HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

4. Immunology – study of the body’s defense

against disease causing agents
ANATOMY 5. Respiratory physiology – study of functions of
- Greek word meaning “cut up” (ana = up, tomy = the air passageways and lungs
process of cutting) 6. Renal physiology – study of the functions of the
- Study of internal and external structures of body kidneys
and their relationships to each other. 7. Pathophysiology – study of the functional
- It is the science of body structures and the changes associated with disease and aging.
relationships among them.
- “Form” HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Human Anatomy and Physiology with Pathophysiology
Divisions of Anatomy - the study of the form and function of the human
1. Gross Anatomy – macroscopic, can be seen by body and their characteristics and the functional
the eye; can be studied without microscope. changes happening due to disease and aging.
➢ Regional Anatomy – is the study of the
different regions of the body such as the
head and neck.
➢ Systemic Anatomy – study of the specific
systems of the body such as the reproductive
system and digestive system.
➢ Surface Anatomy – study of the landmarks of
the body surface of the different visceral
organs
2. Microscopic Anatomy – cell and molecule level,
needs microscope, cannot be seen by the naked
eye
➢ Cytology – study of cells
➢ Histology – study of tissues (groups of
specialized cells that work together to
perform functions)
➢ Histopathology – study of tissues to identify
cause of disease STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF THE BODY
3. Embryological Anatomy or Embryology – study 1. Chemical Level
of prenatal development; the first eight weeks of ➢ Atoms
development after fertilization of human being; o simplest level, the body is composed
it can be under Developmental Anatomy. of atoms (indivisible)
4. Developmental Anatomy – study of human o the basic and smallest unit of all
growth and development from fertilized egg to matter.
mature adult to death. o Ex. Oxygen atom
5. Cell Anatomy – study of cellular structure. ➢ Molecules
6. Radiographic Anatomy or Radiology – study of o Combination of two or more atoms.
the structures of the body using x rays and other o Ex. Oxygen atom + Oxygen atom =
noninvasive imaging techniques. Oxygen molecule (O), Carbon (C),
7. Pathological Anatomy – structural changes Hydrogen (H), Phosphorus (P),
(macroscopic to microscopic) associated with Calcium (Ca), DNA, etc.
disease. ➢ Compounds
o A molecule containing atoms of
PHYSIOLOGY more than one element.
- Comes from the Greek word for the “study of o Ex. Water (H2O), Carbon Dioxide
nature” (physio= nature; logy= study of) (CO2), Carbohydrates, Proteins and
- Study of how the structure of these organism Lipids
perform their functions 2. Cellular Level / Cells
- It is the science of body functions how the body ➢ Smallest independent units of life
parts work. ➢ Basic structural and functional units of an
- “Functions” organism that are composed of chemicals
➢ Growth, metabolism, irritability, and
Subspecialties of Physiology reproduction
1. Neurophysiology – study of functional ➢ Cells vary in size from a sperm (which is
properties of nerve cells. about 5 um) long to a nerve cell with thin
2. Endocrinology – study of hormones (chemical fibers (which maybe a meter long).
regulators in the blood) and how they control ➢ Ex. Muscle cells, Nerve cells, Epithelial cells
body functions. 3. Tissue Level / Tissues
3. Cardiovascular physiology – study of functions ➢ Made up of many similar cells that perform
of the heart and blood vessels a specific function.
➢ Four basic types of tissues:
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

o Epithelial Tissues – covers body

surfaces, lines hollow organs and
cavities, and forms glands; ESSENTIAL LIFE PROCESSES
protection and secretion function 1. Metabolism – the sum of all the chemical
o Connective Tissues – connects, processes that occur in the body.
supports, and protects body organs ➢ Catabolism – the breakdown of complex
while distributing blood vessels to chemical substances into simpler
other tissues. components.
o Nervous Tissues – carries ➢ Anabolism – the building up of complex
information from one part of the chemical substances from smaller, simpler
body to another through nerve components
impulses; receives stimulus 2. Responsiveness – is the body’s ability to detect
o Muscular Tissues – contracts to and respond to changes.
make body parts move and 3. Movement – includes motion of the whole body,
generates heat. individual organs, single cells, and even tiny
4. Organ Level / Organs structures inside cells.
➢ Tissues that are joined together 4. Growth – is an increase in body size that results
➢ structures that are composed of two or more from an increase in the size of existing cells, an
different types of tissues increase in the number of cells, or both.
➢ they have specific functions and usually have 5. Differentiation – is the development of a cell
recognizable shapes from an unspecialized to a specialized state
➢ Ex. stomach, skin, bones, heart, liver, lungs, 6. Reproduction – refers either to (1) the formation
and brain of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or
5. System level / Systems / Organ system replacement, or (2) the production of a new
➢ consists of related organs with a common individual
function.
➢ Ex. Digestive system, which breaks down and HOMEOSTASIS
absorbs food. Its organs include the mouth, - “Unchanging sameness”, “staying the same”.
salivary glands, pharynx(throat), esophagus homeo = sameness, stasis = standing
(food tube), stomach, small intestine, large - Maintenance of a relatively constant internal
intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. environment that is essential to life.
6. Organism Level / Organism - Condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s
➢ any living individual. internal environment due to the constant
➢ All the parts of the human body functioning interaction of the body’s many regulatory
together constitute the total organism processes.

ORGAN SYSTEM IN THE BODY STRESS

1. Muscular System – comprises all skeletal - One way to disrupt HOMEOSTASIS
muscles; primary function is locomotion - STRESS is the overall disruption that forces the
2. Nervous System – comprises brain and spinal body to make ADAPTIVE CHANGES
cord and the nerves arising from them; the - Factors causing stress are called STRESSORS
master system that coordinates the activities of - Ex. heat, cold, viruses, mental disturbances,
all other systems hormones
3. Endocrine System – consisting of ductless glands
which produce secretions called hormones HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION
4. Circulatory System – heart and blood vessels; ➢ Autoregulation – occurs when the activities
and the lymphatic system composing of lymph of a cell, tissue, organ, or organ system
nodes and vessels change automatically when faced with some
5. Articular System – consisting of joints and their environment variation
associated bones and ligaments ➢ Extrinsic Regulation – results from activities
6. Respiratory System – comprising the lungs and of the nervous or endocrine system, organ
the system of tubes for air systems that can control or adjust the
7. Urinary System – kidneys, urinary bladder, and activities of many different systems
excretory passages; elimination of waste simultaneously
material in urine
8. Reproductive System – comprising various HOMEOSTASIS AND BODY FLUIDS
organs concerned with reproduction ➢ Intracellular Fluid (ICF) – fluid within cells
9. Skeletal System – bones and cartilaginous parts ➢ Extracellular Fluid (ECF) – fluid outside body
like chest and nose cells
10. Integumentary System – the skin and its o Interstitial fluid – ECF that fills the
appendages narrow spaces between cells of
11. Digestive System – oral cavity, pharynx, and gut; tissues.
extends from mouth to anus; glands like the liver o Blood plasma – ECF within blood
and the pancreas. Concerned with the vessels
assimilation of food o Lymph fluid – ECF within lymphatic
vessels
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

o Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) – ECF - Ensures that the chemical composition of the
within brain and spinal cord fluid inside cells is different from the interstitial
o Synovial Fluid – ECF in the joints fluid that bathes them
o Aqueous humor and Vitreous body –
ECF in the eyes FEEDBACK SYSTEM
- The body can regulate its internal environment
EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT through many feedback systems.
- feedback system or feedback loop is a cycle of
events in which the status of a body condition is
monitored, evaluated, changed, re monitored,
re-evaluated, and so on.

Homeostatic Control Mechanism

1. Stimulus – disrupts homeostasis by increasing or
decreasing a controlled condition
2. Receptor/Sensor – monitor changes in a
controlled condition and sends input (nerve
impulses or chemical signals) to a control center
- Surrounds the body thru the afferent pathway
- Changes like temp, pressure and contact with 3. Control – center/ Integrating system establishes
microorganisms the set point, evaluates the input it receives from
- Source of oxygen and nutrients required by all the receptors, and generates output commands
body cells. (nerve impulses or chemical signals) to effectors
- Waste products of cellular activity are eventually thru the efferent pathway
excreted into the external environment. - Set point – range of values within which a
controlled condition should be maintained
Skin 4. Effectors – receive output from the control
- provides an effective barrier between the body center and produce a response or change
tissues and the consistently changing external 5. Response – return to homeostasis by correcting
environment the disturbance that occurred as detected by the
receptors
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
Negative Feedback

- Water-based medium in which body cells exist

- Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or
tissue fluid
o Absorb oxygen and nutrients from the
surrounding interstitial fluid
o Cellular wastes diffuse into the
bloodstream via the interstitial fluid

Selective Permeability

- If the change/ effect is opposite/ negative to the

initiating stimulus
- Most of the negative feedback mechanisms are
beneficial
- Allows the cell (plasma) membrane to control - Maintenance of homeostasis by negative
the entry or exit of many substances, thereby feedback goes on throughout the body at all
regulating the composition of its internal times
environment
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

Positive Feedback during the process of receiving health care. Ex.

Hospital acquired infection
- Risk factors exist which include dietary,
occupational or lifestyle conditions. Ex. smoking
- Predisposing factors make an individual more
susceptible to disease
- Disease prevention is highlighted for healthcare
professionals to consider and incorporate if
appropriate.

PATHOLOGY
- The scientific study of disease. Includes the study
of structural alterations in cells, tissues and
organs that help to identify the cause of disease.

Clinical Features
- Etiology and pathogenesis of disease leads to
clinical features and include the signs and
symptoms of disease
o Symptoms – an indication that a disease
is present and is what the patient usually
complains of
o Sign – what the clinician or healthcare
practitioner is looking or feeling for.
- Clinical features of a disease are often
accompanied by structural or functional changes
that can be investigated.
- Some conditions identify similar clinical features
- Rare in the body because they tend to increase to describe them such as indigestion and angina;
the original disturbance (stimulus) and to push the same descriptions of chest pain appear in
the variable farther from its original value. both conditions, and it is difficult at times to tell
- Effectors respond by exaggerating or enhancing them apart (differential diagnosis).
the stimulus - Some conditions have the same clinical features
- Typically used to deal with threat or stress such as diarrhea and vomiting, which occur in a
- Ex. Giving birth -contractions promote more number of conditions with the same and even
contractions until delivery multiple symptoms that frequently occur
together.

Investigations
- Study of the changes that occur in cells, tissues - Proper investigation of disease is required to
and organs when altered by disease and/or ensure prompt and accurate diagnosis to allow
injury and the effects these have on normal body treatment to be instigated.
function. - This usually involves:
- To relate normal body function to the o A clinical history and examination
pathological changes that occur and can lead to o A range of diagnostic interventions may
disease processes. be required such as:
- Can lead to developing understanding in relation ▪ X-ray
to the body’s transition from normal biological ▪ Laboratory Investigations:
functioning to diseased pathophysiological • Microbiology
states. • Immunology
- ‘Health’ and ‘illness’ are not viewed the same in • Biochemistry
any two individuals, as patients and their own • Hematology
conception of health and illness is very different.
• Histopathology
• Genetics
ETIOLOGY
- Study of the cause(s) of disease and/or injury
- Causes of disease can be either:
o Endogenous – originating from within
the body
o Exogenous – coming from outside the
body
- Diseases can be of unknown cause (Idiopathic)
- Some conditions are caused by the effects of
treatments and called iatrogenic
- Nosocomial infection denotes a new disorder,
not the patient’s original condition; acquired