Climatology

Cli l
Module 4
 Module IV- Lighting, Ventilation and Dampness
Co t o
Control

y Function of ventilation
ventilation, standard provision for ventilation - Wind effect
and stack effect - cross ventilation and air movement - Orientation,
external and internal features, position and size of openings, ventilation
d
ducts P
Precipitation,
i i i driving
d i i raini iindex,
d d
dampness on walls,
ll roofsf andd
floors - DPC and typical details. Climate and lighting, Daylight factor
concept, design variables - Day-lighting requirements -daylight
protractors, different prediction techniques,
 Ventilation

y The process of "changing"

changing or replacing air in any space to provide
high indoor air quality (i.e. to control temperature, replenish oxygen, or
remove moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, and
carbon dioxide).
dioxide)
y Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant smells and excessive
moisture, introduce outside air, to keep interior building air circulating,
and to prevent stagnation of the interior air.
air
y Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as
circulation of air within the building. It is one of the most important
factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings
y Functions of ventilation
{ Supply of fresh air
{ Convective cooling
{ Physiological cooling
y Supply of fresh air
{ The requirements of fresh air supply are governed by the type of
occupancy, number and activity of the occupants and by the nature
of any processes carried out in the space
{ Provision of windows and ventilators (openable or fixed)
{ Size of openable window may be stipulated in relation to the floor
area or the volume of the room
{ Requirements may be stipulated by building regulations and
advisory codes in case of mechanical control
y Convective cooling
{ The exchange of indoor air with fresh outdoor air can provide
cooling, if the latter is at a lower temperature than the indoor air
{ The moving air acts as a heat carrying medium
{ In moderate or cold climates this can be a practical proposition when
the internal heat gain or solar heat gain though windows would raise
the indoor temperature even higher than the outside air temperature
y Physiological cooling
{ The movement of air past the skin surface accelerates heat dissipation in
two ways
Ù Increasing
g convective heat loss
Ù Accelerating evaporation

{ Upto cecertain
ta higher
g e te
temperatures
pe atu es cacan be to
tolerated
e ated w
with
t adequate aair
velocity
{ In very low humidities, this cooling effect is not great as there is an
unrestricted evaporation even with very light air movement.
{ In high humidities, the cooling effect is restricted by the high vapor
pressure preventing evaporation, but greater velocities will have some
effect
{ It is most significant in medium humidities
{ Cooling by air movement is most needed when there are no other forms
of heat dissipation available, when air is warm as the skin and the
surrounding g surfaces are also at a similar temperature
p
 Stack effect

y Normal ventilation involves movement of air at a relatively slow pace

y The motive force can be either thermal or dynamic (wind)
y The stack effect relies on thermal forces,, set up
p byy the densityy
differences (caused by temperature differences) between the indoor
and outdoor air.
y It can occur through an open window (when the air is still) the warmer
and lighter indoor air flow out at the top and the cooler and denser
outdoor air will flow in at the bottom
y The principle is the same as in wind generation
y Special provisions can be made in the form of ventilating shafts
y The higher the shaft, larger the cross sectional area and greater the
temperature difference, greater the motivational force.. Therefore more
air will be moved
y The motive force is the ‘stack pressure’ multiplied by the cross sectional
area (force in newtons & area in m2)
y Ps= 0.042 x h x ∆T
where Ps= stack pressure in N/ m2
h = height of the stack in m
∆T = temperature difference in degC
y Such
S h shafts
h ft are often
ft used d ffor ventilation
til ti off iinternal
t l windowless
i d l rooms
 Wind effects

y Thermal forces will rarely be sufficient to create appreciable air

movement
y The only natural force that can be relied in is the dynamic effect of
winds
y When creation of air movement indoors is the aim, the designer should
try to capture as much of the available wind as possible
y Negative control – when the wind is too much- is easy, if windows and
openings can be shut
y Air has a mass (around 1
1.2
2 kg/ m2) and moves with a momentum (mass
x velocity- kg m/s)
y When moving air strikes an obstacle such as building, this will slow
down the air flow but the air flow will exert a pressure on the
obstructing surface
y This pressure is proportionate to the air velocity
Pw= 0.612 x v2
where Pw= wind pressure in m2
v = wind velocity in m/s
y This slowing down process effects a roughly wedge shaped mass of air
on the windward side of the building which in turn diverts the rest of
the air flow upwards and sideways
y A separation layer is formed between the stagnant air and the building
on the one hand and the laminar airflow on the other side
y The laminar airflow itself may be accelerated at the obstacle as the area
available for the flow is narrowed down by the obstacle
 Air flow through
g buildings
g

y Factors affecting airflow

{ Orientation
{ External features
{ Cross ventilation
{ Position of openings
{ Size of openings
{ Control of openings
y Orientation
{ The greatest pressure on the windward side of a building is generated
when the elevation is at right angles to the wind direction, hence
greatest indoor air velocity is achieved
{ A wind incidence of 450 will reduce the pressure by 50%

{ Thus the designer must ascertain the prevailing wind direction

{ Largest
g openings
p g should face the wind direction

{ But it is also found that a wind incidence of 450 would increase the
average indoor
i d air
i velocity
l it andd wouldld provide
id a b
better
tt didistribution
t ib ti off
indoor air movement
{ Wind shadow created is also largerg for 450 orientation
y Often,
Often optimum solar orientation and optimum orientation for wind do
not coincide
y In equatorial region, a N-S orientation would be preferable for sun
exclusion but most often, wind is predominantly easterly
y External features
{ Wind shadows created by obstructions upwind should be avoided in
positioning the building on the site and in positioning the openings
in the building
{ Wind velocity gradient is made steeper by an uneven surface, such as
scattered buildings,
buildings walls,
walls fences trees
{ But even with moderate velocity gradient, such as over smooth and
open ground, a low building can never obtain air velocities similar to
a tall
t ll one
y Cross Ventilation
{ In the absence of an outlet opening, or with a full partition, there can
be no effective air movement through the building even with strong
winds
{ With a windward opening and no outlet, a pressure similar to that in
front of the building will be built up indoors which can increase
discomfort
{
y Position of openings
{ To be effective, direction of air movement should be at body surface
{ Means more movement of air at living g zone ((upto
p 2m height)
g )

y Size of openings
{ Larger air velocity is achieved by smaller inlet and bigger outlet
{ Force= pressure x area
Control of openings
{ Sashes, canopies, louvers and other elements

{ Influence the indoor air flow pattern

p

y Sashes- framework together with its panes forming a usually movable

partt off a window
i d
{ Can divert the air flow upwards or sideways

{ A reversible pivot sash or casement will channel it downwards

y Canopies
{ Canopies can eliminate the effect of pressure build up above the
window
{ Thus the pressure below the window will direct the air flow upwards
{ A gap left between the building face and the canopy will ensure a
downward pressure directing the flow into the living area
y Louvers
{ Position of blades can be used to channel the flow

y Screens and nets

{ Reduce the flow
{ Rough net will reduce flow more than smooth net
y Air movement and rain-
rain driving rain
{ Air and rain together is difficult to tackle
{ Openings
p g in direction of wind driven rain will admit rain and spray
p y
{ Closing windows will create intolerable conditions
{ Verandahs and large roof overhangs are the best traditional methods
off protection
t ti
y Air flow around building

y There will be reverse flow behind tall buildings

g
{ The more the height of tall building, more the airflow in the opposite
direction in the low building
y For buildings in grid iron pattern there will be wind shadow areas
between blocks
y For buildings in staggered or checker board pattern, wind shadows are
limited and airflow is more uniform
y Ventilation ducts
{ Vertical openings to provide and remove air
y Humidity control
{ Air movement reduces impact of humidity
{ To increase humidityy in dryy climate,, cooler air inside should be
retained, this will also keep out sand and dust

y Structural dampness is the presence of unwanted moisture in the

structure of a building,
g, either the result of intrusion from outside or
condensation from within the structure
y caused by condensation, rain penetration or rising damp
y Most
M t fforms off ddampness can b be prevented
t db by th
thoughtful
htf l b
building
ildi
design and careful construction
y Cause
{ Wet materials for construction
{ Poor drainage
g systems
y
{ Faulty structural techniques

y Rising damp is slow upward movement of water in the lower sections of

walls and other ground-supported structures by capillary action
y rising damp occurs when ground water travels upwards through porous
building materials such as brick, sandstone, or mortar
y Damp proof course (DPC)
{ a type of moisture control applied to building walls and floors to
prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces
{ A damp
damp-proof
proof course (DPC) is a barrier in a masonry wall designed to
resist moisture rising through the structure by capillary action such as
through a phenomenon known as rising damp. The damp proof course
may be horizontal or vertical. DPC layer is usually laid below all masonry
walls regardless if the wall is a load bearing wall or a partition wall
walls, wall.
{ A damp-proof membrane (DPM) is a membrane material applied to
prevent moisture transmission. A common example is polyethylene
ssheeting
eet g laid
adu under
de a co
concrete
c ete sslab
ab to p
prevent
eve t tthee co
concrete
c ete from
o ga
gaining
g
moisture through capillary action.[3] A DPM may be used for the DPC.
{ Integral damp proofing in concrete involves adding materials to the
concrete mix to make the concrete itself impermeable.[2]
{ Surface coating with thin water proof materials for resistance to non-
pressurized moisture such as rain water or a coating of cement sprayed
on such as shotcrete which can resist water under pressure.[2]
{ Cavity wall construction
construction, such as rain screen construction,
construction is where the
interior walls are separated from the exterior walls by a cavity.[2]
{ Pressure grouting cracks and joints in masonry materials
 Lighting
g g

y Source of light is sun and sky

y Control is in transmission and distribution
y Day
y lighting
g g depends
p on externallyy g
given conditions and its control is
only possible by the building itself
y Artificial lighting is practically independent of location, climate or
building fabric
y Large amount of thermal radiation is received along with the sun light
y With bright sunlight of around 100 k lux, the intensity if thermal
radiation is about 1kW/m2
y In cold climates, overheating is not likely and thermal considerations
will rarely restrict the amount of light to be admitted
y In tropics,
tropics admission of abundant quantity of daylight will be
accompanied by radiant heat which might be probably excessive
y Thus filtering is required to exclude radiant heat while admitting light
y What we perceive as light is a narrow wavelength band of electromagnetic
radiation from about 380 to 780 nm

y Light containing all visible waves is predicted as white

y In a homogenous medium, light travels along a straight path and its
velocity is about 3 lakh km/s
y Transparent and Opaque surfaces
{ Some materials when exposed to light transmit a large part of it- referred
to as transparent
{ Others block the p
passage
g of light-
g referred to as opaque
p q

y Opaque objects cast shadow as there will be no light behind it

y Translucent materials
{ transmit a part of incident light, but breaks its straight passage, scatter it
g diffused light
in all directions creating g

y Light incident on an object can be distributed three ways- reflected (r),

absorbed (a) and transmitted (t)

y r+a+t=1
y For opaque objects t =0, thus r + a = 1
y Reflection
{ Angle of incidence is same as angle of reflection in a straight surface
y Reflection
{ From a convex mirror, reflected rays will be divergent
y Reflection
y From a concave mirror, reflected rays will be convergent
{ Specular reflection-
reflection parallel rays of incident light remain parallel
after reflection from a surface
{ Diffuse reflection- from a matt surface, rays will be diffused
Ù Semi-diffuse
Ù Spread
y Some materials have same reflectance for all wavelengths of light,
light
hence do not change the wavelength composition of light after
reflection- called as neutral reflection
y Some materials absorb certain wavelengths of the incident light, thus
the remainder reflected light will show colour effect
y Color pigments are such selective absorbers,
absorbers their color being due to
the subtractive process
 The Munsell system
y for surface colors

y Distinguished by three color

concepts
{ Hue- concept of color using
common color terms terms- red,
red
yellow, green, blue and purple,
but further subdivided to five
g
subcategories
{ Value- subjective measurement
of reflectance, light or dark
pp
appearance on a scale from 0-10
(0- black, 10-white)
{ Chroma- the degree of
colorfulness or intensity of color-
14 classes. A low chroma would
be almost grey (0 ), brightest
color will have 12-14
y Photometric qualities
{ Intensity of light (I) is measured in candela (cd)
Ù Candela is defined as the intensity of a 1/60cm2 uniformly emitting
black body radiator at melting point temperature of platinum (SI unit)
all other measurements are derived from this
{ The flux (flow) of light (F) is measured in lumens (lm)
Ù One
O llumen iis th the flow
fl off li
light
ht emitted
itt d by
b a unit
it iintensity
t it ((1cd)
d) point
i t
source within a solid angle
{ Illumination (E) is measured as the amount of flux falling on unit area
(I / 2) which
(Im/m2) hi h iis th
the lux
l
{ Luminance (L) is the measure of brightness of a surface
Ù if light source of 1cd intensity has a surface area of 1m2 its luminance
i 1cd/m2
is d/ (SI unit)
i)
Ù If a completely reflecting and diffusing surface (r-1) has an
illumination of 1 lux, its luminance is 1asb (apostilb)
y Illumination from a point source reduces with distance
y Planar illumination is the illumination received on a given plane
(mostly horizontal working plane)
y Scalar illumination is the average illumination received on the surface
of a small sphere from all directions, Denoted by Es
{ It measures the total quantity of light present regardless of its
direction
y Visual efficiency depends on
{ Purpose of lighting
Ù Practical- to facilitate the performance of a visual task and ensure
visual comfort
Ù Artistic- to create a certain emotional effects

y Illumination
u at o qua
quantity
t ty
{ Eye responds to a range of illumination levels extending over a million
orders of magnitude from 0.1 lux (full moonlight night) to 1,00,000 lux
(bright sunshine)
{ For practical situations,
Ù Casual seeing- 100 lux
Ù Ordinary tasks- 400 lux
Ù Severe prolonged tasks- 900 lux
Ù Exceptionally severe tasks- 2000-3000 lux
y Glare is difficulty seeing in the presence of bright light such as direct
or reflected sunlight or artificial light
 Cone of vision

y A-
A visual field of an average person extends to 180 degrees horizontally
and 120 degrees vertically
y B- immediate background extends to about 40 degrees
y C- central field is limited to 2 degrees
y Illumination quantity
{ In lighting design, the designer must ensure light which is both
adequate and suitable for visual task
{ S i bili iin this
Suitability hi context means
Ù Color of light
Ù Color rendering g
Ù Light distribution (direct/diffuse)
Ù Freedom from glare
Ù Luminance distribution (surface qualities together with
ith lighting of
these surfaces)

{ First 2 depend on light source

{ Distribution depends on fittings and position or windows and
reflective surface
 Daylight
y g

y Sources of light
{ Light arriving from sun to earth may be partly diffused by
atmosphere and the locally prevailing atmospheric conditions will
determine how the light will reach a building
{ Light may reach a point inside the building from sun in the following
ways:
Ù Diffused
iff d or skylight
k li h through
h h window
d or opening
Ù Externally reflected light through windows by ground or other
buildings
Ù Internally reflected light from walls, ceiling or other surfaces
Ù Direct sunlight along a straight path from sun through an
opening to a given point
{ Climatic conditions will greatly influence both the total quantity of
light and the relative magnitude of the above components
y In high latitude moderate climates,
climates where sky is typically overcast,
overcast
whole of sky hemisphere acts as a light source
{ Direct sunlight may occur but cannot be relied on

{ The sky itself has a luminance sufficiently high to provide lighting in

normal rooms
y Hot dry desert climates are characterized by strong direct sunlight
from cloudless skies
y Direct sunlight is usually excluded from buildings for thermal reasons
y Th sky
The k isi typically
i ll off a deep
d blue
bl colorl and d its
i luminance
l i may bbe as
low as 1,700 cd/m2- not enough to ensure adequate day lighting
y This clear sky usually has the highest luminance near the horizon and
the
h llowest lluminance at right
h anglel to sun
y The bare dry sunlit ground and light colored walls of other buildings
will reflect much light which will be the main source of indoor day
lighting
y It may also be source of glare when these strongly lit surfaces are within
the visual field
y Light dust suspended in the air may create a haze and increase the
apparent sky brightness up to 10,000cd/m2 but the frequent heavy
dust and sandstorms can reduce it to b below 8505 cd/m2
/
y In warm humid climates the sky is typically overcast with a
luminance often exceeding 7,000cd/m2
y The proportion of diffused or skylight is predominant and the very
bright sky viewed from a moderately lit room can cause discomfort n
glare
y In composite climates wide variations occur in natural lighting,
lighting
between overcast and clear sky conditions
 Dayy light
g factor

y Due to the variability of outdoor lighting levels it is difficult to calculate

interior lighting in photometric illumination terms
y However, in a given building, at a certain point, the ratio of the
illumination to the simultaneous outdoor illumination can be taken as
constant
y daylight factor (DF) is this constant ratio expressed as a percentage
y DF= Ei/Eo x 100%
{ Ei = illumination indoors at the point taken

{ Eo = illumination outdoors from an unobstructed sky hemisphere

y The
Th day
d li
light
ht factor
f t conceptt iis valid
lid under
d overcastt sky
k conditions
diti
where there is no direct sunlight
y Three components will contribute to the day light factor
{ Sky component (SC)
{ Externally reflected component (ERC)
{ Internally reflected component (IRC)
y DF= SC + ERC + IRC

y SC- area of sky visible from the point considered and its average
altitude angle. Influenced by window size and position in relation to the
point thickness of window frame members,
point, members quality of glass and its
cleanness, any external obstructions
y ERC- area of external surfaces visible from the point considered and
the reflectance of these surfaces
y IRC- the size of the room, the ratio of wall etc surfaces in relation to the
window area and the reflectance of these indoor surfaces
y Design sky concept
{ When the day light factor for a given point has been established, it
can be converted into an illumination value, if the outdoor
illumination is known
{ For eg, if DF = 8% and Eo= 6,000 lux
DF= Ei/Eo x 100
8 = Ei/6,000 x 100
Ei = 8 x 6,000/100=
, / 480
4 lux

{ ‘Design sky illumination value’ for a particular location is the

outdoor
td ill
illumination
i ti llevell off a given
i llocation
ti which
hi h iis exceeded
d d iin
90% of the time of daylight hours
y These calculations can be used for design purpose
{ First establish required illumination level Ei
{ Then ascertain local designg skyy illumination Eo
{ Calculate necessary daylight factor
{ Manipulate design variables (window sizes) to achieve this design
f t
factor
{ This method ensures that the indoor illumination level will be
reached or exceeded in 9 90% of time
{ Remaining time may be in short spells and tasks may be taken closer
to windows or artificial lighting may be used
{ T provide
To id for
f these
th 10 % ti
time will
ill result
lt iin uneconomical
i l and
d result
lt
in excessive light most of the time
y This method ensures adequate daylight even with a very low level of
outdoor lighting, thus most of the time the specified illumination levels
will be exceeded
y Physically this is advantageous (visual efficiency is improved) and in
temperate climates the psychological effect of such over lighting is
likely to be an increased sense of well-being
y B contrast,
By t t iin warm climates
li t b both
th th
the physical
h i l and d th
the psychological
h l i l
effects could be disadvantageous
y Due to the accompanying thermal radiation over lighting would mean
over heating
h ti
y And over heating would cause much greater discomfort than under
lighting
y Further more, a slightly under-lit room would be psychologically more
acceptable as light is mentally associated with warmth and reduced
lighting with coolness
y There should be a balance between necessary visual efficiency and
avoiding creating a gloomy effect
y Visual gloominess is a subjective effect created by excessive contrast
between the very bright out-doors and the dimly lit interior. It can be
strengthened by factors affecting the other senses- dampness, stale air,
smells,, untidiness etc
y The task and problems of day lighting in tropical climates can
be summarized as
{ To
T provide
id adequate
d t d
day li
light
ht even if th
the windows
i d are protected
t t db by
louvers or grilles for thermal reasons
{ To exclude from the visual field excessively y bright
g ((light
g colored,,
sunlit etc) surfaces, which would cause glare
y In hot dry climates
{ Direct sunlight must be excluded from buildings partly for thermal
reasons, partially as it would unavoidably create glare
{ Windows in this climate will be small and not much sky is visible
from inside,
Ù sky component will be insufficient for low luminance blue skies
Ù Luminance of sky near horizon is greater and it may be a source of
glare if not screened
{ Both the ground and external surfaces of other buildings are usually
light colored in the strong sunshine these may also create glare
{ Therefore externally reflected light can only be used providing that
great care is taken to avoid glare
{ Internally reflected light would be the most convenient form of day
lighting
{ One suitable arrangement is a high level window (sill above eye level)
which would admit reflected light to ceiling
{ If ceiling is white, this would ensure adequate and well diffused
interior lighting through a comparatively small window
{ If shading devices are used, sunlit reflective surfaces of these devices
can themselves become sources of glare
{ These surfaces should either be non-reflective or positioned so that
they are not directly visible
{ Low level windows are acceptable, if they open onto a shaded and
planted courtyard
y When a sunlit view through a window is unavoidable
unavoidable, the strong
luminance contrast between the view and the window surround can be
reduced by:
{ Painting the adjacent wall a light color

{ Painting the inside a window frames white

{ As the walls tend to be thick in this climate

climate, the deep reveals should
be splayed (and light colored) to provide contrast grading
{ Other openings may be placed in opposite or flanking walls, to throw
some light onto the wall surrounding the window
y In warm humid climates
{ Buildings in this climate are typically of light weight construction
with large openings to ensure cross ventilation and air movement
usually with wide overhanging eaves or other shading devices
{ Direct sunlight is excluded for thermal reasons. The sky is bright,
could provide sufficient light but its high luminance would also cause
glare
l
{ For this reason, view of the sky should be screened by shading
devices or plants
{ As the sky luminance is much less near the horizon than at higher
altitude angles, a view of the sky up to about 15degree from the
horizon may be permissible
{ Exclude view of bright ground and sunlit blade or louver surfaces
{ Day light is to be reflected from ground and blades up to the ceiling
which should b be of light
g color
y Supplementary artificial lighting
{ In moderate climates, it is practically impossible to provide adequate
daylight (DF=2%) in side lit rooms to a depth greater than three
times the window head height (above the working plane)
{ In an average office or class room this would correspond to a depth
of 6m max
{ For rooms deeper than this, artificial lighting need to be engaged to
maintain overall impression of day lighting

y PSALI- permanent supplementary artificial lighting of the interiors

 Prediction techniques
q

{ Artificial lighting
{ PAL- permanent artificial lighting
{ Window less environment- ignore
g dayy lighting
g g
{ Windows are weakest point of building envelope- in terms of thermal
and noise insulation
{ S i
Savings on hheating
ti and
d air
i conditioning
diti i would ld be
b greater
t than
th costt off
artificial lighting

{ But
Ù Windows, in addition to providing day lighting, also gives a visual
li k to
link t the
th outside
t id world
ld
Ù Hence reduced window with PSALI would be recommended
y If in moderate climate reduced windows result in requirement for
artificial lighting, hot climates require even more artificial lighting as
window sizes are even smaller and more shading devices are provided
to reduce
d di
direct li
light
h

y Thermal controls are of prime importance and there would be only two
choices open
{ Accept a below standard lighting

{ Or use PSALI

y Hence we require electric lamps- incandescent, fluorescent, LED

y There is a heat g
gain from lamps
p that should be considered in design
g
 Daylight
y g p prediction

y Day Lighting Requirements

y Min recommended day lighting factors (based on British Standard
Code of Practice)
{ Corridors-
C id 0.5%
%
{ Entrance halls, lounges, stairs, churches, hospital wards- 1%
{ General offices,, banks,, reception
p areas,, class rooms,, surgeries,
g , sports
p
halls- 2%
{ Laboratories, Pharmacies- 3%
Artist’ss studio-
Artist studio 4%
{ Homes
Ù Living room- 1% over at least 8m2 and half the depth of room
Ù Bedroom-
B d 0.5%
% over att lleastt 6m2
6 and dhhalf
lf th
the d
depth
th off room
Ù Kitchen- 2% over at least 5m2 or half the total floor area
y The design day used for daylight factor calculations is based upon the
Standard CIE overcast Sky for 21 September at 12:00pm, and where
the Ground Ambient light level is 11,921 Lux

(CIE stands for Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage: the

International Commission on Illumination)
y Day light prediction technique depends on calculations of the three
components of day light factor (DF) separately
y SC and ERC are found by using day light protractors
y IRC is estimated with the help of a set of nomograms

y There
Th are ttwo series
i off protractors
t t
{ One for a sky of uniform luminance and one for a CIE sky luminance
distribution
y In high latitudes, under predominantly overcast sky conditions, series 2
protractors should be used
y But
B t series
i 1 protractors
t t mustt b
be used
d ffor th
the prediction
di ti off th
the sky
k
component under a clear sky, tropical conditions
y Each series consist of 5 protractors to be used for various glazing
situations
series 1, uniform sky series 2 CIE sky
Vertical
V i l glazing
l i 1 2
Horizontal glazing 3 5
Slope
p 3300 to horizontal 5 6
Slope 600 to horizontal 7 8
Unglazed openings 9 10

{ Each protractor consists of two scales A giving an initial reading

(from sections of room) and B giving correction factor (from plans)
{ The initial reading would give the sky component for infinitely long
windows, but for a window of finite length (width) a correction factor
(scale B) must be applied
Sky component-
component
y Steps to be taken to determine a sky component
1. Take a section of the room, mark the working plane and on it the point
to be considered (O)
2. Connect the limits of aperture (or edge of obstruction) to point O
3
3. Place the protractor with a scale A uppermost,
uppermost baseline on the working
plane with the centre on point O
4. Read the values where the lines to limits of aperture intersect the
perimeter
i t scale,l the
th difference
diff off th
the ttwo values
l iis th
the iinitial
iti l sky
k
component
5. Read altitude angles where lines to limits of aperture intersect the
angle of elevation scale and take the average of the two readings
6
6. Take the room plan and mark the position of the point to be considered
7. Connect the limits of aperture with point O
8. Place the protractor with scale B towards the window, baseline parallel
to the window with the centre on point O
9. Four concentric semi circles are marked on the protractor (0, 30, 60
and 90 degrees)
10. S l t the
Select th one according
di to t the
th corresponding
di elevation
l ti angle l obtained
bt i d
in step 5, if necessary interpolating an imaginary semi-circle
11. Where lines intersect the semi-circle read the values along the short
curves on ththe scale
l off th
the iinner semi-circle
i i l
12. If the two intersection points were on either side of the centre line, add
the two values obtained. If both were on the same side, take the
difference of the two values
values. This will be the correction factor
13. Multiply the initial sky component (step 4) by the correction factor to
obtain the sky component
Externally reflected component
y If there are no obstructions outside the window, there will be no ERC
y If there are objects higher than line to window bottom, the line reflected
j
from these objects will reach the p
point considered and will contribute to the
lighting at that point
y The magnitude of this contribution is expressed by the ERC which can be
found as follows
{ Find
i d the
h equivalent
i l sky
k component which
hi h would
ld b
be obtained
b i d ffrom the
h
same area of sky where it is not obstructed following the steps described
earlier
{ Multiply this value
Ù If series 1 (uniform sky) protractors were used- by 0.5 times the
average reflectance of opposing surfaces or if this is unknown by a
factor of 0.1
Ù If series 2 (CIE sky) protractors are used- by the average reflectance of
opposing surfaces or a value of 0.2
Internally reflected component
y Much of the light entering through the window will reach the point
considered only after reflection from the walls ceiling and other
surfaces inside the room
y The magnitude of this contribution to the lighting of the point
considered is expressed by the IRC
y This will normally be fairly uniform throughout the room, thus for most
problems it is sufficient to find the average IRC value
y The simplest method uses the nomogram
1
1. Find the window area and find the total room surface area (floor,
(floor ceiling
and walls including windows) and calculate the ratio of window total
surface area. Locate this value on scale A of the nomogram
2. Find the area of all the walls and calculate the wall total surface area.
L
Locate this
hi value
l iin the
h fi
first column
l off the
h small
ll table
bl
3. Locate the wall reflectance value across the top of this table and read the
average reflectance at the intersection of columns and line (interpolating,
if necessary both vertically and horizontally)
4. Locate the average reflectance value on scale B and lay a straight edge
from this point across scale A (to the value obtained in step 1)
5. When this intersect scale C, read the value which gives the average IRC if
there is no external obstruction
6. If there is external obstruction, locate the angle from the horizontal
measured at the centre of the window on scale D
7. Lay the straight line form this point on scale D through the point on scale
C and read the average IRC value on scale E
y Due to the deterioration of internal finishes,
finishes a maintenance factor
should be applied to the IRC value thus obtained

y Further corrections
{ DF= SC + ERC + IRC should be further corrected for

Ù 1. glazing GF if this is other than clear glass

Ù Framing FF this could be calculated as the ratio of net glass area to
window aperture
Ù Dirt on glass D a factor depending in the type of location and
f
frequency off cleaning
l i
y Distribution of day light
{ If day lighting is to be predicted not only
at a specified point, but through out the
room, a reference grid should be set up on
the plan and the day light factor should be
calculated for each g grid p
point
y Clear sky conditions
{ As design at moderate climates aims at providing a level of daylight
which would be exceeded most of the time, direct sunlight need not be
taken into account. If and when it occurs, it will be an extra bonus
{ In tropics, especially in hot-dry climates, the skies are clear and there is a
strong direct sunlight most of the time
{ Sun penetration must be limited for thermal reasons thus an upper limit
in lighting will be more important than the minimum
{ Under such clear sky conditions direct light is received from the sun and
a varying amount of diffuse light is received from the whole of the sky
hemisphere.
{ Furthermore, both direct and the diffuse light will be reflected from the
same surfaces outside and inside the room
{ These two can onlyy be q quantified and treated separately
p y as various
control devices and reflective surfaces are different
{ This is difficult as full day light with no sunlight will not occur in clear
sky
y Lumen method of day lighting
{ Total flux of light entering through the windows is found
{ This is multiplied
p byy a utilization factor ((UF)) to g
get illumination on a
working plane.
{ The magnitude of UF depends on the relative size of the window, its
position in relation to the point considered,
considered any louvers or other
controls, interior reflectances and room proportions
{ Its value can be read from the tables included in American IES
Lighting Handbook

{ Results obtained from this is approx only but it is simple and quick ti
use
y Model studies
{ As outdoor illumination is constantly changing, it has been necessary
to construct artificial skies ie lighting arrangement which simulates
the illumination obtained from a sky hemisphere under which day
lighting studies can be carried out on models

{ For quantitative studies, the models need not be realistic, shades of

grey can be substituted for actual colors ~scale of 1:20
{ For qualitative studies, for the assessment of lighting quality, a more
realistic model should be built visually sufficiently representative of
the room,, its furniture and furnishings
g ~scale of 1:10
y Software simulations
{ Calculating daylight factors requires complex repetition of
calculations and thus is generally undertaken using complex
software like Radiance.