ce EO aa gC ae ee Material Science & \ Metallurgy ae (rs PS eA ee my a i, ye dy ; PSs 5 ee | y fucns } oA ARS wate, | z a re] J eslola HHA MATERIAL SCIENCE & METALLURGY Seventh Revised Edition K.R. PHANEESH No. 1, Annadanappa Lane, Avenue Road Cross, Bangalore - 560 002 [Re mooMaterial Science & Metallurgy : A Text Book For Engineering Students by K.R. Phaneesh & Published by SUDHA PUBLICATIONS No. 1, Annadanappa Lane, Avenue Road Cross, Bangalore - 560002 Ph : 22216177 © Author & Publisher Pages: x + 262 First Edition : 2000 Second Edition : November, 2000 Third Revised Edition : September, 2003 Fourth Revised & Enlarged Edition : September, 2004 Fifth Revised Edition : August, 2007 Sixth Edition : September, 2008 Seventh Revised Edition : August, 2011 Eight Edition : March, 2012 Ninth Edition : August, 2012 ee LipRARY\\ 4. Typesetiers & Cover Design by: o, nda WD Daraun lp NOs ne Bangalore - 20. = e-mail : [email protected] Printed at: SATHYANANDA PRINTERS # 12, 4th Cross, Pipeline Road, Cholurpalya, Bangalore - 680 023,CONTENTS PARTA UNIT 1. UNIT 2. CRYSTAL STRUCTURE. Introduction Fundamental concepts, unit cell Co-ordination number Atomic packing factor Face centred cubic (FCC) Body centred cubic (BCC) Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Solved problems Crystal Imperfections Point, line, surface & volume Imperfections Atomic Diffusion Definition mechanisms Ficks laws of Diffusion Factors affecting Diffusion _ Worked problems MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR Introduction Stress-strain diagrams showing Ductile and Brittle behaviour Linear and non-linear Elastic behaviour Mechanical Properties in the plastic range Yield strength Ductility Ultimate tensile strength ‘True stress and strain Toughness Solved Problems Page No. SRGSESELLR B SCRRRRSRESS cmon aUNIT 3. UNIT 4. Plastic deformation of single crystal by slip and twinning Strain hardening Solved Problems FRACTURE, CREEP & FATIGUE Fracture Types of fracture - Type I, Type I and Type III Cup and cone fracture - stages Griffith’s criterion Creep Mechanisms of creep Creep properties Stress relaxation Fatigue Type of fatigue mechanisms Fatigue testing S-Neurves SOLIDIFICATION Introduction Mechanism of solidification Homogeneous Nucleation Heterogeneous Nucleation Cast metal structures Phase diagram I Solid solutions Hume Rothary rules Interstitial solid solution Intermediate phases Gibbs phase Rule BESSRRRVABAA A BYE 10 0 ul M2PART B UNIT 5. UNIT 6. PHASE DIAGRAMS II Construction of equilibrium diagrams. Lever Rule Phase diagram with complete solubility Phase diagram with partial solubility Solved problems in Phase Diagrams Tron-Carbon equilibrium diagram Description of phases Invariant Reactions Solidification of steels and cast Irons HEAT TREATING OF METALS TIT Curves Continuous cooling curves Classification of Heat Treatment Processes Annealing and types Normalizing Hardening Hardenability Jominy end-quench test Tempering Austempering Martempering, Surface hardening methods Carburizing Nitriding Cyaniding Flame Hardening Induction Hardening Age Hardening of Al-Cualloy 178UNIT 7. UNIT 8. FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATERIALS Ferrous Alloys Steels - low, medium and high carbon AISI Designation Steels Cast irons Gray CI, White CI, Malleable CI, SG iron Cast Irons Microstructures of cast iron Copper and its alloys Brasses and Bronzes ‘Thelight alloys Aluminium and its alloys ‘Magnesium alloys Titanium alloys COMPOSITE MATERIALS Introduction Classification ‘Types of Matrix materials ‘Types of re-inforcements Fundamentals of Production of MMC’s Fundamentals of production of FRP’s Young's Modulus of composites Worked problems Advantages of composites Applications of composites Appendix - || New Syllabus of ‘Material Science & Metallurgy’ Appendix - It A few old question papers Appendix - Ill INDEX Properties and Important uses of all known elements 214 214 215 215 217 SSERER Es %Part A UNIT - 1 INTRODUCTION Ever since Adam and Eve felt a need for some sort of clothing in the Garden of Eden, mankind has been continuously concemed with problems of materials. While Adam and Eve and their immediate deseendents had only relatively simple material requirements such as clothing and construction of shelter, we in our modern civilization have far more needs and necessities and in our intense modern life, we have become extremely dependent upon a great variety of materials. In fact, materials make up the world that we live in. The role that materials have played in the progress of civilization is best. understood by the fact that we have had Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Nuclear Age, Silicon Age, and so on! When we say ‘Materials’, we think of nearly all materials known to science and in all states of matter : Solid, Liquid and Gaseous. But then Material Sciences concerns itself basically with the nature and behavior of only solid materials. However solid materials can themselves be a large number of things useful to man such as food, medicine, explosives, chemicals, steels, plastics, concrete etc., and so we restrict ourselves to afew solid materials among them which are useful in engineering. In other words these ‘Solid Engineering Materials’ are those which helps engineers to build machines, structures, automobiles, airerafts and so on, There are several ways of classifying engineering materials, One way of classifying them is into four broad groups according to their nature. i) Metals and Alloys :- Ex. : Cast Irons, Steels, Aluminium, Copper, Silver, Gold, Brasses, Bronzes etc., ii) Ceramics and Glasses: Ex. : MgO, ZnO, SiC, Silica, Concrete, Cement , Nitrides etc,2 Material Science & Metallurgy iii) Polymers : Ex. : Plastics, Polyethylene, PVC, PTFE, Nylon, Cotton, Rubber etc. iv) Composites : Metal-matrix Composites, Fibre-reinforeed Composites etc. Each of the above group of materials have their own sets of properties, Every engineering material that we come across is actually known by its properties. Some of the most important properties of engineering materials are : Mechanical; Strength, hardness, ductility, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep, fatigue. Physical: Shape, size, density, porosity, colour. Chemical ; Acidity, alkalinity, composition, corrosion resistance, atomic number, molecular weight. Electrical: Conductivity, resistivity, dielectric constant, dielectric strength, power factor. Thermal — ; Specific heat, refractoriness, conductivity. Aesthetic Feel, texture, appearance, lustre. It is these properties of the materials and several others which guide us in the selection of materials for specific applications. To give some examples, an aircraft structure has to be built with materials having low density but high strength; a steel melting furnace has to be lined with refractory materials to withstand high temperatures; buildings and structures have to be built with materials having high compressive strength to withstand heavy loads; springs and machine beds are to be made of materials which are resilient in order to absorb shocks and vibrations; and so on. Every new invention must finally be expressed as a material structure or device and every new technological advance must eventually take shape in the form of a material. Decisions regarding engineering materials are an essential part of all branches of engineering practice. Hence, the choice of the right material for the given requirement, the Proper use of that material and even the production of that new material are all the direct responsibility of the engineer. Allin all, Material Science concerns itself with the nature and behavior of all engineering materials but we further confine ourselves to the mechanical behavior of these materials in this treatise. Metallurgy, which forms a major part of this book, on the other hand, deals exclusively with the study of metals and alloys, their occurrences and behavior. Material Science and Metallurgy, therefore, is at the hub of all engineering activities and has a direct bearing on the quality of life that we lead! STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS All solid materials in the world can also be classified into two broad groups namely (i) Crystalline solids, (ii) Non-Crystalline or Amorphous solids. They are classified based on the basic building blocks that they are made up of.Crystal Structure Crystalline Solids Non-Crystalline/Amorphous Solids 2. 4. iE . The basic structural unit is a crystal and a number of crystals come together to form a crystalline solid. Each crystal {also called a grain) is made up of a number of repetitive blocks called unit cells which are arranged neatly in relation to each other. Compare a Crystalline solid with a military parade where all soldiers are arranged in order with respect to each other, A crystalline solid therefore is made up of millions of unit cells orderly arranged. Bach unit cell is itself made up of atoms and the number of atoms depend on the type of unit cell Eg: Metals, alloys, some salts like NaCl, KCI. many oxides and ceramics, non- metals like Diamond, jem-stones etc. Density of crystalline solids are generally high since unit cells can be packed in an orderly manner in a given unit space. They also have higher melting point & strength. Structures are stable and materials are are stronger, Aggregates Although all materials can be classified as either Crystalline or Non-Crystalline (amorphous) there are certain materials which can occur as both. For example Silicate can occur as crystalline solid (quartz) or as a non-crystalline solid (Silicate glass) (Refer figs. 1.1 a & b). It is also true that many materials exist as combinations of both crystalline and amorphous solids. These materials which have short range order but no long range order are termed as Aggregates. Eg. : Conerete, rocks & minerals. ‘The basic structural unit is a molecule and chains of these molecules come together to form an amorphous solid. The chains of molecules are random within the solid and occur in no particular relation to each other. They are irregular and lack symmetry. Compare an amorphous solid with a crowd where people are random and not arranged in order w.r.t, each other. An amorphous solid therefore is made up of million of molecules disorderly arranged, Each molecule itself is made up of a number of atoms and the number depends on the type of solid. Eg: Glass, Polymers, rubber, plastics etc. Density of amorphous solids are generally low because molecules cannot be compacted, They have lower] melting point and strength. Structures are unstable and materials| less stronger,4 Material Science & Metallurgy 2 Stcon ston 6 cope sn Fig. 1.fa : Crystalline Silica (SiO,) Fig. 1.10 : Non-Crystalline Silica (SiO,) FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS UNIT CELL A Unit Cell is the smallest repeatable unit of a crystalline solid, In other words every Unit Cell in a crystalline solid consists of a group of atoms arranged in a definite order. The shape of the unitcell and the atomic arrangements within them can themselves be of different lypes as explained in the table. For example a unit cell can be of cubic shape with atoms occupying the centre of all its corners, makes it Simple Cubic Structure (SCC), This arrangement then repeats million of times to give us a crystalline solid of the SCC type. But we must also understand here that in a crystalline solid then are no cubic boxes within which atoms are packed but we just assume the basic 3-D shape of unit arrangement of atoms. Therefore a crystalline solid is made of atoms throughout its volume, but the unit arrangement of atoms is in the shape of a unit ecll, Unit Cell Space Lattice Example of (Crystal system) (atomic arrangement) Materials 1, Simple Cubic Mn, Po, NaCl - atoms only at the 8 comers of the unit cell 2, Body Centred Cubic + atoms at the 8 comers plus Na, V, Cr, Mo, W, ‘one al the centre of the body Fe*, CsCl, ot Iron, tron 3. Face Centred Cubic atoms at the 8 comers cc] Ni, Cu, Ag, Au, Al, plus one each at the cenere Pb, PL y-lion Eg. : Simple Cubic of 6 faces (Austenite), Fe* I. Tetragonal 4, Simple Tetragonal Pa, In usbee = atoms at 8 corners a= Baya 90 of the unit cellCrystal Structure M11. Orthorhombie atbec a= et a LAr é y IV. Rhombohedral a= Pays 90 y Y, Hexagonal bec = 9 = 120° 5. Body Centred Tetragonal - atoms at the 8 corners and | atom at centre 6. Simple Orthorhombie ~ atoms at 8 earners 7. End Centred Orthorhombic - atom at § comers and at 2 face centres opp. to each other 8, Body centred Orthorhombic - atoms at 8 comers and 1 at body centre 9. Face centred Orthorhombic atoms at 8 corners and at 6 face 10. Simple Rhombohedral atoms at 8 comers ners LL, Hexagonal Close Packed + atoms cach at 6 corners of top face, 6 corners of base, 2 hexagonal face centres and 3 within the body. ECO BCO. FCO SR HCP Sn*, U (between 668 C-774 8C), Martensite As, Bi, Sb Mg SQ, KNO, Cementite Ga, S* PaO, S10, Mg, Be, Ti, Zr, Hf, Co Cd, Zance & Metallurgy VL Monoclinic 12. Simple Monoclinic FeSO, NaSO,, CaSO, aevbec ~ atoms at 8 corners. Rochelle salt ae Be ey ( 18. End Centred Monoclinic g s - atoms at 8 comers and at 2 face centres opp. to each other VII. Triclinie 14, Simple Trielinic CuSO, K.Cr,0, - atoms at B corners *- Indicate allotropic elements which exhibit more than one crystal structure, #- Please note that the size of the atoms in all unit cells in reality is much bigger than what is illustrated and are so big that they touch their nearest atom at their periphery. SPACE LATTICE IN CRYSTALS We know that a number of crystals come together to form acrystalline solid and each of these crystals in turn contain a number of repetetive blocks called Unit Cells, In each unitcell itself, we have atoms which are regularly spaced along rows, columns and in other directions. This three-dimensional pattern where the atoms arrange themselves in an orderly manner along various directions in known as Space Lattice. In other words a space lattice is a distribution of atoms in three dimensions such that every corresponding atom has identical surroundings. The number of atoms, their location and their particular arrangement in a unit cell are all described by means of a space lattice and this differs from solid to solid, Bvery crystalline solid, therefore, has a certain kind of space lattice. ‘There are altogether 14 possible types of space lattices and they fall under seven crystal systems, In other words, there are seven basic shapes of unit cells having 14 various arrangements of atoms among them. The above table gives a display of all the types.Crystal Stricture 2 BRAVAIS SPACE LATTICE Although every crystalline solid has a certain kind of space lattice, there are only 14 possible types, according to Bravais. He said that there are only 14 independent ways of arranging points in three dimensional space such that each arrangement conforms to the definition of a space lattice. These 14 lattices are known as Bravais Space lattices, and they fall under seven basic Crystal Systems or Crystal shapes. The table - lists all the seven Crystal Systems and the 14 various arrangements of atoms among them. STACKING OF LAYERS OF ATOMS IN FCC AND HCP solid, planes of atoms are stacked one upon the other, to make up the ind HCP structures have more closely packed structures with an identical APF of 0.74, Itis also observed that (111) plane of FCC and (0001) basal place of HCP have identical packing arrangement. But when we observe the stacking of layers of atoms above and below these planes in their respective crystal-structures, the stacking sequence is different. Ina HCP structure if the base plane is of arrangement A, the plane above is arrangement B, and then A, and so on. But in FCC structure starting with (111) plane A, there are 3 planes of different atomic arrangements A, B, C before it starts repeating itself. This stacking sequence of ABABA... in HCP metals and ABCABCAB... in. FCC metals, gives them different physical properties. To understand the stacking sequences imagine snooker balls kept packed initially to play pot, and the various packing arrangements above them, In any crystallin solid. However FCC Normal to close packed planes Close packed planes Normal to slose packed A phines packed planes (i) (111) Plane in FOC (ii) (0001) basal plane in HCP8 Material Science & Metallurgy CO-ORDINATION NUMBER (#ach atom in a crystal structure is surrounded by a number of atoms) The surrounding atoms are located at di ces The ¢o-ordination number of a¢rystal structure is defined as the number of nearest and equidistant neighboring atomis that each atom has in 4 space lattice. The co-ordination number of a few types of crystal. structures are : Simple Cubic-6, BCC-8, FCC-12, HCP-12. ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR Itis the ratio of the volume of atoms contained in each unit cell to the volume of the unit cell itself. APF 2 Volume of snag Volume of unit cell In other words the APF represents the percentage of space within each unit cell of a crystal structure which is packed with atoms. On the other hand it also gives us information on the free space available within the unit cell, APF basically affects the density of the material. CALCULATION OF APF FOR SOME UNIT CELLS i) SIMPLE CUBIC (SC) Let a = latticeconstant r = atomic radius the different corners of the cube and the atoms a The center of each atom co-incides with touch each other at their periphery, | Henee, let us take a = 2r Fig. 1.12 SCC Each one of the atoms at the corners of the cube has effectively only Mth of its volume present inside the cubic cell. The remaining volume of the atom is shared by its seven neighboring unit cells, Therefore, no. of atoms in one simple cubic unit cell = 8x ! Gotan aay = | atom. Volume of atoms No. of atoms x vol. of each atom APF = = Fe Volume of unt cell Vol. of unit cellCeystal Structure 9 Anr* Ix Since Vol. of sphere APF = a and a=2r APF = 0.52 ‘Thus, it means that 52% of space inside the unit cell of a simple cubic structure is packed with atoms and the remaining 48% is empty space. ii) FACE CENTERED CUBIC (FCC) One FCC unit cell has an atom at each corner of the cube as well as one atom at the center of each of the six faces. There is only } th of each corner atom effectively inside the cell where as 4, of the volume of each atom at the center of the faces are within the unit cell. Fig. 1.2: FCC Celt L i . Effective no, of atoms in one unit cell = 8% = RS = 4 atoms ‘To find ‘a’ in terms of ‘r’ Ref. fig. 1.3, where r= radius of the atom (ay? = 4a? 4r = Va? +a’ = 0a 4r we ale Fig. 1.3: Front face of FCC Cell No. of atoms x vol. of each atom vol. of unit cell => APF=0.7410 Material Science & Metallurgy ii) BODY CENTERED CUBIC (BCC) There is one full atom at the center and one atom at each of the eight corners. Therefore, effective number of atoms 1 inside each unit cell = 1+8 *e = 2 atoms. ‘To find ‘a’ in terms of ‘r* From fig 1.5, xy=-Jaaa? = Via Solid diagonal (x2)? = (4r) = (Via) +0? a= fae ar saa a! APF = No. of atoms x yol, of each atom Fig: 15° BCC Cell vol. of unit cell 2x4nr° APF = =7 AY 5) APF = 0.68 iy) HEXAGONAL CLOSEPACKED Givene=1.43%3a)(HCP) AHCP unit cell has atoms at the centers as well as at the corner of the hexagonal top face and_bas}. Each of the 12 atoms at the comer of the top face and base are shared by six HCP unit cells whereas the atoms at the center of the top face and base are each shared by only two unit cells. There are also three fullat within the volume of each unit cell, —s ‘Therefore, no, atoms in one HCP unit cell = 1axb42n5 43 = 6 atoms Pig. 1,6: HCP Unit Cettructure: li Cryst Since the corner atoms touch their neighbouring atoms at their periphery, F we have a= 2r. And, the ratio of the height of the hexagonal prism to the side of the hexagonal faces is given as C=1.633 a, To find volume of hexagonal unit cell Volume of HCP unitcell = Area of the hexagonal face x height of the hexagonal prism. From fig. 1.7, area of the hexagonal face = area of each triangle x 6 i : Area of the triangle = 2 x base x height tll YOY car Fig. 1.7: Top face of HOP Unit Cell ye ¢. Area of the hexagon= = X6xX1633 a Volume of the HCP unit cell = XOXc = of atoms x Volume of each atom ea Volume of unit cell 4ne* Siirmaai 6x 4ar* x4 7 = 3xV3x6x1633x(2r) bY 8= 21) X6xLO33Xa' a APF = 0.74 To show © = 1.633 for HCP unit cell In a HCP unit cell if we consider two atoms at two of the base corners, one atom at the base centre and an atom above them, we may draw the following front view and top view of the arrangement of the 4 atoms.12 Material Science & Metallurgy FV of 4 atoms a ¥ /\ | F let) b : Front vigw ofthe tetrahedron i he. A Fig. 6 (c) Dy : on Top view of tetrahedron — TV of 4 atoms Fig. 1.6 (b) Fig. 1.6 (a) old 0} r a/2 Fig. 1.6 (d) : Base of tetrahedron Fig. 1.6 (a) : Shows top and front views of the 4 atoms chosen and the arrangement between them, Shows TV and FV of the tetrahedron formed when centres of the 4 atoms chosen are connected. The side of the tetrahedron is ‘a’ (same as side of hexagonal unit cell) and the height is ¢/2 (half the height of hexagonal cell) Shows the right angled triangle formed by connecting base corner (P), apex and base of axis O O,. Fig. 1.6 (d) : Shows the right angled triangle formed on the base of tetrahedron joining base corner (P), base of axis O, and the centre of line Pq. From fig. 1.6 (C) Fig. 1.6 (b) Fig. 1.6 (c) eae (s) -() ae ebb a From Fig. 1.6 (d) we have al/2 Cos 30° = ao a or (2) ~ 2.Cos 30°Crystal Structure 1B Substituting value. of b in (1) v= | eee 4x (0.866) e — = 1633 a i . fi) In BCC, » G) Volume of HCP unit cell List of Formulae 4 . Volume of an atom of radius r = 3 a Atomic Packing Factor (simple cubic) = 0.52 @) =INnFCC, a= a Where r= radius of atom a= lattice constant or lattice parameter or side of unit cell (ii) APF (FCC) = 0.74 fae v3 (ii) APF (BCC) = 0.68 343 3. PE aC where a= lattice constant c= height of unit cell Gi) If C= 1.633 a, volume of HCP cell = 4.24 a? Gili) APE (HCP) = 0.7414 Material Science & Metallurgy 6, Effective number of atoms present in one (i) Simple cubie unit cell = 1 (ii) Body centered cubic unit cell = 2 (ii) Face centered cubic unit cell = 4 (iv) Hexagonal close packed unit cell = 6 7. (i) | Nanometer= 10° m (ii) 1 Armstrong (A) = 10°" m 8. @ Density of any metal (p) = au VON, where n = number of atoms in each unit cell A = Atomic weight of the metal (g/mol) V.= Volume of one unit cell N,= Avogadros number = 6,023 x 10% atoms/mol SOLVED PROBLEMS 1. Aluminium crystallizes in FCC structure with a lattice parameter of 0.405 nm. Calculate the atomic radius of aluminium. (MOQPI, VTU) Solution : Given data : (i) Crystal structure of aluminium = FCC e (ii) Lattice constant of Al, a = 0.405 Nanometer (iii) Radius of aluminium atom, r=? We know that in FCC cystal S att a? = dr? 4r ee a t= 4,.2 * 0.405 r= 0.143 nmCrystal Structure 15 2, Tantalum at 20° C is BCC and has an atomic radius of 0,143, Calculate its lattice parameter. (MQPH, WTU) Solution : Given data ; (i) Crystal Structure of Tantalum = BCC (Ar 20°C is superficial information) (ii) Radius of Tantalum atom, r= 0.143 nm, (iii) Lattice parameter, a = ? Of Tantalum We know that in BCC ax 043 oS Tne a = 0.3302 nm 3, Metallic iron changes from BCC to FCC from at 910° C and correspondingly the atomic radii vary from 1.258 A to 1.292 A. Calculate the percent change in volume occupied by atoms in each unit cell during this structure change. Solution : (A) Given data : (i) Atomic radius of BCC iron = 1.258 A Gi) Atomic radius of FCC iron = 1.292 A (iii) Percent volume change (a) Volume occupied by atoms in BCC unit cell ‘Volume of each unit cell = a* when a = lattice constant In BCC, where r = atomic radius 2 " = 441258 _ 5 ogs9 a= 22! Volume of each unit cell = a’ = 24.521 A’, But there are effectively two atoms inside each unit cell of BCC. Therefore the volume occupied by these two atoms in each BCC unit cell = No, of atoms x Volume of each atom 4m 2%4n(1.258) 3 3 = 0.68 (which is nothing but APF of BCC) =2x16 Material Science & Metallurgy (b) Volume oceupied by atoms in FCC unit cell 4 : In BCC, a= a aed a = 3.654A Volume of each unit cell = a’ = 48.8 A? But there are effectively 4 atoms inside each unit cell of FCC. Therefore volume occupied by 4 atoms in each FCC unit cell = No. of atoms x Volume of each atom 4m’ 4x4 x(1.292)" = ase 0.74 (which is nothing but APF of FCC) Now, percent volume change when structure changes from tt 0.68 - 0.74 BCC to FCC = “oes 100 =-8.8% (-ve because of increase in volume) 4. Zinc has HCP structure. The height of the unit cell is 0.494 nm. The nearest neighbour is at a distance of 0.27 nm. Calculate the volume of unit cell of Zine. Solution : (A) Given data : (i) Crystal structure of Zine = HCP (ii) Lattice constant, a = 0.27 nm, n= 0.494 nm (iii) Volume of unit cell 3W3 v= ac 3v3 Ve 8 x (0.277 x 0.494 V = 0.0935 nm’ 5. FCC copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm and an atomic weight ¢ “63.5 g/mol. Compute its density. Solution : Given data : (i) Crystal structure of copper = FCC (ii) Atomic radius, r= 0.128 nm = 0,128 x 107 cmCrystal Structure "7 (iii) Atomic weight of copper, A = 63.5 g/mol {iv) Density of copper, p = ? ‘We know that p= Number of atoms/unit cell, n Volume of one unit cell = a* (+ itis FOC) (where a = lattice constant) 4) ar, +) (A in FCC) 2 } = 0.0474 nm V, = 0.0474 x 107 cm We also know Avogadro’s Number, N, = 6.023 x 10% atom/mol ( 4x635 © 0.0474 «107! x 6.023 x 10" p = 8.89 g/cm! 6. The unit cell of Chromium is cubic and contains 2 atoms. Determine the dimension of Cr unit cell. Given : atomic weight of C, = 52 g/mol and density of Cr=7.19 mg/m’. Substituting, p (VTU Tuly 2006) Solution : Given data ; (i) Density of chromium, p = 7.19 mg/m? = 7.19 gice Gi) Atomic weight of chromium, A = 52 g/mol (iii) Number of atoms per unit cell, n = 2 atoms nA » We know that, P=VN_ (where N, = Universal gas constant Sh & V,.= Volume of the unit cell) 449 = 2% "= a? 6,023 -. Lattice constant ofG +. a =158A18 Material Science & Metallurgy —$. $$ ____ Material Science & Metallurgy CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS All the different types of crystal structures with their arrangement of atoms are true only under ideal conditions. This means that all real crystals generally have imperfections among their unit cells, There are several types of crystal imperfections and a study of these are important because they affect many structure-sensitive properties of the material. Eg. tensile strength, shear strengths of materials. Crystal imperfections can be broadly classified as (i) Point imperfections, (ii) Line imperfections. (iii) Surface imperfections. (iv) Volume imperfections, i) Point imperfections : There are four types : (1) Vacancies. (2) Interstitialcies, (3) Substitutional impurities (4) Electronic defects. 1) Vacancy: A vacancy refers to an atomic site from where the atom is missing. This may be due to imperfect packing during original crystallization or from thermal vibration of the atom, Schottky defect : \f two ions of opposite charges are missing but are found elsewhere in the same crystal, then it is known as ‘Schottky defect’, 2) Interstitialey : Here, a small sized foreign atom occupies the space in between the atoms of a crystal without dislodging any of the parent atoms. This atom, as shown in fig.1.9is usually of much smaller size than the atoms among which it is present, Eg.: Carbon in iron. Frenkel defect : When an ion of the same crystal tries to occupy an interstitial position jumping from another site, then it is called "Frenkel defect’, Fig. 1.9: tmterstitiatcy 3) Substitutional impurity :This impurity is created when a foreign atom substitutes a Zn atom Parent atom in the lattice structure. For example, azine atom replaces a copper atom inthe FCC — Cuatoms Structure of copper, as shown in fig.1.10. Fig. 1.10: Substinational Impurity‘Structure of Crystalline Solids 19 4) Electronic defects : Electronic defects are the result of errors in charge distribution in solids. For example an impurity atom, whether interstitial or substitutional may have acharge quite different from that of the host atoms and hence may produce local electronic disturbances, These are called electronic imperfections and is necessary to explain electrical conductivity and related phenomena in solids. ii) Line imperfections Line imperfections are called dislocations. A dislocation is a line defect where an uniform alignment of atoms is broken to form a discontinuity or a localised distortion in the crystal. The dislocations are responsible for the phenomenon of slip, by which most metals plastically deform. There are two basic types of dislocations : (1) Edge dislocation. (2) Screw dislocation, 1) EDGE DISLOCATION : Consider a perfect crystal (Fig.1.11 (a) ) to be made up of a number of vertical planes of atoms. If one of these vertical planes does not extend from top to bottom but ends at only a part of the way within the crystal as shown in fig. L.11(b), an edge dislocation is present, In the perfect crystal, the atoms are in equilibrium positions and all the bond lengths are of equilibrium value whereas in an imperfect crystal the atoms do not occupy equilibrium positions.and the bond lengths are either compressed or pulled apart. Dislocations are denoted by the symbol L. Fig, 1.11 (a): ddeal Crystal Fig. 1.1 (b) ; Crystal with edge dislocation20 Material Science & Metallurgy Burger’s Vector The magnitude and direction of the disp! lacement of atoms in a dislocation is defined by a vector called the Burger's Vector, It is th ie step needed to close the circuit, If fig 1.11 (b), Burger's Vector = EA = b The Burger's vector is always perpendicular to the edge dislocation line. 2) SCREW DISLOCATION ; Fig, 1.12 (a) : Ideal Crystat Fig. 1.12 (6) : Crystal with serew dislocation Consider the shaded area AFED on the plane ABCD, Let the top part of the crystal over the shaded area be displaced by one inter atomic distance to the left with respect to the bottom part as shown in fig 1,12(b), just like in a Rubik's cube. Now there is said to be a screw dislocation about the line EF which is known as the screw dislocation line. The atomic bonds in the region immediately Surrounding the dislocation line undergo a shear distortion. Also the forces Tequired to form a screw dislocation is greater than that required for an edge dislocation, In fig.1.12(b), the Burger's vector, b= xy . The Burger's vector is always parallel to the screw dislocation line.ee Structure of Crystalline Solids 21 Edge Dislocation 1. Anedge dislocation is a line defect where there is a discontinuity ina line of atoms. The discontinuous line of atoms can also be considered as an extra plane of atoms, a Edge dislocations are symbolically represented as 1 and T, which are positive and negative dislocations respectively. Burger's vector *b’ is always perpendicular to edge dislocation line. ~ . Atomic bonds around a dislocation line undergo tensile and compressive stresses. , Force required to form edge dislocation is less. Edge dislocations travel faster (= 50 times) under load. (iii) SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS : #& ‘There are four types : (1) Grain boundaries. (2) Tilt boundaries, (3) Twin boundaries. (4) Stacking faults. Screw Dislocation A screw dislocation is also a line defect formed when a part of the crystal dis- places angularly over the remaining part. The plane of atoms converts into a helical surface, or a screw. Screw dislocations are shown as fand }, and are referred to as ‘clockwise’ and ‘anticlockwise’, or ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ screw dislocations respectively, Berger’s vector *b’ is always parallel to screw dislocation line. Atomic bonds around a dislocation line undergo shear distortion, Force required to form screw dislocation is more. Screw dislocations travel slowly under Toad.22 1) Grain Boundaries ; Grain boundaries are those regions which seperate crystals of different orientations. A grain boundary is formed When two adjoining growing crystals (grains) meet at their surface: 8. The thickness of these regions are only a few atomic diameters, The atoms in these fegions are highly distorted and are caught between the {wo crystals and pulled apart by each to its own configuration, They can join neither crystal and take up a compromise position, 2) Tilt boundaries : {isa type of low angle grain boundary where the orientation difference between {wo neighbouring erystals is less than if, The distortion in the boundary is less, and js limited to a few edge dislocations, located one below the other as shown in fig 1.14, 3) Twin boundaries ; —— >| Tinned region Twin boundaries Grain | Fig. 1.13.2 Grain Boundary Grain Grain 1 2 Fig. 114: File Boundary Fig. 1.45 + Twin boundariesSolids 23 This is another type of surface imperfection where the atomic arrangement on one ‘side of the twin boundary is a mirror reflection of the arrangement on the other side. Twin ‘boundaries occur in pairs so that the change in orientation of two grains introduced by one _ botindary is restored by the other grain boundary as shown in figure 1.15, Twins are generally ‘formed during annealing or mechanical working of metals. 4) Stacking faults : They are surface imperfections created by an error in the stacking sequence of atomic planes in the crystals. Consider the stacking arrangement in an FCC crystal, ABC ABC (A)BC ABC.. If suppose the plane within brackets is missing, then the stacking becomes | ~ABC ABC (BC) ABC..... The two planes BC found in the middle of FCC stacking in then termed as a stacking fault, In other words stacking faults can be called as discrepancies in the packing sequence of the layers of the crystal structure. 5) Volume Defects : Volume imperfections are those defects like blowholes, cracks, foreign inclusions etc. which are three dimensional and are much larger than other types of imperfections. ‘They are normally introduced into solids during processing and fabrication techniques and haye a considerable effect on the properties of materials.24 Material Science & Metallurgy ATOMIC DIFFUSION The migration of atoms from their original lattice sites in a erystal structure to other sites is known as Diffiesion. Diffusion involves the movement of atoms, ions or molecules from one position to another position and occurs mainly due to thermal agitation or the presence of concentration gradients, Diffusion in gaseous state is very rapid because there is hardly any obstruction from other atoms or molecules. Diffusion takes place in liquids also where the atoms are more closely spaced, But in solids, although diffusion in present, the rate of diffusion is very slow. This is because the atoms in solids are closely packed and occupy definite equilibrium positions whose displacement is difficult when compared to gases and liquids, However, imperfections normally present in all solids make diffusion possible. Since these imperfections increase with thermal agitation, diffusion becomes more and more pronounced at higher temperatures, The basic mathematical expressions governing atomic diffusion are known as Fick’s laws of Diffusion. DIFFUSION MECHANISMS Three types of diffusion mechanisms can be explained in solids : i) Atomic diffusion by vacancy migration. ii) Atomic diffusion by interstitialcy migration. iii) Diffusion by interchange of atoms. i) Diffusion by vacancy migration : Atomic migration Vacancy migration Fig, 1.16 (a) : Before migration Fig. 1.16 (b) : After migration When an atom moves into a vacancy, a new vacancy ora hole is created. In turn, this vacancy may receive an atom from any of the neighbouring sites. As a result the vacancy takes a random walk through the crystal.“Sintcture of Crystalline Solids 25 ii) Diffusion by interstitialey migration : This type of diffusion “involyes the movement of interstitial atoms from one site to "its neighbouring site without permanent distortion of the crystal lattice. Atomic migration of this type occurs when there is an overall variation in the chemical composition —_i.e., when See aration gradient within the ©) ©) ©) oO e) (@) mass is encountered, Net migration afer ‘n’ jumps Fig. 1.16 (c) : tmerstitaley migration iii) Diffusion by interchange of atoms : j OOOOWOO O00CHOCO 3353583 nee oO @ O oa ~ atom interchange OOOOCOG Fig. 1,16 (d) : taterehange of atoms 2- atom interchange Asisevident from fig 1.16 (d), in this type of diffusion, atoms exchange their positions and hence movement of atoms take place. FICKS I LAW OF DIFFUSION : Itstates that, the flux of atoms J moving across a unit surface area imunit time is Ic proportional to the concentration gradient a Under steady state flow, de j= DS dx26 Material Science & Metallurgy Where J = No of atoms/unit area of diffusion per unit time (atoms/m?.sec.) C = Volume concentration of atoms (atoms/m’) X = Distance between the planes in the direction of flow of atoms (m) D = diffusion co-efficient or diffusivity (m/sec) ve sign = indication that flux moves from higher to lower concentration. The geometry of Fick's I law is illustrated in fig. 1.17. J = flux of atoms across plane with unit area, | of) | of atoms de gq = Concentration gradient Distance, x ————> Fig. 1.17 + Fick's 1 Law (schematie iltustration) FICKS I LAW OF DIFFUSION This law relates to the rate of change in concentration with time. This non-steady state condition is represented by a second order differential equation. 2 It states that, Lo = “] dt dx de where aes concentration gradient D = diffusion co-efficient =o the rate of accumulation of diffusing atoms at a point where the Ped Ke concentration gradient is x ie., the rate of compositional changeStructure of Crystalline Solids 21 Fick’s II law is also stated as, “the rate of compositional change is equal to the diffusivity times the rate of change of the concentration gradient”. In general, steady state diffusion in which conditions do not change with time is not commonly encountered in engineering materials. In most cases non-steady state diffusion in which the concentration of solute atoms at any point in the material changes with time takes place. For eg., If carbon is being diffused into the surface of a steel camshaft to harden its surface, the concentration of the carbon under the surface at any point will change with time as the diffusion process progresses. It is for these cases of non-steady state diffusion in where diffusivity is independent of time, Fick’s II law of diffusion is applied, DIFFUSIVITY Diffusivity or the co-efficient of diffusion (D) is defined as the amount of substance diffusing in unit time across a unit area through a unit concentration gradient and its unit is nv/sec. The co-efficient of diffusion of various materials vary with crystal structure and temperature. ACTIVATION ENERGY In any diffusion mechanism, work must be done if the atoms are to move from one location to another, To do this work, an energy barrier must be overcome for the atoms to begin a jump from one site to another site. The minimum energy required by the atoms to overcome this energy barrier is called the Activation energy of diffusion. Ina vacancy mechanism, energy is required to pull the atoms from their positions to vacant atomic sites and in the interstitialey mechanism energy is required to force the atoms between other atoms to different interstitial positions. Activation energy depends on a number of factors. They are : i) Asmall atom has a lower activation energy than a large atom or molecule. ii) Interstitial movements require more energy than vacancy movements. iii) High activation energies are required for atomic diffusion for those materials which are strongly bonded and have higher melting points. : Tungsten, boron-carbide, silicon carbide.28 Material Science & Metallurgy Arrhenious equation An Arrhenious type equation for atomic diffusion is given by, D = Delo where D = Diffusion coefficient (m/sec) D, = Constant (m*/sec) Q = activation energy fordiffusion (J/mol) R = Universal gas constant (8.314 J/mol-k) T = absolute temperature (k) The values of D, and Q are determined from a plot of /n D along y-axis and 1/T along x-axis. This plot yields a straight line, the slope of which is —Q/R. The intercept on the y-axis in In D,. ind, Fig. 148 : Arrhenius Plot FACTORS AFFECTING ATOMIC DIFFUSION 1) Temperature : High temperature provides the necessary acti vation energy to the atoms to begin diffusion. Soa higher temperature initiates diffusion faster. 2) Crystal structure : Ifa crystal structure is distorted, i.e, if there are more imperfections, the rate of diffusion is increased. 3) Atomic Packing factor :1f APFis high, the rate of diffusion will be decreased. Diffusion is much slower in FCC-iron than in BCC-iron, 4) Grain Boundaries ; The diffusion process proceeds more rapidly along the grain boundaries since it is a zone of crystal imperfections. 5) Grain Size : Since diffusion through grain boundaries is faster than through the grains themselves, a material with finer grains will have a faster rate of diffusion, 6) Atomic size : Diffusion occurs more readily when the size of the diffusing atom is less. Ex. : Carbon in iron. 7) Concentration Gradient : Higher the concentration gradient higher will be the rate of diffusion.Structure of Crystalline Solids List of Formulae et base material = Diffusion co-efficient or Diffusivity = error function ( Table of the Error Function ime in seconds Where J is in (atoms/m*. sec) C_ isin (atoms/m*) x is in(m) D_ isin (msec) Ic ; z — is concentration gradient Carbon content of base material Carbon content at the surface diffusing into base material Carbon content needed at a distance ‘x’ from the surface of where by definition erf(u) = fe™ du Ee 0 0.025 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0 0.0282 0.0564 0.1125 0.1680 0.2227 0.2763 0.3286 0.3794 040 045 0.50 055 0.65 0.70 O75 0.80 0.7707 0.7970 0.8209 0.8427 0.8802 9.9103 0.9340 0.9523 0.966130 Material Science & Metallurgy WORKED PROBLEMS 1. Calculate the value of the diffusivity D in m’/sec for the diffusion of carbon iny iron (FCC) at 972° C. Use values of D, = 2.0 x 10° m/s, Q = 142 kl/mol, and R= 8.314 Jimol.k. Solution : (A) Given data : (i) Activation energy, Q = 142 kJ/mol = 142 x 10° J/mol (i) Universal gas constant, R = 8.314 J/mol - k (iii) Constant D, = 2.0 x 10 ms (ivy Temperature, T = 927 + 273 = 1200 k (vy) Diffusivity, D We have De Den D = 2.0 x 10°? x e142 1097 814 « 1200) D = 1,32 x 10" m’/s 2. The diffusivity of copper atoms in the FCC copper lattice is 8.0 x 10 m/s at 400° C and 6.0 x 10° ms at 800° C. Calculate the activation energy in joules per mole for the diffusion of copper atoms in the FCC copper lattice in this temperature range. Data R = 8.314 J/mol-k. Given data : (i) Diffusivity of copper atoms at 400° C = 8.0 x 107! m/s (ii) Temperature in kelvin for the above value, T = 673 k Diffusivity of copper atom at 800° C = 6.0 x 10°" mV/s (iv) Temperature in kelvin for the above value, T = 1073 k (¥) Universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol.K (vi) Activation energy, Q =? (A We have, D = Dieeeh = D etaauxem Dy, = Doe = De ritats« 1073) Diag = Boe Dividing (1) by (2) 80x107 —_ Deemer Cee pa:Structure of Crystalline Solids 31 1.33% 104 = Fat dot E aa 104 = oo) 1.33 x 104 = eSi6xurdQ In (1.33 x 10%) = —6.66 x LO#Q Q = 203158 J/mol or Q = 203.158 kJ/mol 3 Calculate the diffusion rate of carbon in iron at 700° C assuming the constants A=49 x 10° ms and E = 153.2 kJ/mol. (July 2004, VTU) Solution : Given data : (i) Activation energy (Q), E= 153.2 kJ/mol (ii) Constant (D9, A= 4,9 x 10-5 m/s (ii) Temperature = 700 + 273 = 973k (iv) Diffusion rate, D =? We know that, D =D,erenn or D = Act BED. Substituting, D = 4.9.x 10-5 x e182 winais xo) Diffusion Rate, D = 2.92 «10 mi/s 4, A steel tank in a process industry contains nitrogen at 400 k and a constant pressure of 15 atm. Vacuum exists outside the tank. Nitrogen concentration at the inner surface of the tank is equal to 12 kg/m’. The constant D, and activation energy for diffusion process between nitrogen and steel are § x 107 m/s and 75 kJ/mol respectively. Calculate the rate at which nitrogen escapes through the tank wall. Tank wall is 6 mm thick. Solution : Given data : (i) Activation energy, Q = 75 kJ/mol = 75 x 10° Jimol Gi) Constant D, = 5 x 107 ms Gii) Nitrogen temperature, T = 400 k (iv) Gas constant, R = 8.314 J/mol-k (v) \itrogen concentration at C, = 12 kg/m? (inner wall)2 Material Science & Metallurgy Miia Science & ietallurgy (vi). Nitrogen concentration at C, = 0 (vacuum, outer wall) (vii) Thickness of tank or Distance through which diffusion will take place dx = 6 mm =6x 102m (viii) Rate of diffusion, J = ? ‘We know that, J 1-555) 12 kg/m! — 0 = 12 kg/m! 6x 103m To find D Deon D = 5% 10-7 x ght5x1089.314 00) D = 8.028 x 10-7 m/s —8.028% 107" x12 Therefore, Jee Spee 6x107 J = 16.05 x 10" ke/m?s 5, The surface of a steel gear made of 1020 steel (0.2% C) is to be gas carburised at 927° C, Calculate the time required to increase the carbon content to 0.4% at | mm below the surface if the carbon potential at surface is 1.2 wi%, (Feb. 2004 VTU) Solution : Given data ; G) Carson content of base material (1020) steel, C (i) Carbon content at the surface of diffusion, C (iii) Carbon content needed at distance C x from the surface (iv) Distance x = 1 mm=1 x 10m (v) Diffusivity at 927° C = 1.28 x 10-!' mis (vi). Temperature at which diffusion, is taking place T = 927 + 273 ~ (This is superficial information) T=1200K (vii) erf (0.9) =0.8 0.2% 2%Structure of Crystalline Solids 33 We know that, Substituting all values, [3=85] - «(ser : 0.8 = or | or «| = 08 Now, If o*| | = 0.8 and erf (0.9) = 0.8 (given) x Then, som 70! 1x10 Le 2412810" xt vi = (0.155 x 10°) = 24112.65 sec = 401 min t = 6.69 hours 6. A0.2% C steel component is to be carburized at 920° C. Calculate the time required to increase the carbon content to. 0.4% at 0,5 mm below the surface. Assume that the carbon content at the surface is 0.9%. Given D = 1.28 x 10"! m4s Error Function Values :34 Material Science & Metallurgy Solution : Given data : @ C,=02%C di) C=09%C Gii) C.=0.4% C (iv) x=0.5 mm=0.5 x 107m (¥) Doay¢ = 1.28 x 10 m/s We hi = orf] fe have, = 3/Di erf| ~ | 24Dt x nana 2.7142 = 6 [5 Je Given Z erf (Z) 0.75 | 0.7112 I. iz 0.7142 080 | 0.7421 When erf (Z) = 0.7142,2=9 We have to find the value of Z for an erf(Z) value of 0.7142 by interpolation. Therefore Z£-075 0.7142 =0.7112 0: * 0.7421-0.7112 Z = 0.7548 x The —= = erefore 2Jpt 0.7548 0.5 x10" = 0.7548 2V128%10" xt t= 8570 seconds = 142.8 min t = 2.38 hrsStructure of Crystalline Solids 35 EXERCISE PROBLEMS ‘Vanadium at 20° C is BCC and has an atomic radius of 0.2885 nm. Calculate a value for its lattice constant a in nanometers. (Ans: 0.314 nm) 2. Tungsten at 20° Cis BCC and has a lattice constant of 0.3165 nm. Calculate a value for the atoms C radius of a tungsten atom in nanometers. (Ans: 0.137 nm} 3, Nickel is FCC and has a lattice constant of 0.352 nm. Calculate a value for the atomic radius of a nickel atom in nanometers. (Ans: 0.1245 nm) (Jan. 2004, VTU) 4, Lead is FCC and has on atomic radius of 0.175 nm. Calculate a value for its lattice constant a in nanometer, (Ans: 0.495 nm) 5. Calculate the volume in cubic nanometers of the magnesium crystal structure unit cell. Magnesium is HCP at 20° C with a = 0,32094 nm and C = 0.52105 nm (Ans: 0.139 nm’) 6, Cadmium at 20° C is HCP. The height C of its unit cell is 0.5617 nm and its Cla ratio is 1.890, Calculate a value for its lattice constant a in nanometers, (Ans: 0.297 nm) Beryllium at 20° C is HCP. Using value of 0.113 nm for the atomic radius of beryllium atoms, calculate a value'for its unit-cell volume. Assume a packing factor of 0.74. (Ans : 0.0490 nm*) foe 8. Molybdenum has a BCC crystal structure, an atomic radius of 0.1363 nm, and an atomic weight of 95,94 g/mol. Compute its density. 9. Calculate the radius of a palladium atom, given that Pd has an FCC crystal structure, adensity of 12.0 g/cm*, and an atomic weight of 106.4 g/mol. (Ans : r= 0.138 nm) 10, Calculate the radius of a tantalum atom, given that Ta has a BCC erystal structure, a density of 16.6 g/cm, and an atomic weight of 180.9 g/mol. 11. Some hypothetical metal has a simple cubic crystal structure. If its atomic weight is 70.4 g/mol and the atomic radius is 0.26 nm, compute its density. 12, Zirconium has an HCP crystal structure and a density of 6.51 g/cm’. {a) What is the volume of its unit cell in cubic meters? (b) If the c/a ratio is 1.593, compute the values of ¢ and a (Ans (a): V,.= 1.40 x 10m?) (b); a= 0.323 nm, c = 0.515 nm)20. 21 22. Material Science & Metallurgy: - Rhodium has an atomic radius of 0.1345 nm (1.345 Ajanda density of 12.41 g/cm?. Determine whether it has an FCC or BCC. crystal structure. . Calculate the diffusivity D in m/s for the diffusion of copper in Aluminium at 500° C. Use values of D=1L5x 10° m*/s, Q = 126 k/mol and R = 8.314 Jémol-k (Ans: D = 4.59 x 10+ m?s) . Calculate the diffusivity D in m’/s for the diffusion of Zinc in copper at 350° C, Use values of D, = 3.4 x 10% m/s, Q = 191 kJ/mol, R = 8.314 J/mol-k (Ans: D = 3.29 x 10°! m/s) . Calculate the diffusivity of carbon in FCC iron at 940° C. Use D. = 2.0 x 1073 m/s, Q= 142 kJ/mol, and R= 8.314] (mol-k) (Ans: D= 54x 10"! ms) . The diffusivity of silver atoms in solid silver metal is 1.0. 10-7 m/s at 500° C and 7.0 x 10° més at 000° C, Calculate the activation energy (joules/mole) for the diffusion of Ag in Ag in the temperature range 500 to 1000° C. (Ans: Q = 183 kJ/mol) . The diffusivity of nickel atoms in the solid FCC iron lattice is 1.0 x 10-!! m/s at 1300° C and 1.0 x 10-% mis at 1000° C., Calculate the activation energy in joules per mole for the diffusion of Ni atoms in the FCC iron lattice in this temperature range, (Ans: Q = 383.4 kJ /mol) . The diffusivity of iron atoms in the BCC Fe lattice is 2.0 x 10? ms at 400° Cand 4.0 x 10" at 800° C. Calculate the activation energy in joules per mole for the diffusion of iron atoms in the DCC Fe lattice in this temperature range. (Ans: Q = 252 kJ/mol) Consider the gas carburizing of a gear of 1020 steel (0.20 wt % C) at 927°C. Calculate the time necessary to increase the carbon content to 0.30 wt % at 0. 30 mm below the surface of the gear. Assume the carbon content at the surface to be 1.10 wt % and that the nominal earbon content of the steel pear before carburizing is 0.20 wt %, D (cin y iron) at 927° C = 1.28 x 10°" m/s (Ans: t = 23 minutes) The surface of a steel gear made of 1018 steel (0.18 wt % C) is to be gas-carburized at 927° C. Calculate the time necessary to increase the carbon content to 0.025 wt % at 0,030 inches (0.762 mm) below the surface of the gear. Assume the carbon content of the surface to be 1.20 wt %, D (c iny iron) at 927° C = 1.28 x 10"! ms. (Ans: t= 107 minutes) A gear made of 1022 steel (0.22 wt % C)is to be gas-carburized at 927° C, Calculate the carbon content at 1.10 mm below the surface of the gear after an 8 hour carburizing time. Assume the carbon content at the surface of the gear is 1.25 wt %, D(Ciny iron) at 927° C = 1.28 x 10-" mys, (Ans: 0.426 % C)Structure of Crystalline Solids a7 23. A gear made of 1020 steel (0.20 wt % C) is to be gas-carburized at 927° C. If the carburizing time is 10 hours, at what depth in millimeters will the carbon content be 0.35 wt %? Assume the carbon content at the surface of the gear is 1.10 wt %. D(C iny iron) at 927° C = 1.28 x 10-" m/s. (Ans: x = 1.33 mm) 24. If boron is diffused into =thick slice of silicon with no previous boron in it at a temperature of 1100° C for J hours, what is the depth below the surface at which the concentration is 10" atoms/cm? if the surface concentration is 10" atoms/cm"? D =4 x 10" cms for boron diffusing in silicon at 1100° C, (Ans: x = 1,98 x LO“ cm) 25. Phosphorous is diffused into a thick slice of silicon with no previous phosphorus in it at a temperature of 1100° C. If the surface concentration of the phosphorus is 1 x 10" atoms/em® and its concentration at 1 mm is | x 10'S atoms/em’, how long must the diffusion time be? D = 3.0 x 10° cm/s for P diffusing in Si at 100° C. (Ans: t= 25.1 minutes) 26. There is 0.19 atom per copper at the surface of some aluminium and 0.18 atom pet copper, 1.2 mm underneath the surface, What will be the flux of copper atoms be from the surface inward at 500°C? [Aluminium is FCC and a = 0.4049 nm, Diffusivity of Cu in Ai = 4 * 10° m*fs at 500°C]UNIT - 2 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR INTRODUCTION Every engineering material is known by its set of properties. A ty of tests are conducted: in the Materials Testing Laboratory to evaluate and compare the mechanical properties of different materials. Some of the popular tests conducted include the Tensile test, Compression test, Shear tests (both direct and torsional shears), Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers...) Impact tests, Bending test and so on Among all the above tests it is the Tensile test which gives maximum information about several mechanical properties. STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS SHOWING DUCTILE & BRITLE BEHAVIOUR Tensile properties are among the most important properties of engineering materials. Universal Testing machine is used in the lab to conduct “Tension Test’ and find their properties. The Tension test comprises of subjecting a standard specimen to increasing tensile loads in steps and observing the corresponding elongations, Stress - strain curves are drawn foreach material which gives a lot of information on its tensile properties. Typical Stress - Strain curves for Cast Iron, Mild steel, Rubber, Plaster of Paris are shown in figs. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 respectively. Elastic )_ Plastic Region Elastic Plastic Region oe ene net Region Ultimate aah a——> Lower yield point Proportionality limit ee Fig. 2.1 : Sivess - Strain curve Jor Cl Strain eneve for mild steet showing brittle behaviour showing ductile behaviour e——_ —Mechanical Beha 30 Elastic —— Elastic region ——=| Failure region Lie ed Fig. 2.3 + Stress - Strain curve for Rubber Fig, 2.4 Stress - Strain diagram for (Perfect Elastic) Plasier of Paris (Perfect Brittle) Tensile properties of a material can be broadly classified as (i) Properties in Elastic Region. (ii) Properties in Plastic LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR Depending on the behaviour of the stress-strain diagram portions in the elastic region, mechanical properties in this region can be further classified as : Region. I. Linear Elastic properties Il, Non-linear Elastic properties I. Linear Elastic properties When stress in proportional to strain in the elastic region ie., if the stress-strain relationship is linear (a straight line) then it is known as linear elastic behaviour. Almost all metals and ceramics exhibit linear elastic behaviour and the mechanical properties identified in this region are; Stiffness, Elastic Strength and Resilience. 1) Stiffness : Stiffness is defined as the resistance offered by the material to elastic deformation, Materials having high stiffness show less elastic deformation under load. The modulus of elasticity or the Young's Modulus (E) itself is the measure of stiffness of a material. Stiffness is also measured as the slope of the linear portion of the elastic region on a stress strain diagram. Materials having high value of E show higher stiffness. 2) Elastic Strength : Elastic strength corresponds to the highest stress at which the behaviour of the material remainselastic. In other words itis the minimum stress at which plastic deformation first occurs.40 Material Science d& Metallurgy For most structural materials the elastic and the proportionality limits almost co-incide and hence have nearly the same numerical value. 3) Resilience : Resilience is the ability of the material to absorb energy when it is loaded elastically and give back the same energy when the load is removed. So long as the body remains loaded, it contains stored energy within itself which is called the Strain Energy. As soon as the load is removed, the stored energy is given back, exactly as is observed in a spring. Modulus of Resilience ; The strain energy stored by the material per unit volume at the elastic limit is known as the modulus of Resilience. This property gives the capacity of the material to stand shocks and vibrations. Itis given by the relation, Urs Se i} —EElastic aie resilience where Ur = Modulusof resilience e——__»> ©, = Stressat point Aelastic strength) Fit: 25» Sires: Serain curve to show resilience E = young’s Modulus. ‘The area under the elastic limit of a stress strain curve gives a measure of the elastic resilience. So it follows that materials having high elastic limit have high resilience. Materials having high resilience are used for springs. II, Non - Linear Elastic properties When stress is not proportional o strain in the elastic region i.e., if the stress-strain relationship is non-linear (a curve) then it is known as non-linear elastic behaviour. Rubber (fig, 2.3) is an excellentexample for non-linear elastic behaviour. In fact, it shows non-linear elastic behaviour right up to fracture. Many Polymers, Concrete (an exception among ceramics), Gray Cast Iron (an exception among metals) also show non-linear elastic behaviour although to ve ious degrees. Properties identified in this region are Secant modulus, Tangent modulus ar | once again Resilience. 1) Secant Modulus : Stiffness cannot be measured in a non-linear elastic material because You).g’s modulus cannot be determined as stress is not proportional to strain, Therefore a quantity called Secant modulus is often determined which is nothing but the average stiffuess between the origin and any given stress (fig. 2.6). In other words the slope of the secant drawn between the origin and any given stress gives the Secant modulus at that stress." i 1 1 1 ts ? 148 ~ Secant Modulus de (between origin and o,) Fig. 2.6. Secant Modulus e—> 2) Tangent Modulus Tangent Modulus is nothing but the slope of the tangent drawn at any point (or stress) on thenon-linear curve. This gives us the instantaneous stiffness of a material at any given stress. Itis to be noted here that while Secant modulus gives the average stiffness upto-a given stress, Tangent modulus gives the stiffness associated with a small increase in load at any given point during loading in elastie region. ol | 419 ~ Tangent Modulus [| 6 fe are) * Ba ® (del, Fig, 2.7, Tangent Modulus is 3) Resilience Resilience exists in materials which exhibit non-linear elastic behaviour as well. In other ‘words, non-linear elastic materials have the ability to absorb energy when loaded elastically and give back the same energy when the load is removed. However, the modulus of resilience is no longer applicable because a proportionality limit does not exist in the non-linear case, The strain energy per unit volume stored in a nonlinear elastic material is also equal to the area under the stress-strain diagram But although the material is elastic, the strain energy stored isnot always fully recoverable. Fig. 2.8 is a typical stress-strain diagram for rubber, non linear elastic material. Curve f represents loading from 0-to A. The area under this curve represents the strain energy per unit volume of the rubber when it is stretched. When the rubber is unloaded, the resulting curve is usually somewhat lower than the loading curve (curve 2, fig, 2.8) and the area under itis evidently smaller than for loading. This means that the strain energy recovered is less than what was invested into the material originally. Some energy has been lost in the form of internal friction in the rubber and is represented by the area between the two curves.42 Material Science & Metallurgy Fig. Stress strain diagram for rubber, showing loading and untoading curves 0 ——- Now, the term Resilience for a non-linéar elastic material is defined as the ratio between the recoverable energy and the energy invested into the material during deformation. In other words, itis nothing but the ratio between the area under curve 2 to that under curve 1, expressed as a percent. on Area under curve 2 Resilience = ——————— x 100 Area under curve | In non-linear elastic materials, a low resilience is desirable for good damping, and a high resilience for low internal heat generation, END OF ELASTIC REGION Atthe end ofelastic region cither of the two things might occur - fracture or yielding. The specimen might break immediately after the elastic limit in case itis a brittle material or the specimen might start yielding as in case of a ductile material. Yield Point Phenomenon Yield point is that point during the loading of the specimen when it begins plastically deforming. Many metals such as mild steel (low carbon steel) show a heterogeneous type of transition from elastic to plastic deformation to produce an upper and a lower yield point. Upper yield point yield elongation lower yield point Load ‘Lilders bands Unyielded metal Fig. 2.9 : Yield Point Phenomenon Elongation ——_—>Mechanical Behaviour 43 The point at which the load suddenly drops due to the beginning of yielding is known as the upper yield point. The lower constant load is called the lower yield point and the elongation which occurs at constant load is called the yield point elongation (fig 2.9). At the upper yield point a small band of deformed metal, often visible to the eye, appears at various stress concentration points such as fillets, grooves, discontinuities etc., Atthe same time of the formation of the band, the load drops to the lower yield point. The band then propagates along the length of the specimen, causing the yield point elongation. These bands are approximately at 45° to the tensile axis and they are known as Liiders bands or Hartmann Lines or Stretcher Strains. ‘As the Liiders bands are being formed, the curve along the yield point elongation will be irregular, After the Liiders bands have covered the entire length of the specimen, the yield point elongation will end and further elongation of the specimen takes place when more load is added, This is the yield point phenomenon. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES IN THE PLASTIC RANGE 1) Yield strength : ‘Yield strength can be defined as the stress at which plastic deformation (yielding) begins without any apprecialile increase in load, P . Yat » yield strength, 0, = me Nim? Where P,=load at yield point, A, = original areaof cross section Asimple difference between elastic strength and yield strength is that Hooke’s Law may still be obeyed at the elastic limit whereas the law is not obeyed at the yield point. 2) Offset yield strength + ‘Offset yield strength Some materials like mild steel exhibitadefinite ¢ i yield point and hence have a definite yield strength while some other materials like cast iron do nothaye a definite yield point. So for such materials which do notexhibita definite yield point, a quantity called Offset yield strength isdetermined, ‘The offset yield strength is the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress - strain curve and a line drawn parallel to the linear portion of the curve, offset by aspecified strain (fig 2.10). For example, in steels, 902. = €—— an offset of 0.2.% or 0,002¢ is taken on the X-axis and Fig. 2.10-2 Offset yletd sarengoh a line parallel to the straight a44 Material Science & Metallurgy line portion of the curve is drawn from that point, The stress at the point at which this line i meets the stress - strain curve is known as Offset yield strength or the proof stress. For | metals like soft copper, grey cast iron where the linear portion of their stress - strain curves are very less, an offset of 0.005 is selected. 3) Ductility : Ductility is the ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation under tensile load. In other words ductility is that property of a material by which it can be drawn into thin wires. A material with high ductility undergoes severe plastic deformation before fracture takes place. Eg.: Copper. Percentage elongation gives a measure of ductility L-L, % Elongation = 100 0 length of the specimen after the tensile test original length Malleability is the ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation under compressive load. In other words malleability is that property of the material by whieh it can be flattened into thin sheets without cracking. Eg.: lead (which is malleable but not ductile) 5) Ultimate tensile strength : 9, After the yield point on the stress - strain curve the specimen undergoes continuous plastic deformation with increasing load. This load reaches t a certain maximum value (P,) after which the specimen does not take any more load. At the | point of ultimate load, the area of cross section of Stress the specimen starts reducing considerably and is known as necking. ~. Ultimate tensile strength, o,= 2 N/m? Strain 0 Where P, =ultimate load A, = original area of C/S > Fig, 2,11 : Ultimate tensile strengthMechanical Behaviour 45 6) Fracture strength : Panera After the ultimate load in reached, the load drops and at a particular load, fracture takes place. o, ‘The sess corresponding to this load, where the actual failure takes place, is known as the fracture strength ofthe material. P Stress “. Fracture strengtho, =—" Nim? Ag Where P= fracture load or breaking load Ay 7) TRUE STRESS AND TRUE STRAIN ‘The engineering or the conventional stress - strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on. the original length and diameter of specimen, while these dimensions change continuously during the test. On the other hand true stress and true strain give a correct picture of stress and strain inthe specimen at various intervals of the test. ‘True Stress : True stress is defined as the load divided by the instantaneous minimum cross - sectional area of the specimen Strain. —————> oe Fig, 2.12; F irengit e creinalareaotcle: Fig, 2.12 ; Fracture sireng er Where P = load «. True stress, A' = actual area of c/s at any instant of test. ‘True Strain : While Conventional strain is given by the ratio of the change in length to the original length of the specimen at any load, fre strain is determined by the change in length to the immediately previous length of the specimen, rather than the original length. Atany instant of loading, the conventional strain is given by the ratio of the sum of all previous increments in length to the original length whereas the true strain is the summation of the ratios of each increment in length to the immediately preceding length. “Conventional strain, where AL = Sum ofall previous increments in length at any load. L, = original length46 Material Science & Metallurgy True strain, Vat es fF ib = Int L 0 where L, = length of the specimen at any instant of test (51,273...) Therefore true strain is defined as the integral of the ratio of an incremental change in length to the instantaneous length of the specimen, Relationship between true strain and conventional strain Conventional strain, AL P te i; L, = original length L,= length at any instant From fig 2.13, ff ty | e+! P Taking In on both sides. (| Fig, 2.13: A specimen in tension L In ca = Infe +1 (Lo ou e'=In(e+1) where — € = conventional strain €' = truestrainical Behaviour phical Comparison between True stress-strain and Conventional stress-strain Fracture: ‘Ultimate load Ultimate Fracture ‘True stress, Conventional | Stress True Strain, Conventional Strain Fig, 2.14: True stress -strain Vs Conventional stress ~ strain diagram 8) Toughness ‘The toughness of a material isits ability to withstand both elastic and plastic deformation. Inother words, itis the amount of energy a material can withstand before fracture takes place. Forexample, ifa sudden load is applied to a piece of mild steel and then to a piece of glass, the mild stee! piece will absorb more energy before breaking. Thus mild steel! is said to have a higher toughness than glass, Toughness and hardness are two opposing, properties in engineering materials. When one is increased it is usually at the expense of the other. In the Material testing laboratory, Impact test is conducted to get a measure of the toughness of a material. In fact the Impact strength gives a relative measure of the toughness of amaterial. Also the total area under the stress-strain curve of a material gives a measure of its toughness. 9) Graphical comparison between Stress - Strain diagrams of Cl, MS and Al Stress (6) ——> Strain (2) ——» Fig, 2.15 + Graphical comparison between Stress-Strain diagrams of Cl, 4S and Al48 Material Science & Metallurgy List of Formulae Le Modulus of Resilience U, = 57 Where o, = Elastic limit E = Young’smodulus a 2, Average stiffness or Secant Modulus, B,. =| do 3. Instantaneous stiffness or Tangent Modulus, E,, = dE 4, Resilience in non-linear elastic materials Area under unloading curve lic ee Resilience = “a rea under loading carve By 5. Yieldstrength,o, = ks Nim? 5 % i L-L, 6. Percentage elongation or reduction (measure of ductility) = —-—* x 100 or ALA x10 5 Py 2 7. Ultimate tensile strength. = x, Nim? By 2 8. Fracture strength, 0, = van Nim? P 9, True stress, o! = aes When P =load A‘ = Instantaneous c/s area 10. True sane yt — ne 1G 0m " z : oP] Where L,=instantaneous length 0 L,=original length A Also, ey et {| M1. True strain,€!=én (€ + L) when€ =conventional strain : lateral strain(e,,,) 12, Poissons ratio, r=—____——- longitudinal strain (¢,,, ) 13. Volumetric strain,é=2¢,+¢, wheree ,=diametral strain 14. 1 Pascal = 1 N/m? SOLVED PROBLEMS 1. A12.5 mm dia Aluminium alloy test bar is subjected to a load of 2 tons, If the dia of the bar is 12.4 mm at this load, calculate engineering strain, engineering stress, true stress and true strain. Assume no change in volume. (Jan, 2004, VTU) Solution : Given data : (i) Original dia of Al bar, d, md? mx (12.5)° 2.5mm 4 4 A, = 122.71 mm? Gi) Load applied, P=2 tons = 2000 ke = 19620N Gil) Instantaneous diaof Albar, d,=12.4mm 12.4)* 4 Instantaneous Area, A, = 120,76 mm? (iv) o,o',e,e!50 Solution : Given data: (a) (b) Engineering strain,€ or € € Engineering stress, = —— P 19620 A, 712271 = 159.88 N/mm? = 159.88 « 10° Ném? = 159.88 MPa ab Ll a Ly . Ly Kor 122.71 -120.76 are Ay 122.71 = 0.016 Note; Engineering linear strain (€,) also be found out using relation When ‘ 0 “. e Pp “is Pied bibea euler ©) Truestress, 0! = 7 o or o! or of Ze, +e, Av , = Volumetric strain = aud Ad = Diametral strain Sa. oe la ale Saas O(given) Add, a —0,008 2x -0.008 +E, 0.016 19620 ~ 120.76 162.47 N/mm? 162.47 x 10* N/m? 162.47 MPa _ 124-125 eyesMechanical Behaviour Si @) Truestrain,e'= in (1 +e) e€! = In(1+0.016) €! = 0.01587 A, 2, Prove that €'= woe] \ Solution + Consider a test bar which has been elongated from initial lengifi(1,) to another length (1) atany instant, In such a case i, ‘True strain €' = In [E] 4 If volume of the test baraemains unchanged, then, A A V,=V, A,xL. = A\f, When A,=original o/s A, = Instant e/s i Ay l, A Therefore True strain €' = [2] 3, Acylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8 mm is tensile tested to- fracture and found to have an engineering fracture strength 6, of 460 MPa. If its cross- sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm, determine : {a) The ductility in term of percent area reduction {b) The true stress at fracture. Solution : Given data: @~ Original dia,d, = 12.8mm52 Material Science & Metallurgy m(128)" ‘ = gt = 128.6 mm = 128.6 x 10m? (ii) Dia at fracture, d, = 10.7 mm n(10.7)° A A= = 89.92 mm? = 89.02 x 10m? (ii) Fracture stress, a, =460 MPa = 460 x 10° N/m* Solution : (a) Ductility in terms of percent area reduction Ay Ss Ar Percentage Area reduetion = —* x 100 128.6 -89.92 © wicks P.A. Reduction = 30.07% Higher the above value, higher will be the ductility x 100 (b) True stress at fracture P, True stress,o' = 2° where P,=load at fracture A, = Area at fracture TofindP, Py Crain 460 x 10° = Be 59156 A, 89,92x10~ G! = 657.87 x L0°Nim? or G! = 657.87 MPa ‘True stress o! =Mechanical Behaviour 33 4, Acopper rod of initial diameter 2 mm fractures at a load of 110 kg. [ts ductility is 75 | percent reduction in area. Calculate the true stress at fracture. Solution : Given data : Load at fracture, P = 110 kg Initial diameter, d, = 2 mm «. Initial Area of c/s, A, = = 3.14 mm? % reduction in area at fracture, A, = 75% = 0.75 True stress at fracture, o' = wkt when A, = Instantaneous area of c/s we have = 0.75 or A,-0.75 A, 3.14 —0.75 x 3.14 4 5 BL S785 4 RR EO: ‘oan Ay (0.785 * 0 = 140.12 kg/mm?54 Material Science & Metallurgy PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF SINGLE CRYSTAL BY SLIP AND TWINNING Elastic deformation When a load is applied on a solid body, it deforms i.e, it undergoes changes inits shape and size, But if the original dimensions of the deformed body are recovered upon removal of the load, then such a behavior is known as Elastic Behavior, The temporary deformation that the solid body had undergone is known as Elastic Deformation. The limiting load within which the material behaves elastically is known as Elastic Limit. PLASTIC DEFORMATION If the solid body is loaded beyond the elastic limit, the body will experience a permanent change in its shape and size, even if the load is removed. This is known as the Plastic behaviorof materials. A body which is permanently deformed is said to have undergone Plastic Deformation, Plastic or permanent deformation of metals and alloys is generally studied under two categories namely, i) Plastic deformation of single crystals. ii) Plastic deformation of polyerystalline materials, PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF SINGLE CRYSTALS A single crystal is nothing but a single grain and hence has no grain boundaries eg. a whisker grown under special conditions. A number of such grains come together to form apolyscrystalline material and there are grain boundaries between adjacent crystals, Plastic deformation of single crystals involve the study of ane single crystal and observing how it behaves under stress. Much information regarding the mechanism of plastic deformation. may be obtained by studying the behavior ofa single crystal under load and later applying this knowledge toa polycrystalline material. Plastic deformation in single crystals may take place by (i) Slip, Gi) Twinning. or Gii) acombination of both. i) Plastic deformation by SLIP: Slip is the most common mode of plastic deformation among crystals. When a single crystal in tension is stressed beyond its elastic limit, a step appears such that the single crystal divides into two blocks and one bleck moves with respect to the other (fig. 2.19). This is due to pure shearing stresses that are acting across the specimen irrespective of whether the crystal is subjected to tensile or compressive stresses. When the tensile load is further increased, the blocks become again divided and relative displacement takes place. Slip can be imagined to a pack of playing cards when they are shuffled.Mechanical Behaviour 55 Slip plane Fig. 2.19 = Slip ina single crystal Slip occurs due to the movement of dislocations through the crystal as shown in fig. 2.20. The movement of dislocations can be compared to the movement of an caterpillar as it arches it's back in order to move forward, as illustrated in fig 2.21. Slip is governed by the following major rules : i) Slip occurs only along certain crystallographic planes and directions. ii) Slip occurs only along the most closely packed set of planes Ex. : (111) plane in FCC crystal iii) Slip direction is that direction on which the atoms are most closely spaced Ex : [110] direction inFCC. iv) Fora given set of slip systems (closely packed planes and direction), slip occurs on that system where the shear stress is maximum i.e, at 45° to the applied tensile load direction,56 Material Science & Metallurgy Dislocation line Fig, 2.20 + Stip a a crystal block Fig. 2.21 : Movement of Caterpitlar CRITICALLY RESOLVED SHEAR STRESS (CRSS) Slip is found to occur when the shearing stress on the slip plane along the slip direction reaches a threshold value called the cr itically resolved shear stress. CRSS is really the single crystal equivalent of the yield stress which appears on an engineering stress-strain curve, Let us consider a cylindrical shaped single crystal subjected toa tensile load ‘F’ acting in the direction of axis as shown in the fig 2.22 (a) Let = angle between normal to slip plane and direction of load 4. = angle between slip direction and direction of load F = tensile loadMechanical Behaviour 37 S = Shear force N F Area of C/S of eylindrical specimen A, = Area of slip plane. From fig 2.22(b) Shear force, S=Fcosh, A=A, cos > Shear stress, direction _ Feosk _ ect plane A, Ajcoso A *. shear stress, T = Gosh cos o — (Schmidt's law) F o t= > whena=o=45° Fig. 2.22 (a) + CRSS in Single Crystal Therefore, the value of the maximum shear stress acting at an angle of 45° is equal to half of the applied tensile load. Please also note that, in general, +A # 90°, since it need not be the case that the tensile axis, the normal to slip plane, and the slip direction all lie in the same plane. Fig, 2.22 (b) : Force Diagram ii) Plastic deformation by TWINNING : This is the second important mechanism by which metals plastically deform. In twinning cach plane of atoms move through a definite distance and in the same direction. The extent of movement of each plane is proportional to its distance from the twinning plane, as shown in fig. 2.23 (a). The distance moved by each successive atomic plane is greater than the previous plane by a few atomic spacings. ‘The twinning plane is perpendicular to the paper. When a shear stress is applied, the erystal will twin about the twinning plane in such away that the region to the left of the bwinning plane is not deformed whereas the region to the right (twinned region) is deformed, The atomic arrangement on either side of the twinned plane is in such a way that they are mirror reflections of each other. Twins are known as Annealing nwins when they are produced during annealing heat treatment and mechanical nwins when they are produced during mechanical deformation of metals, ‘Twinning also occurs on definite crystallographic planes and directions, For example in BCC, twin plane is (112) while twinning direction is [111].58 Differences between Slip and Twi Fig. 2.23 (a) + tdeat Crystat 2, vised Co ——+| Tinned Fig. 2.23 (b) + Twinned Crystal region Twihathg pl Rea ‘Twinning direction Fig. 2.23 (c) : Twinning Material Science & Metal ‘Twinning plane Slip ‘Twinning we All atoms in one block move over the same distance. Slip appear as thin lines . There is very little change in lattice orientation . Requires lower shear stress . Occurs in metals having more number of slip systems. Eg.Cu (FCC) (12 slip systems) More pronounced at higher temperatures and gradual loadings. Different planes of atoms move fractional distances depending on their distance from the twinning plane, They appear as broad lines or bands. Lattice orientation changes inthe twinned region Requires higher shear stress. Occurs in metals having less number of slip systems Eg, Zn (HCP) (3 slip systems) More pronounced at low temperatures and impact loadings.Mechanical Behaviour 59 Effect of Grain Boundaries on Strength of Materials A polycrystalline material is an aggregate of several individual crystals or grains. When a load is applied, plastic deformation in a polycrystalline material is never uniform due to the fact that different grains deform to different extents because of their dissimilar orientation, For plastic deformation to take place in polycrystalline materials, slip or twinning should take place in each of the grains. But the random orientation of the grains and consequently their grain boundaries will obstruct the smooth movement of slip throughout the whole volume. Therefore a higher stress is required for slip to occur and plastic deformation to continue in a poly crystalline aggregate than in a single crystal. In fact, finer the grain size more grain boundaries are created which obstruct the movement of dislocations and hence plastic deformation. K Mathematically, 0, = 0477 = (Hall-petch equation) Where 6, = yield strength y 0, K = constant d = Average grain size The above equation means that yield strength is inversely proportional to grain size. On the other hand, single crystals which are devoid of defects are thousands of times much stronger than polycrystalline materials. Among polycrystalline materials themselves, those which have less imperfections are more ductile than those materials which have a higher population of imperfections. Strain Hardening Strain Hardening is a 5 phenomenon where by a metal ou becomes harder and stronger when Bi it is plastically deformed. For a example, in a rolling plant, sheet z metal becomes harder and stronger when itis passed through rollers to reduce the thickness, This is asa ii resultof strain hardening orwork Stress hardening and is more pronounced in ductile materials which undergo large plastic 0 deformation unlike brittle materials, B Strain ——_> Fig, 2.24 : Sirain hardening60 Material Science & Metallurgy Fig 2.24 illustrates the strain hardening in case of mild steel which when unloaded at ‘A’ traces the path AB thus retaining the permanent deformation to the extent of OB. Reloading it again shows the increase in its yield strength and ultimate strength from its previous values, Dislocation theory of Strain hardening We know that plastic deformation is nothing but a series of slips caused by the movement of dislocation in each crystal of a polycrystalline sample all adding up to the final deformation, Interaction between two types of dislocation movements are imagined as under, PAA —_> - obstacle Interaction between unlike parallel Interaction between like parallet dislocations dislocations When two unlike parallel dislocations) When two like parallel dislocations come approach each other, they cancel out with} together, they overlap and increase the the disappearance of both dislocations.| strain energy in that region, If several Unlike parallel dislocations therefore] islocations move along the same line, they attract and cancel each other, thereby pile up at the first obstacle. The obstacle readucing the strain energy in that region] CaM be a grain boundary, an impurity atom and does not lead to strain hardening. etc., To overcome these obstacles and dislocations to continue and hence slip to occur, a higher stress is needed. In other words strain hardening takes place. ‘Strain hardening is more observed in ductile materials because they contain a large number of slip systems. If there are more slip systems, the movement of dislocations are more and consequenily there is an enormous pile up of dislocations in all possible orientations at different obstacles, This results in the increase of strain hardening at various locations and an ever increasing stress is required to overcome this and for the continuation of plastic deformation, CITY ROAD MAP analogy to strain hardening Strain hardening can also be explained with the help of a city map which is considered to represent the microstructure of the material. Dislocations in the microstructure can be imagined as cars and other vehicles moving in the streets in the city. Just like any vehicle would face a number of obstructions and stoppages in crossing the city, dislocation also have to overcome many obctacles before emerging at the edge of the material resulting in plastic deformation,Mechanical Behaviour 61 More the number of obstacles slower will be traffic and likewise more the number of obstacles lesser will be plastic deformation and hence stronger will be material, Ay Fig. 2.25 a: City map agra Fig, 2.25 b : Microstructure It should also be noted here that a material having zero dislocation will be the strongest because if there are no dislocations there is no question of their movement and hence no plastic deformation. If there are a few dislocations, plastic deformation is casy and hence the material is ductile. If the number of dislocations are very high then there are more traffic jams for dislocations and hence the material is strong!62 Material Science & Metallurgy List of Formulae F |. Critical Resolved shear stress, r= = cosh cos Where F = tensile load A = Area of cross section 3, = angle between slip direction and direction of load = angle between normal to slip plane and direction of load 2. T=Gcosheosd (Shmidt's Law) Where o = tensile stress o 3. T= > whend == 45° SOLVED PROBLEMS 1. Calculate the resolved shear stress on (LL) [OTL] slip system of a unitcell in an FCC crystal if a stress of 13.7 MPa isapplied in (001) direction of the unit cell, (MQP II, VTU) Solution : Given data: ) Miller-indices of slip plane =(111) (ii) Miller-indices of slip direction =[OTL] ii) Direction of applied tensile stress = [001] (iv) Tensile stress,o-= 13.7 MPa 10D) Apuliad seve direction (v) Resolved shear stress, t=? [AEN ShpMechanical Behaviour 63 The angle between two planes (h, k, 1,) & (h, k, 1,) is given by Cos Where (hk, 1) (hy k,1,) Substituting in the formula, 4 “. Resolved shear stress, T o = hyhy + kjk, +1), = ite +i he ek +2 = (001) = (ill) we get 547° eos Acos 13.7 x cos 45 x cos 54.73 5.6 MPa 2. Consider a single crystal of BCC iron oriented such that a tensile load is applied along a [010] direction, (a) compute the resolved shear stress along a (110) plane and ina [TI1] direction when a tensile stress of 52 MPa is applied (b) If slip oceurs ona (110) plane and in a[T11] direction, and the critical resolved shear stress is 30 MPa, calculate the magnitude of the applied tensile stress necessary to initiate yielding. [i L1] Slip direction (110) Ship plane Solution : Given data : (a) (@) Direction of tensile stress = [010] Gi) Miller-indices of slip plane = (110) (ii) Indices of slip direction=[TII] (iv) Tensile stress,o = 52 MPa (¥) Critical Resolved shear stress, t=? (b) If (i) CRSSt=30MPa (i) Tensile stress, g ot 2, xX t Normal to slip plane Y¥ (oro) a Direction of applied stress64 ‘cience & Metallurgy To findangle A (010) Direction of applied stress Inright angled triangle ABC, If lattice constant BC? BC Tank a o CRSS,t v Also c (c) If t=30MPa,o=? w u 1 54,7° 4s? cos A cos (52) (cos 54.7) (cos. 45) 21.3 MPa ocos A cos ) 6 (cos 54.7) (cos 45) 73.4 MPaMechanical Behaviour 65 es EXERCISE PROBLEMS 1. A low carbon steel rod is subjected to a tensile load of 7,000 kg. Assuming no volume change during extension, determine engineering stress, engineering strain, true stress and in. The initial diameter of red is 13 mm and the specimen under the load is 12 cm. = 517.62 Nimm?* (MQPI VTU) € 0.0769 S| 607.48 N/mm? €' = 01431) 2, A 20cm long rod with a diameter of 0.250 cm is loaded with a 5000 N weight. If the diameter decreases to 0.210 cm, determine (a) _ the engineering stress and strain at this load (b) the true stress and strain at this load (Ans: 6 = 1020MPa © = 0.062 oc! = 1444MPa €!= 0.344) 3. Acylindrical specimen of stainless steel haying a diameter of 12.8 mm and a gauge length of 50.800 mmis pulled in tension. Use the load-elongation characteristics tabulated below to complete problems a through f. Load Length N mn 12,700 50.825 25,400 50.851 38,100 50,876 50,800 50,902 76.200 50.952 89,100 51.003 92,700 S1.054 102,500 51.181 107,800 51.308 119,400 51.562Material Science & Metallurgy 128,300, 51816 149,700 52,832 159,000 53.848 160,400 54.356 159,500. 54.864 151,500, 55.880 124,700 56.642 Fracture 6. (a) Plot the data as engineering stress versus engineering strain. (b) Compute the modulus of elasticity. (c) Determine the yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002. A single crystal of aluminium is oriented for a tensile test such that its slip plane normal makes an angle of 28.1° with the tensile axis, Three possible slip direction make angles of 62.4°, 72.0°, and 81.1° with the same tensile axis. (a) Which of these three slip directions is most favored? (b) Ifplastic deformation begins at atensile stress of 1.95 MPa, determine the critical resolved shear stress for aluminium, (Ans : (b) Tpag5 = 0.80 MPa) Consider a single crystal of nickel oriented such that a tensile stress is applied along a 001] direction, If slip occurs ona (11) )plane and in a [101] direction, and is initiated at an applied tensile stress of 13.9 MPa, compute the critical resolved shear stress. (ANS = Tegg¢= 5-7 MPa) Consider a metal single crystal oriented such that the normal to the slip plane and the slip direction are at angles of 43.1" and 47.9°, respectively with the tensile axis. If the critical resolved shear stress is 20.7 MPa will an applied stress of 45 MPa cause the single crystal to yield? If not, what stress will be necessary ? (Ans: 0 = 42.28 MPa) A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.5 mm is tensile tested to fracture and the fracture strength is 450 MPa. If the cross sectional area of fracture is 10.5 mm, determine. i) Ductility in terms of percentage reduction in area ii) True stress at fracture. (VTU, Feb. 2006)FRACTURE Introduction Fracture is the separation or fragmentation of a solid body into two or more parts under the action of load. During fracture atomic bonds are broken and new surfaces are formed. TYPES OF FRACTURE Fractures are broadly classified into (@) Ductile or Type I fracture (ii) Brittle or Type II fracture (iii) Shear or Type II] fracture Ductile fracture or Type I fracture Itischaracterised by an appreciable amount of plastic deformation. The fracture proceeds relatively slowly and the fracture surface is dull in appearance. Ductile fracture is of two types: (a) Highly ductile fracture. (b) Moderately ductile fracture or Cup and Cone Fracture. (a) Highly ductile fracture : [n this the material necks down to a point fracture and yields to 100% reduction in cross sectional area. Eg: soft metals like pure gold, leadete., Fig. 3.0: Highly ductite fracture68 Material Science & Metallurgy (B) CUP AND CONE FRACTURE - STAGES j<— neck 45" cu c PVRS _fibrous cone Shear J (a) Stage (a) {b) fc) (d) (e) | | (b) © (d) ©) Pig, 3.2 : Stages of Cup and cone fracture Initial necking or reduction in cross - sectional area takes place. Small cavities or voids form in the interior of the cross section As load is increased these minute cavities join together (co-alesce) to form an elliptical erack which has its long axisperpendicularto the direction of load ‘The crack continues to grow in adirection parallel to its major axis. Finally, fracture results due to rapid propagation of the crack, The fracture surface has two portions, One is the outer perimeter of the neck where fracture takes place by shear deformation at an angle of 45" approximately to the tensile load because this is the angle at which the shear stress is maximum, The other portion is the interior which has an irregular or fibrous appearance while the sheared portion will have a shiny surface. ii) Brittle fracture or Type HI fracture Like in ductile fracture, herealso small ca ities join together to form a crack and this crack propagates. Butall these stages happen instantly and the material failure takes place suddenly.Fracture, Fatigue & Creep 69 Fracture surface is granular and almost normal to the direction of the tensile load. There is successive and repeated breaking of the bonds at ade the atomic level, along specific crystallographic planescalled cleavage planes (for example (0001) basal plane in HCP.zine). Tendency for brittle fracture is inereased with (a) decreasing temperature (b) increasing strain rate or rate of loading (c) tri-axial stress conditions usually produced by a notch, Intergranular fracture : In this the crack propagates along | the grain boundaries and fracture occurs. Fig. 3.3 (a) Intragranular Fracture : In this the fracture crack passes through Brittle fracture the grains and the fractures surface looks granular. This is also known: as Transgranular fracture. iii) Shear Fracture or Type IH] fracture This type of fracture is found in ductile single crystals. This is promoted by shear stresses and occurs asa result of extensive slip on the active slip plane. Fracture surfaces are normally at 45° to the direction of tensile load and appear shiny owing to extensive slip between surfaces before fracture. Note to students : To understand the different types of fracture, take chalk pieces and try to break it by (i) pulling it apart (ii) crushing (iéi) twisting holding both ends. Fig, 3.3 (b) + Shear fracture Preference of ductile over brittle failure Duetile fracture is almost always preferred over brittle failure, This is because brittle fracture occurs spontaneously and suddenly without any warning which is due to the rapid crack propagation. In case of ductile fracture whic! preceded by considerable plastic deformation, preventive measures can be taken to avoid fractures after identifying plastic deformation. Study of Fracture Surfaces Itis an important activity in the industry to study the fracture surfaces of materials or components which have failed. Fracture surfaces provide evidence to the mode of failure that would have occured. Fracture surface examination is a great tool in failure analysis. Note : Sudents are advised to observe and interpret the fracture surfaces of different materials subjected to destructive tests in Material Testing Laboratory,