it is presented today.
Consider first a zone of origin i and rank all possible destinations in order of
increasing distance from i. Then look at one origin-destination pair (i, j), where
j is the mth destination in order of distance from i. There are m-1 alternative
destinations actually closer (more accessible) from i.
A trip maker would certainly consider those destinations as possible locations
to satisfy the need giving rise to the journey: those are the intervening
opportunities influencing a destination choice. The basic hypothesis of this
model given by Stouffer (1940) is that the number of trips from an origin zone
to a destination zone is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at
the destination zone and inversely proportional to the number of intervening
opportunities.
This hypothesis may be expressed as:
tij = (k.aj/vj)
Where;
aj = the total number of destination opportunities in zone j
vj = the number of intervening destination opportunities between zones i and j
k =a proportionality constant to ensure that all trips with origins at zone i are
distributed to destination opportunities.

Time Function Iteration Models.

Several methods of calibration of the intervening opportunities model were tried for
the 1948 Washington area. The best procedures and the final calibration parameters
were incorporated into this study. The several methods of calibration and the
resulting findings are documented elsewhere ( 12). The method of calibration and
forecasting 27 of the model examined here are very close to those used previously in
Chicago and elsewhere, with the exception that procedures were developed to
insure that the model would both send and attract approximately the correct number
of trips for each zone in the study area. Without these adjustments only 84 percent of
total trips were distributed and trips to the CBD were overestimated by 20 percent.
Trip ends were stratified into long residential, long nonresidential, and short. Both
long and short L values were developed through an iterative process to insure that
when the final L values were applied to the appropriate trip ends, a satisfactory
average trip length, trip length frequency curve, and number of intrazonal trips would
be obtained for the total trips (all three trip types combined)
This model proved to be very difficult to calibrate. Because no systematic calibration
procedures were available, it was necessary to try many alternate approaches for
obtaining a simulated trip distribution with the same trip length characteristics as the
1948 Washington survey data. Initially, equal time bands we re tried for work trips
with little success (Fig. 2). Next, varying width time bands were utilized and the
results became more meaningful. It appears that the best simulation for work trips
was obtained when the first time band incorporated the majority of the opportunities
in the
UNIT-IV
Mode Choice and Traffic Assignment
: Mode Choice Behaviour, Competing Modes, Mode Split Curves,
Models and Probabilistic Approaches. Traffic Assignment: Basic
Elements of Transport Networks, Coding, Route Properties, Path
Building Criteria, Skimming Tree, All-or-Nothing Assignment, Capacity
Restraint Techniques, Reallocation of Assigned Volumes, Equilibrium
Assignment, Diversion Curves
Mode Choice Behaviour
Mode choice analysis is the third step in the conventional four-step transportation
forecasting model. The steps, in order, are trip generation, trip distribution, mode
choice analysis, and route assignment. Trip distribution's zonal interchange analysis
yields a set of origin destination tables that tells where the trips will be made. Mode
choice analysis allows the modeler to determine what mode of transport will be used,
and what modal share results.
The early transportation planning model developed by the Chicago Area
Transportation Study (CATS) focused on transit. It wanted to know how much travel
would continue by transit. The CATS divided transit trips into two classes: trips to
the Central Business District, or CBD (mainly by subway/elevated transit, express
buses, and commuter trains) and other (mainly on the local bus system). For the
latter, increases in auto ownership and use were a trade-off against bus use; trend
data were used. CBD travel was analyzed using historic mode choice data together
with projections of CBD land uses. Somewhat similar techniques were used in many
studies. Two decades after CATS, for example, the London study followed
essentially the same procedure, but in this case, researchers first divided trips into
those made in the inner part of the city and those in the outer part. This procedure
was followed because it was thought that income (resulting in the purchase and use
of automobiles) drove mode choice.


1Diversion curve techniques
 2Disaggregate travel demand models
 3Psychological roots
 4Econometric formulation
 5Econometric estimation
 6Additional topics
 7Returning to roots
 8External links


 Diversion curve techniques

The CATS had diversion curve techniques available and used them for some tasks. At
first, the CATS studied the diversion of auto traffic from streets and arterial roads to
proposed expressways. Diversion curves were also used for bypasses built around cities
to find out what percent of traffic would use the bypass. The mode choice version of
diversion curve analysis proceeds this way: one forms a ratio, say:


where:
cm = travel time by mode m and
R is empirical data in the form:

Given the R that we have calculated, the graph tells us the percent of users in the market
that will choose transit. A variation on the technique is to use costs rather than time in the
diversion ratio. The decision to use a time or cost ratio turns on the problem at hand. Transit
agencies developed diversion curves for different kinds of situations, so variables like
income and population density entered implicitly.

 2Disaggregate travel demand models

Travel demand theory was introduced in the appendix on traffic generation. The core of the field
is the set of models developed following work by Stan Warner in 1962 (Strategic Choice of Mode
in Urban Travel: A Study of Binary Choice). Using data from the CATS, Warner investigated
classification techniques using models from biology and psychology. Building from Warner and
other early investigators, disaggregate demand models emerged. Analysis is disaggregate in that
individuals are the basic units of observation, yet aggregate because models yield a single set of
parameters describing the choice behavior of the population.
Psychological roots
Early psychology work involved the typical experiment: Here are two objects with
weights, w1 and w2, which is heavier? The finding from such an experiment would be that the
greater the difference in weight, the greater the probability of choosing correctly. Graphs similar
to the one on the right result.
Louis Leon Thurstone proposed (in the 1920s) that perceived weight,
w = v + e,
where v is the true weight and e is random with
E(e) = 0.
The assumption that e is normally and identically distributed (NID) yields the binary
probit model.

Economists deal with utility rather than physical weights, and say that
observed utility = mean utility + random term.
The characteristics of the object, x, must be considered, so we have
u(x) = v(x) + e(x).
If we follow Thurston's assumption, we again have a probit model.
An alternative is to assume that the error terms are independently and identically
distributed with a Weibull, Gumbel Type I, or double exponential distribution. (They are
much the same, and differ slightly in their tails (thicker) from the normal distribution). This
yields the multinomial logit model (MNL). Daniel McFadden argued that the Weibull had
desirable properties compared to other distributions that might be used. Among other
things, the error terms are normally and identically distributed. The logit model is simply
a log ratio of the probability of choosing a mode to the probability of not choosing a
mode.

(another network effect). Third technological advances, which occur over time and as the
number of users increases, drive down relative cost.
An illustration of a utility expression is given:

where
Pi = Probability of choosing mode i.
PA = Probability of taking auto
cA,cT = cost of auto, transit

tA,tT = travel time of auto,

I = income
N = Number of travelers
 Competing Modes
Transport modes are the means of supporting the mobility of passengers and
freight. They are mobile transport assets and fall into three basic types; land
(road, rail, pipelines), water (shipping), and air.

Transport modes are designed to either carry passengers or freight, but most modes
can carry a combination of both. For instance, an automobile has the capacity to
carry some freight while a passenger plane has a bellyhold that is used for luggage
and cargo. Each mode is characterized by a set of technical, operational, and
commercial characteristics. Technical characteristics relate to attributes such as
speed, capacity, and motive technology, while operational characteristics involve the
context in which modes operated, including speed limits, safety conditions, or
operating hours. The demand for transport and the ownership of modes are
dominant commercial characteristics,
Road infrastructures are large consumers of space with the lowest level of physical
constraints among transportation modes. However, physiographical constraints are
significant in road construction with substantial additional costs to overcome features
such as rivers or rugged terrain. While historically road transportation was developed
to support non-motorized forms of transportation (walking, domestic animals, and
cycling at the end of the 19th century), it is motorization that has shaped most of its
development since the beginning of the 20th century.

 Modal usage. A competition that involves the comparative advantage of using a

specific or a combination of modes. Distance remains one of the primary determinants
of modal utilization for passenger transportation. However, for a similar
distance, costs, speed, and comfort can be significant factors behind the choice of a
mode.
 Infrastructure usage. Competition resulting from the presence of freight and
passenger traffic on the same itineraries linking the same nodes. Each level of
capacity used by a mode is, therefore, at the expense of the other mode.
 Market area. Competition between transport terminals for using new location
(terminal relocation or expansion) or capturing new markets (hinterland).

Mode Split Curves

The first time mention of the so-called modal split goes back to the United States in
the 1950s, when transportation became a serious issue there. Increased traffic
demand and traffic jams which followed motivated several cities to intend
researches, and to start thinking about transportation as science. The first famous
instances are the Detroit Metropolitan Area Traffic Study – far away the acropolis of
car industry that time - and the Chicago Area Transportation study [2,3].

One outcome of this era were first theories about traffic forecasting, traffic models,
which try to foresee traffic volumes in future. The very classic transportation demand
model used there – still a rudimentary nowadays – is the fourstep-model.

[4] The third stage of modelling is called modal split. In this modelling step a
previously calculated amount of trips between an origin and a destination is broken
up into parts belonging to different transport modes. The step is usually being
implemented by certain assumptions given in functions. Therefore modal split simply
used to mean the ratio of motorised individual traffic to public transport, between a
traffic origin of the model, and a destination.

No complex choices, which are fashionable nowadays, have been considered. Since
that time the term has grown out of the transportation models. Modal split turned out
to be a very good descriptive value in evaluation of any transportation environment.
value, settlement developments can be evaluated. It became a practice to analyse
Types of modal split models
9.4.1 Trip-end modal split models
Traditionally, the objective of transportation planning was to forecast the growth in
demand for car trips so that investment could be planned to meet the demand. When
personal characteristics were thought to be the most important determinants of mode
choice, attempts were made to apply modal-split models immediately after trip generation.
Such a model is called trip-end modal split model. In this way different characteristics of the
person could be preserved and used to estimate modal split. The modal split models of this
time related the choice of mode only to features like income, residential density and car
ownership. The advantage is that these models could be very accurate in the short run, if
public transport is available and there is little congestion. Limitation is that they are
insensitive to policy decisions example: Improving public transport, restricting parking etc.
would have no effect on modal split according to these trip-end models
. 9.4.2 Trip-interchange modal split models
This is the post-distribution model; that is modal split is applied after the distribution stage.
This has the advantage that it is possible to include the characteristics of the journey and
that of the alternative modes available to undertake them. It is also possible to include
policy decisions. This is beneficial for long term modeling. Introduction to T
Aggregate and disaggregate models
Mode choice could be aggregate if they are based on zonal and inter-zonal information.
They can be called disaggregate if they are based on household or individual data.
Models and Probabilistic Approaches

Abstract mathematic models A number of abstract mathematical models exist

including the following:
 Simple formulae: An equation of the general form y = f(x) can be used to
represent an empirically observed relationship between one variable (x), which
can be taken as given, and another (y) which is to be predicted.
 Time series models:
Many aspects of transport demand vary over time. For example, car
ownership and total vehicle- kilometres have been rising almost continually
over the past few decades, except for blips coinciding with fuel crises or
economic recession. By plotting the relevant data over time, it becomes
possible to deduce and underlying trend and or relationship. A prediction of
future levels of travel demand can be made by extrapolating the trend into the
future. Trend based forecasting is very popular because of its simplicity and
because it is based on past evidence (Brockwell et al. [12]).
 Averaging and smoothing models:
When no apparent trend data is available to support demand forecasting,
simple arithmetic can be used to calculate an average or an exponentially
smoothed prediction. Average forecasts are simply but very crude and may
give a distorted view, exponential smoothing seek to overcome the crudeness,
by giving weights to the most recent and trustworthy data.
 Regression analysis:
This is the process of identifying the mathematical function (relationship)
which best fits the observed data. The most common applications are in the
prediction of car ownership, trip ends (numbers of origins and destinations at a
given location) and trip volumes (in an area between a given pair of zones or
along a link) (Jha et al. [13]). It is also used to predict waiting times at
intersections, numbers of accidents or levels of pollution.
 Matrix estimation models:
The cells of a demand matrix (known as an origin – destination matrix) indicate
the number of trips between each origin and destination pair, and the row and
column totals indicate the total number of origins and destinations
respectively in each zone. The matrix provides the overall picture of travel
demand in a study area and is a key component in transport analyses.
 Elasticity models:
When short term planning is undertaken, such that some influences can be
considered constant, it is possible to specify a model which is solely concerned
with the sensitivity of the forecast to key policy variables – known as elasticity
modelling The elasticity of demand with respect to a certain variable is defined
as the rate of change of demand with respect to that variable, normalized by
the current levels of demand and the variable in question (Meyer and Miller
[14]). Elasticity is thus a measure of sensitivity to change in system conditions
(He and Zhao [15]). Its general form is:
Yt = Yt-1 {1+E(Xt – Xt-1)/Xt-1}, where,
Yt = quantity demand in year t
, Xt = value of a supply variable (e.g. price or journey time) in year t, and E is
the elasticity coefficient for Y with respect to X.
Traffic Assignment

The process of allocating given set of trip interchanges to the specified transportation
system is usually refered to as traffic assignment. The fundamental aim of the traffic
assignment process is to reproduce on the transportation system, the pattern of
vehicular movements which would be observed when the travel demand represented
by the trip matrix, or matrices ,to be assigned is satisfied. The major aims of traffic
assignment procedures are:

1. To estimate the volume of traffic on the links of the network and possibly the
turning movements at intersections.
2. To furnish estimates of travel costs between trip origins and destinations for
use in trip distribution.
 3. To obtain aggregate network measures, e.g. total vehicular flows, total distance
covered by the vehicle, total system travel time.
4. To estimate zone-to-zone travel costs(times) for a given level of demand.
5. To obtain reasonable link flows and to identify heavily congested links.
6. To estimate the routes used between each origin to destination(O-D) pair.
7. To analyse which O-D pairs that uses a particular link or path.
8. To obtain turning movements for the design of future junctions.

The types of traffic assignment models are all-or-nothing assignment, incremental

assignment, capacity restraint assignment, user equilibrium assignment (UE),
stochastic user equilibrium assignment (SUE), system optimum assignment (SO), etc.
These frequently used models are discussed here.

1.1 All-or-nothing assignment

In this method the trips from any origin zone to any destination zone are loaded onto
a single, minimum cost, path between them. This model is unrealistic as only one
path between every O-D pair is utilised even if there is another path with the same or
nearly same travel cost. Also, traffic on links is assigned without consideration of
whether or not there is adequate capacity or heavy congestion; travel time is a fixed
input and does not vary depending on the congestion on a link. However, this model
may be reasonable in sparse and uncongested networks where there are few
alternative routes and they have a large difference in travel cost. This model may
also be used to identify the desired path : the path which the drivers would like to
travel in the absence of congestion. In fact, this model's most important practical
application is that it acts as a building block for other types of assignment
techniques.It has a limitation that it ignores the fact that link travel time is a function
of link volume and when there is congestion or that multiple paths are used to carry
traffic.

1.2 Incremental assignment

Incremental assignment is a process in which fractions of traffic volumes are
assigned in steps.In each step, a fixed proportion of total demand is assigned, based
on all-or-nothing assignment. After each step, link travel times are recalculated
based on link volumes. When there are many increments used, the flows may
resemble an equilibrium assignment ; however, this method does not yield an
equilibrium solution. Consequently, there will be inconsistencies between link
volumes and travel times that can lead to errors in evaluation measures. Also,
incremental assignment is influenced by the order in which volumes for O-D pairs
are assigned, raising the possibility of additional bias in results.

1.3 Capacity restraint assignment

Capacity restraint assignment attempts to approximate an equilibrium solution by
iterating between all-or-nothing traffic loadings and recalculating link travel times
based on a congestion function that reflects link capacity. Unfortunately, this method
does not converge and can flip-flop back and forth in loadings on some links.

1.4 User equilibrium assignment (UE)

The user equilibrium assignment is based on Wardrop's first principle, which states
that no driver can unilaterally reduce his/her travel costs by shifting to another route.
If it is assumed that drivers have perfect knowledge about travel costs on a network
and choose the best route according to Wardrop's first principle, this behavioural
assumption leads to deterministic user equilibrium. This problem is equivalent to the
following nonlinear mathematical optimization program,

(1)

k is the path, equilibrium flows in link a, travel time on link a, flow

on path k connecting O-D pair r-s, trip rate between r and s.

The equations above are simply flow conservation equations and non negativity
constraints, respectively. These constraints naturally hold the point that minimizes the
objective function. These equations state user equilibrium principle.The path
connecting O-D pair can be divided into two categories : those carrying the flow and
those not carrying the flow on which the travel time is greater than (or equal to)the
minimum O-D travel time. If the flow pattern satisfies these equations no motorist can
better off by unilaterally changing routes. All other routes have either equal or heavy
travel times. The user equilibrium criteria is thus met for every O-D pair. The UE
problem is convex because the link travel time functions are monotonically increasing
function, and the link travel time a particular link is independent of the flow and other
links of the networks. To solve such convex problem Frank Wolfe algorithm is useful.

1.5 System Optimum Assignment (SO)

The system optimum assignment is based on Wardrop's second principle, which
states that drivers cooperate with one another in order to minimise total system
travel time. This assignment can be thought of as a model in which congestion is
minimised when drivers are told which routes to use. Obviously, this is not a
behaviourally realistic model, but it can be useful to transport planners and
engineers, trying to manage the traffic to minimise travel costs and therefore achieve
an optimum social equilibrium.

(2)

equilibrium flows in link a, travel time on link a, flow on path k

connecting O-D pair r-s, trip rate between r and s.

1.6 Example 1
To demonstrate how the most common assignment works, an example network is
considered. This network has two nodes having two paths as links.
Let us suppose a case where travel time is not a function of flow as shown in other
words it is constant as shown in the figure below.

Figure 1: Two Link Problem with constant travel time function

1.6.1 All or nothing

The travel time functions for both the links is given by:

and total flows from 1 to 2.

Since the shortest path is Link 1 all flows are assigned to it making =12

and = 0.
1.6.2 User Equilibrium
Substituting the travel time in equations 1 - 5 yield to
Substituting , in the above formulation will yield the
unconstrained formulation as below :

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t and equate to zero, and solving

for and then leads to the solution = 12, = 0.

1.6.3 System Optimization
Substituting the travel time in equation: (6-8), we get the following:

Substituting the above formulations takes the following

form:

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t and equate to zero, and solving

for and then leads to the solution = 12, = 0,

and = 120.
1.6.4 Comparison of results
After solving each of the formulations the results are tabulated in Table 1. One can
infer that if the travel time is independent of the flow, then essentially there in no
difference between the various assignment types.
 Table 1: Comparison of results for example 1

Type TSTT

AON 10 15 12 0 120 120

UE 10 15 12 0 120 120

SO 10 15 12 0 120 120

1.7 Example 2

Figure 2: Two Link Problem with variable travel time function

Lets now take a case where travel time functions for both the links is given by:

and total flows from 1 to 2

1.7.1 All or Nothing Assignment

Assume which makes 0 and . Since

the shortest path is Link 1 all flows are assigned to it making =12 and =
0.
1.7.2 User Equilibrium
Substituting the travel time in equations 1 - 5 yield to
Substituting , in the above formulation will yield
the unconstrained formulation as below:

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t and equate to zero, and

solving for and then leads to the solution = 5.8, =

6.2.
1.7.3 System Optimization

Substituting the travel time in equation: (6-8), we get the following:

Substituting

Differentiate the above equation w.r.t zero, and solving for and

then leads to the solution = 5.3, = 6.7, and =

327.55.
1.7.4 Comparison of results

After solving each of the formulations the results are tabulated in Table 2.
One can infer that unlike earlier, the various assignment types shows
considerable differences in the performace. AON has obviously the worst
solution and SO has the best.
 Table 2: Comparison of results for example 2

Type TSTT

AON 10 15 12 0 467.44 552

UE 27.4 27.4 5.8 6.2 239.0 328.8

SO 30.1 25.6 5.3 6.7 327.5 327.5

1.8 Stochastic user equilibrium assignment

User equilibrium assignment procedures based on Wardrop's principle assume that
all drivers percieve costs in an identical manner. A solution to assignment problem
on this basis is an assignment such that no driver can reduce his journey cost by
unilaterally changing route. Van Vilet considered as stochastic assignmnet models,
all those models which explicitly allows non minimum cost routes to be selected.
Virtually all such models assume that drivers perception of costs on any given route
are not identical and that the trips between each O-D pair are divided among the
routes with the most cheapest route attracting most trips. They have important.

1.9 Dynamic Assignment

Dynamic user equilibrium,expressed as an extension of Wardrop's user
equilibrium principle, may be defined as the state of equilibrium which
arises when no driver an reduce his disutility of travel by choosing a new
route or departure time,where disutility inclues, schedule delay in addition
in to costs generally considered. Dynamic stochastic equilibrium may be
similarly defined in terms of percieved utility of travel. The existence of
such equilibria in complex networks has not been proven theoretical and
even if they exist the question of uniqueness remains open.

2 Limitation of conventional assignment models

The specific limitations of the assignment models are
highlighted below.

1. Most of the cost functions, such as the BPR function, do not take into
consideration emission-related factors.
2. Interactions between links are not considered; the travel time on one
link is independent of the volumes on other links. This is an obvious
oversimplification. At intersections, link travel times are affected by
 volumes on other approaches and opposing left turns. On freeways,
merging and weaving conditions can greatly affect travel times.
Queuing caused by bottlenecks on other links can also be a factor.
Queues build as volumes approach the bottleneck

All-or-Nothing Assignment

In this method the trips from any origin zone to any destination zone are loaded onto
a single, minimum cost, path between them. This model is unrealistic as only one
path between every O-D pair is utilized even if there is another path with the same or
nearly same travel cost. Also, traffic on links is assigned without consideration of
whether or not there is adequate capacity or heavy congestion; travel time is a fixed
input and does not vary depending on the congestion on a link. However, this model
may be reasonable in sparse and uncongested networks where there are few
alternative routes and they have a large difference in travel cost. This model may
also be used to identify the desired path : the path which the drivers would like to
travel in the absence of congestion. In fact, this model’s most important practical
application is that it acts as a building block for other types of assignment
techniques.It has a limitation that it ignores the fact that link travel time is a function
of link volume and when there is congestion or that multiple paths are used to carry
traffic.

Basic Elements of Transport Networks

transportation network is a network or graph in geographic space,

describing an infrastructure that permits and constrains movement or
flow.[1] Examples include but are not limited to road
networks, railways, air routes, pipelines, aqueducts, and power lines.
The digital representation of these networks, and the methods for their
analysis, is a core part of spatial analysis, geographic information
systems, public utilities, and transport engineering. Network analysis is
an application of the theories and algorithms of Graph theory and is a
form of proximity analysis.

Network Data

Network analysis requires detailed data representing the elements of the

network and its properties.[6] The core of a network dataset is
a vector layer of polylines representing the paths of travel, either precise
geographic routes or schematic diagrams, known as edges. In addition,
information is needed on the network topology, representing the
connections between the lines, thus enabling the transport from one line
to another to be modeled. Typically, these connection points, or nodes,
are included as an additional dataset.[7]
Both the edges and nodes are attributed with properties related to the
movement or flow:

 Capacity,
 measurements of any limitation on the volume of flow allowed,
such as the number of lanes in a road, telecommunications
bandwidth, or pipe diameter.
 Impedance,
 measurements of any resistance to flow or to the speed of flow,
such as a speed limit or a forbidden turn direction at a street
intersection
 Cost accumulated through individual travel along the edge or
through the node, commonly elapsed time, in keeping with the
principle of friction of distance. For example, a node in a street
network may require a different amount of time to make a
particular left turn or right turn. Such costs can vary over time,
such as the pattern of travel time along an urban street
depending on diurnal cycles of traffic volume.
 Flow volume,
 measurements of the actual movement taking place. This may
be specific time-encoded measurements collected using sensor
networks such as traffic counters, or general trends over a
period of time, such as Annual average daily traffic (AADT).
Coding,
Did you know that the average car has more than a dozen computers inside?
Without computers and the coding that controls them, todays transportation would
look a lot different. Young readers will love exploring how coding helps us get around
in this fascinating read.
Photo labels visually define glossary terms and other important words. Sequence
infographics take the reader step-by-step through coding in action. Diagrams point
out where examples of coding can be found in each topic. Presents STEM in a high-
interest and relevant way. Second-person introduction phrases empower the reader
to explore coding in theory and in practice.

Highwayautomationiscurrentlybeinginvestigatedworldwideinseveralprogr
ams,e.g.intheUSIntelligentTransportationSystems(ITS)program(seee.g.[
1])andsimilarprogramsinJapan[2],asamainsubjectofresearchanddevelop
mentofAdvancedVehicleControlSys-
tems(AVCS).AVCSreferstothesubclassofITSaimedatincreasingsafetyand
throughputofroadtracwhiledecreasingenvironmentalimpacts.AreviewofAV
CSwaspresentedbyShladover[3]andapossiblescenarioforanAutomatedHi
ghwaySystem(AHS)
Route Properties
Route assignment, route choice, or traffic assignment concerns the
selection of routes (alternative called paths) between origins and
destinations in transportation networks. It is the fourth step in the
conventional transportation forecasting model, following trip
generation, trip distribution, and mode choice. The zonal interchange
analysis of trip distribution provides origin-destination trip tables. Mode
choice analysis tells which travelers will use which mode. To determine
facility needs and costs and benefits, we need to know the number of
travelers on each route and link of the network (a route is simply a chain
of links between an origin and destination). We need to undertake traffic
(or trip) assignment. Suppose there is a network
of highways and transit systems and a proposed addition. We first want
to know the present pattern of traffic delay and then what would happen
if the addition were made.
Long-standing techniques

The problem of estimating how many users are on each route is long
standing. Planners started looking hard at it as freeways and
expressways began to be developed. The freeway offered a superior
level of service over the local street system, and diverted traffic from the
local system. At first, diversion was the technique. Ratios of travel time
were used, tempered by considerations of costs, comfort, and level of
service.
The Chicago Area Transportation Study (CATS) researchers developed
diversion curves for freeways versus local streets. There was much work
in California also, for California had early experiences with freeway
planning. In addition to work of a diversion sort, the CATS attacked
some technical problems that arise when one works with complex
networks. One result was the Bellman–Ford–Moore algorithm for
finding shortest paths on networks.
on links. A link may be a part of several paths, and traffic along paths
has to be summed link by link.
An argument can be made favoring the all-or-nothing approach. It goes
this way: The planning study is to support investments so that a good
level of service is available on all links. Using the travel times associated
with the planned level of service, calculations indicate how traffic will
flow once improvements are in place. Knowing the quantities of traffic on
links, the capacity to be supplied to meet the desired level of service can
be calculated.
Heuristic procedures
To take account of the effect of traffic loading on travel times and traffic
equilibria, several heuristic calculation procedures were developed. One
heuristic proceeds incrementally. The traffic to be assigned is divided
into parts (usually 4). Assign the first part of the traffic. Compute new
travel times and assign the next part of the traffic. The last step is
repeated until all the traffic is assigned. The CATS used a variation on
this; it assigned row by row in the O-D table.
The heuristic included in the FHWA collection of computer programs
proceeds another way.
 0. Start by loading all traffic using an all or nothing procedure.
 1. Compute the resulting travel times and reassign traffic.
  2. Now, begin to reassign using weights. Compute the weighted
travel times in the previous two loadings and use those for the
next assignment. The latest iteration gets a weight of 0.25 and
the previous gets a weight of 0.75.
 3. Continue.
These procedures seem to work "pretty well," but they are not exact.
Frank-Wolfe algorithm
Dafermos (1968) applied the Frank-Wolfe algorithm (1956, Florian
1976), which can be used to deal with the traffic equilibrium problem.
Suppose we are considering a highway network. For each link there is a
function stating the relationship between resistance and volume of
traffic. The Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) developed a link (arc)
congestion (or volume-delay, or link performance) function, which we will
term Sa(va)

 ta = free flow travel time on link a per unit of time

 va = volume of traffic on link a per unit of time (somewhat more
accurately: flow attempting to use link a).
 ca = capacity of link a per unit of time
 Sa(va) is the average travel time for a vehicle on link a
There are other congestion functions. The CATS has long used a
function different from that used by the BPR, but there seems to be little
difference between results when the CATS and BPR functions are
compared.
Equilibrium assignment[edit]
To assign traffic to paths and links we have to have rules, and there are
the well-known Wardrop equilibrium conditions.[1] The essence of these
is that travelers will strive to find the shortest (least resistance) path from
origin to destination, and network equilibrium occurs when no traveler
can decrease travel effort by shifting to a new path. These are termed
user optimal conditions, for no user will gain from changing travel paths
once the system is in equilibrium.
The user optimum equilibrium can be found by solving the
following nonlinear programming problem

subject to:
where is the number of vehicles on path r from origin i to
destination j. So constraint (2) says that all travel must take place –i = 1
... n; j = 1 ... n
 = 1 if link a is on path r from i to j ; zero otherwise. So constraint (1)
sums traffic on each link. There is a constraint for each link on the
network. Constraint (3) assures no negative traffic.
Example[edit]
An example from Eash, Janson, and Boyce (1979) will illustrate the
solution to the nonlinear program problem. There are two links from
node 1 to node 2, and there is a resistance function for each link (see
Figure 1). Areas under the curves in Figure 2 correspond to the
integration from 0 to a in equation 1, they sum to 220,674. Note that the
function for link b is plotted in the reverse direction.

Figure 1: Two Route Network

Figure 2: Graphical Solution to the Equilibrium Assignment Problem

Figure 3: Allocation of Vehicles not Satisfying the Equilibrium Condition

At equilibrium there are 2,152 vehicles on link a and 5847 on link b.
Travel time is the same on each route: about 63.
Figure 3 illustrates an allocation of vehicles that is not consistent with the
equilibrium solution. The curves are unchanged. But with the new
allocation of vehicles to routes the shaded area has to be included in the
solution, so the Figure 3 solution is larger than the solution in Figure 2 by
the area of the shaded area.

Skimming Tree
The results can be depicted as a tree, referred to as a skim tree.
All trips from that zone are assigned to links on the skim tree
. Each zone is represented by a node in the network which represents
the entire area being examined.
■The problem is finding the minimum-travel-time paths connecting each
O-D pair for a given set of link travel time

A path is then represented through a series of links, each with its own
set of attributes and characteristics
These attributes can include length, speed limit, travel time, capacity,
functional classification, and a host of other variables used to describe
the characteristics and expected performance of the link
■The link attributes are translated to the path through a process called
skimming
amends the previous example by adding link travel
times (in minutes) for each zone-to-zone connection it
appears that link 1  4 is indeed the shortest travel time
between zones 1 and 4 at 2 min

Diversion Curves
Diversion curve is the basic approach used for the traffic assignment purposes. The
method is similar to the mode choice curve. Traffic between two routes can be
computed as a function of relative cost or travel time. Show the diversion curve
based on the travel time ratio in the figure below.

The curve was developed in 1950 in order to determine how many drivers would
divert from main streets to the freeway. They are helpful in decision making for
capacity determination and geometric design of urban freeways. It is also used for
justifying the need for bypass roads built around the major cities by computing the
percentage of traffic volume would pass through bypass.
It is developed using the expert system analysis. Having a key knowledge of these
data will be necessary for the Transportation Engineer. The analysis will deliver an
effective result for different type of situations, like an urban and also the rural
freeway.

Diversion curve models are developed to compute the percentage of trips that will be
made along freeway in the route between any two points. It is easier to obtain data
and array results. They are utilised by the highway authorities before any major road
is built.

equilibrium assignmen
(UE) The user equilibrium assignment is based on Wardrop’s first principle,
which states that no driver can unilaterally reduce his/her travel costs by
shifting to another route. User Equilibrium (UE) conditions can be written for a
given O-D pair as:
fk(ck − u) = 0 : ∀k (10.1)
ck − u >= 0 : ∀k (10.2) where fk is the flow on path k, ck is the travel cost on
path k, and u is the minimum cost. Equation labelqueue2 can have two states.
1. If ck − u = 0, from equation 10.1 fk ≥ 0. This means that all used paths will
have same travel time. 2. If ck − u ≥ 0, then from equation 10.1 fk = 0. This
means that all unused paths will have travel time greater than the minimum
cost path. where fk is the flow on path k, ck is the travel cost on path k, and u is
the minimum cost.
Assumptions in User Equilibrium Assignment 1
1. The user has perfect knowledge of the path cost.
2. Travel time on a given link is a function of the flow on that link only.
3. Travel time functions are positive and increasing. The solution to the above
equilibrium conditions given by the solution of an equivalent nonlinear
mathematical optimization program
, Minimize Z = X a Z xa 0 ta(xa)dx,
(10.3) subject to X k f rs k = qrs :
∀r, s xa = X r X s X k δ rs a,kf rs k
: ∀a f rs k ≥ 0 : ∀ k, r, s xa ≥ 0 :
a ∈ A where k is the path, xa equilibrium flows in link a, ta travel time on link a,
f rs k flow on path k connecting O-D pair r-s, qrs trip rate between r and sand δ
rs a,k is a definitional constraint and is given by δ r,s a,k = ( 1 if link a belongs to
path k, 0 otherwise (10.4) Introduction to Transportation Engineering 10.3 Tom
V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao CHAPTER 10. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT NPTEL
May 7, 2007 The equations above are simply flow conservation equations and
non negativity constraints, respectively. These constraints naturally hold the
point that minimizes the objective function. These equations state user
equilibrium principle.The path connecting O-D pair can be divided into two
categories :
those carrying the flow and those not carrying the flow on which the travel
time is greater than (or equal to)the minimum O-D travel time. If the flow
pattern satisfies these equations no motorist can better off by unilaterally
changing routes. All other routes have either equal or heavy travel times. The
user equilibrium criteria is thus met for every O-D pair. The UE problem is
convex because the link travel time functions are monotonically increasing
function, and the link travel time a particular link is independent of the flow
and other links
UNIT-V
Plan Preparation And Evaluation:
Travel Forecasts to Evaluate Alternative Improvements,
Impacts of New Development on Transportation Facilities.
Master plans, Selection of Corridor, Corridor Identification,
Corridor deficiency Analysis.
Plan Preparation And Evaluation
Issues and Problems regarding to Traffic Management Plan Based on the analyses
made, the following issues can be identified:
(1) Lack of Traffic Discipline
a) Buses stop near intersections and in all lanes just in front of intersection without
any consideration of traffic flow. Buses stop in the middle of the road to pick up and
drop passengers.
b) Motorized vehicles are parked along roads, even if parking is forbidden.
c) Waiting vehicles of right-turning traffic at intersections are spread into the straight
traffic lane even in left-turning lane.
d) Many rickshaw pullers are not followed traffic rules.
(2) Poor Pedestrian Facilities
a) Pedestrians walk on the roadway because sidewalks are used by hawkers or
illegal vehicle parking, if not scares. They always cross wide street everywhere and
any time even if vehicle passing through.
b) Pedestrian are walking on the median and are hiding between trees in the middle
of the roads.
c) In the roundabout, pedestrians are waking anywhere and any time when they
want.
(3) Poor Traffic Operation
a) The traffic policemen are trying their best to direct traffic at intersections
considering their intersections or upstream intersections. They direct traffic against
traffic signals.
b) Police use wooden sticks which cannot be seen during darkness to direct traffic.
Most of traffic policemen do not usually wear reflective jackets while on duty after
sunset.
c) Many obstructions such as garbage, construction materials, etc are occupied in
road spaces.
d) A few one way road systems are employed. DHUTS Dhaka Urban Transport
Network Development Study Final Report 16-2 Main Volume
(4) Poor Traffic Management Facilities
a) Road markings are non-existent or out of paint. Lanes are not marked on the
roadway. Very few road signs are installed even on the primary and secondary
roads.
b) Channelization at intersections has not been installed at most intersections
although there are available lands.
(5) Poor Traffic Signals
a) No vehicle drivers follow traffic signal, because the traffic policemen always
control for traffic signal even during off-peak period. b) Some of the traffic signals are
malfunctioning.
(6) Poor Education
for Drivers People in Bangladesh do not follow traffic rules properly because most of
drivers are not well trained. They are illiterate and got their licenses by bribery. Thus,
they do not even know the traffic rules.

Travel Forecasts to Evaluate Alternative

Improvements
Knowledge of future traffic flow is an essential input in the planning,
implementation and development of a transportation system.
It also helps in its operation, management and control (Dhingra et al.,
1993). It is an essential input to start the planning and/or development
phase of any major transportation project initiatives.
It is the first step in defining the scope and geometry of such projects. In
case of highways, the geometric and structural designs are based on
forecast traffic volumes and the ESAL (Equivalent Single Axle Load)
forecast.
It is also used to assess the Level of Service (LoS) for the present and
future traffic conditions. Sometimes forecasting even helps us know
whether a project is needed at all.
Forecasting is necessary for doing relevant economic analysis (Matas
et al., 2009). It can also be used for other purposes such as corridor
planning, systems planning, air quality analysis, safety analysis and
other such special projects. Inaccuracies in traffic volume forecasts are
responsible for the additional costs associated with over and under
design (Skamris and Flyvbjerg, 1997)
The objective of this study is to estimate traffic growth using transport demand
elasticity method and to compare how different these values are from the vehicle
registration data. In this present study, attempt has been made to forecast the future
traffic growth rate by selecting two stretches as a case study at a State Highway- 41.
By studying the past Traffic volume data collected from PWD Vijayapur district were
not showing the definite trend so with the help of Vehicle registration data of
Vijayapur district traffic growth rates are estimated. The influence factors of various
zones were found out. Socio-economic data viz -Per capita income and Net District
Domestic Product such as Population and registration of vehicle data of Vijayapur
District influencing the study stretch were collected. To determine elasticity values,
the regression analysis is carried out between socio economic variables growth
index and vehicle growth index. The elasticity values for the future years are
calculated based on the growth trend of vehicles. 1.1. STUDY AREA
CHARACTERISTICS
The Project stretch is a part of state highway 41 in the state of Karnataka which runs
from connecting Shiradon to Lingasur. The total length of SH-41 is about 197km, out
of which maximum portion of this road runs in Vijayapur district some part runs in
Raichur district. This case study deals with Shiradon to Lingasur state highway
stretch. This case study deals with study of two stretches selected from the state
highway 41 at count post at Indi- 43.0 and near Davalagi-136.
1.2 DATA COLLECTION
For the purpose of forecasting traffic on the study stretch, Several primary and
secondary data were collected.
 The traffic Volume data of a selected stretches are collected from the PWD
Vijayapur District.
 Previous year vehicular Registration Data of a Vijayapur District.
 Previous year’s data on Per capita Income, District Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), Population data of a District influencing the project corridor. International
Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 05 Issue: 10 | Oct 2018 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072 © 2018, IRJET |
Impact Factor value: 7.211 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal | Page 149 Objectives
of the study
Main objectives of the present project work are as follows:
1) To find the growth rate of different class of vehicles.
2) To analyze the existing growth road capacity of state highway near Indi-43.0 and
Davalagi-143.0 stretches.
3) To forecast the GDP and population forecast of a Vijayapur district for 2026.
4) To forecast the vehicular growth rate for 2026 of Vijayapur district.
5) To check the suitability of forecasted Road capacity.
1.4 AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC (ADT) ADT (average daily traffic):
ADT is the total traffic volume counted for a year and divided it by 365 days. ADT
helps in the study of road and planning in transportation Engineering.
Table-1:
Showing Average Daily Traffic
Table-2:
Showing Average Daily Traffic Project corridor Near
Indi- 43.0 Vehicle category ADT vehicles ADT PCU % share traffic Two wheeler
1113 556.5 16.0% Auto rickshaw 541 541 7.75% Car/jeep/taxi 740 740 10.61%
Van/tempo 543 543 7.78% Mini bus 405 607.5 5.80% Buses 442 1326 6.34% LCV
489 733.5 7.01% Trucks 1683 5985.15 24.15% Tractors 752 3384 10.79% Pedal
cycle 224 112 3.21% Cycle rickshaw 24 48 0.34% Horse drawn 11 66 0.15% Bullock
carts 5 30 0.07% Total 6972 14672.65 100% Project corridor Near Davalagi- 136.0
Vehicle category ADT vehicles ADT PCU % share traffic Two wheeler 1070 535
17.71% Auto rickshaw 463 463 7.66% Car/jeep/taxi 687 687 11.40% Van/tempo 510
510 8.44%

Impacts of New Development on Transportation Facilities

Transportation specialists agree that investments in transport
infrastructure can generate large developmental payoffs throughout
society. But how those effects come about is not readily
understood.Variables such as the state of the transportation network, the
region’s stage of economic development, the competitive structure of the
region’s markets, and technological and institutional changes in
transportation, communication, and production systems all affect
improvements and the changes they generate, as well as how the overall
economy responds. As these contexts vary, so do underlying forces of
change, and the consequent social and economic effects.

short- and Long-term Effects

Typical transport infrastructure improvements reduce effective distances
between origins and destinations by reducing congestion, thereby
lowering travel times. Travelers gain directly from travel time savings and
lowered vehicle-operating costs. Companies enjoy direct efficiency gains
from cheaper and more reliable freight services and reduced assembly
and delivery costs. Cheaper and better transportation services provide
incentives for firms to reorganize and reduce their inventories, sometimes
to just-in-time levels. The advantages of scale economies occur as firms
consolidate production and distribution sites and increase outputs.

Transport Effects Over the Very Long-Run

Over the very long run—encompassing many decades—sustained improvements in
transport technology and infrastructure have promoted major structural changes in
national economies. They continue to facilitate globalization processes in
contemporary times, much as they did in earlier eras. Economic history suggests
that transport technologies and infrastructures effect such structural changes hand
in hand with parallel improvements in communication and production technologies
as well as institutional and organizational reforms. Thus very-long-run transport
effects are joint consequences of changes in transport systems, communication
technologies, production systems, and institutions.

Master plans
The City is developing its first Transportation Master Plan. The Transportation
Master Plan will provide the ability to identify appropriate projects to enhance the
transportation network, conduct community engagement to ensure such projects
meet the communities’ goals and values, and prioritize projects based on need for
implementation. The Transportation Master Plan will provide a detailed vision, set
goals and performance metrics for network performance, and outline an
implementation strategy for both improvements to be implemented locally and for
local contributions towards regional improvements. It will serve as an update to the
City’s Bicycle and Sidewalk Plans. Concurrent with the Transportation Master Plan, a
Transportation Impact Fee program update would provide a mechanism to
modernize the City’s fee program to collect funds towards construction of the
improvements expected to be identified and prioritized in the Master Plan.

The Transportation Master Plan, however, is not designed to identify specific

solutions to individual neighborhood cut-through traffic concerns, specific Safe
Routes to School infrastructure plans, or provide detailed engineering designs of the
improvements that will be identified in the Plan. These efforts would be prioritized in
the Plan for future work efforts.

A consultant team was hired in May 2017 to prepare the Transportation Master Plan
and update the Transportation Impact Fee program. An online open house and
survey was conducted to gather input from the community about how the City should
prioritize transportation improvements in summer 2017.

The second round of community engagement for the City’s Transportation Master
Plan ended in September 2019. We had over 1,200 participants in the online open
house and pop-up events.
Selection of Corridor
A transport corridor is a generally linear area that is defined by one or more modes
of transportation like highways, railroads or public transit which share a common
course. Development often occurs around transportation corridors because they
carry so many people, creating linear agglomerations like the Las Vegas Strip or the
linear form of many neighborhood retail areas. A 2019 review and meta-analysis of
research into transport corridors found that they improved economic welfare, but had
adverse environmental impacts.

In the highway development process, the first planning stage is that of selecting a
corridor along which the highway is to pass. Highway corridor selection represents a
multicriteria decision process in which a variety of social, environmental, and
economic factors must be evaluated and weighted for a large number of corridor
alternatives. This paper proposes a demand-based approach to provide a set of
potential corridors. The problem is formulated as a continuous location model that
seeks a set of optimal corridors with respect to the demand of potential users while
satisfying budget constraints. This model uses geographical information to estimate
the length-dependent costs (such as pavement and construction cost) and the cost
of earth movement. A procedure for finding the best local minima of the optimization
model is proposed. This method is tested by using the Particle Swarm Optimization
algorithm, two algorithms of the Simulated Annealing type, and the Simplex
Nedelmar method. An application using the Castilla-La Mancha's geographic
database is presented. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000361. (C) 2012
American Society of Civil Engineers.

Corridor system 1.

Corridor:

A corridor is a set of essentially parallel and competing facilities and modes with
cross-connectors that serve trips between two designated points. A corridor may
contain several subsystems of facilities freeway, rural highway, urban street, transit,
pedestrian, and bicycle Figure. 26:1. Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay 26.1 February
19, 2014 Transportation Systems Engineering 26. Corridor Analysis Segment Point
Freeway Arterials Figure 26:1: Showing the Point Segment and Corridor Model

2. Segment: Segments are stretches of a facility in which the traffic demand and
capacity conditions are relatively constant.

3. Point: Points are locations at the beginning and end of each segment, at which
traffic enters, leaves, or crosses the facility.
4. Facility: is a structure built or road design modification to increase the efficiency
of the two main road way services (accessibility and Mobility).

Corridor Identification,
dentifying the urban transportation corridor is very crucial in transportation planning,
since planning with insufficient data verification often leads to wrong estimation of
actual demand. In the era of big data, the pervasive penetration of mobile phones
enables us to collect large-scale trajectory data of urban residents every day.

These big data bring new opportunity to the data-driven and user-oriented
transportation planning. Inspired by eigen-line concepts, this paper uses mobile
phone users' record to identify transportation corridors in Shanghai.

First, the transportation eigen-lines are identified by OD cluster method based on

influence between OD links. Then, the obtained eigen-lines are testified by
comparing with the real road network and population flow map to testify.

Finally, the transportation corridors are drawn according to the determined eigen-
lines and priori knowledge. The identified corridors reveal the spatial travel patterns
of urban residents. These results help us understand the city transportation structure
and travel demand features better.

Locating urban bus corridors based on corridor characteristics can increase the
transportation capacity, improve transportation efficiency, and increase the
attractiveness and commercial value of urban bus corridors. In this paper, we
describe the comprehensive optimization of the urban bus corridor location and
setting of bus lanes, while considering the aggregation effect of the corridor. First, we
use a K-shortest path algorithm to generate a candidate set of bus corridors. Then,
we analyze the influencing factors of the bus corridor. Following this, we take the
minimum generalized cost and the maximum aggregation utility along the path as the
objective function and design a bus corridor location identification optimization
model, considering arc capacity, plot ratio, corridor development, and time
constraints. F

Corridor Development Intensity

The land on both sides of bus corridors is generally characterized by a high plot
ratio and high-density composite development and mixed land use. Stations
such as Shinjuku and Ginza in Tokyo have plot ratios as high as 10–15. In
Curitiba, the plot ratio is higher toward the bus corridor, and land development
outside two blocks is restricted. The intensity of the land development along the
corridor affects the building and population density. A higher intensity of land
development results in greater potential travel demand

ϑp = X a∈A ϑaδ a p/ X a∈A δ a p

Corridor Gravitational Effect

The flow of information, people, and objects between different regions of a city
is a measure of the connectivity between these regions, which is important for
guiding urban planning. The research is conducted in two ways: by quantifying
the city connections based on dynamic data, including communication, OD
data, and social networks, and by measuring the relationship between cities
through a gravity model, and measuring the attractiveness between two nodes
through the population ratio of the two nodes and the distance function between
the two nodes.

Ωij = kV α i V β i / fij,

Corridor Functional Diversity

As a corridor for the gathering and circulation of the passengers and logistics, information
flow, and commercial flow, the bus corridor is a bridge connecting the main functional areas
in the city. Along the corridor, there are many complete commercial, entertainment, cultural,
technological, and other facilities with diversified functions to ensure the efficient
transportation of many passengers, thus enhancing the attractiveness and commercial value of

λn= − X t P t nLn(P t n )/Ln(t),

Φp = X n∈Np λnδ n p/ X n∈Np δ n p

Corridor deficiency Analysis.
A comprehensive analysis of the TH 14 Corridor identified safety, traffic
operations, access, and roadway design deficiencies. A summary of the
deficiencies and issues that were identified include:
· Lack of passing zones
· High crash rates at three intersections ·
Increased traffic congestion forecast for the whole corridor as a result of high
traffic volumes,
high percentage of trucks, and geometric deficiencies
· Difficulty meeting Mn/DOT’s IRC performance target of 55+ mph in the
future
· Decreasing ability to meet Mn/DOT’s access management guidelines,
especially in the Cities of Courtland and Nicollet
· Risk of signal proliferation
· High percentage of trucks using the roadway passing through the Cities of
Courtland and Nicollet
· Concern that TH 14 through-traffic could negatively impact community
cohesiveness in the Cities of Courtland and Nicollet
Each of the eight roadway segments has at least two deficiencies (out of a total
of 13 possible categories), one segment had ten deficiencies, two segments had
nine deficiencies, one segment had seven deficiencies, one segment had six
deficiencies and two segments had three deficiencies. A segment-by-segment
summary of deficiencies is presented is
Figure 4.2-1. Therefore, during the alternatives identification and evaluation
process the following needs should be considered:
· Provide additional opportunities for safe passing · Provide intersection
geometry and roadway design that have the potential to reduce the number of
crashes on the roadway and at intersections
· Maintain mobility on the roadway by limiting the number of traffic signals and
managing access · Provide roadway capacity to accommodate forecast traffic
volumes and meet Mn/DOT’s IRC performance target
· Maintain community cohesiveness
· Provide reliable travel times for freight haulers · Maintain year round 10-ton
status of roadway