World of

Biomedical
Engineering
Biomechanics
Definition
• Biomechanics is the study of the structure, function and motion of the
mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms
to organs, cells and cell organelles using the methods of mechanics.
• The word "biomechanics" (1899) and the related "biomechanical" (1856) come
from the Ancient Greek βίος bios "life" and μηχανική, mēchanikē
"mechanics", to refer to the study of the mechanical principles of living
organisms, particularly their movement and structure.
• Biomechanics combines engineering and the life sciences by applying
principles from classical mechanics to the study of living systems. This
relatively new field covers a broad range of topics, including strength of
biological materials, biofluid mechanics in the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems, material properties and interactions of medical
implants and the body, heat and mass transfer into biological tissues (e.g.,
tumors), biocontrol systems regulating metabolism or voluntary motion, and
kinematics and kinetics applied to study human gait.
Subfield of Biomechanics
• Allometry • Human factors engineering &
occupational biomechanics
• Animal locomotion & Gait analysis
• Injury biomechanics
• Biotribology
• Implant (medicine), Orthotics &
• Biofluid mechanics Prosthesis
• Cardiovascular biomechanics • Kinaesthetics
• Comparative biomechanics • Kinesiology (kinetics + physiology)
• Computational biomechanics • Musculoskeletal & orthopedic
biomechanics
• Ergonomy
• Rehabilitation
• Forensic Biomechanics
• Soft body dynamics

• Sports biomechanics
Workfield and Product [1]
• In the medical world, working at the cellular and tissue level, studying the
mechanics and mechanobiology of these cells and tissues.

• In the world of sports, working to help athletes improve their performance

developing training and competition equipment, athlete movement analysis

• In the world of rehabilitation, developing equipment that helps

rehabilitation example: prosthetics
Workfield and Product [2]
Medical & Biological
Analysis
Definition
• Medical and biological analysis refers to the engineering methods of signal
processing as applied to measurements from human subjects, with the
purpose of defining the differences between normal and pathological signals,
in order to detect the presence of a disease process or detect changes in the
status of a patient associated with treatment.
Signal Analysis
Workfield and Product [1]
• One of the companies engaged in the medical equipment industry is
General Electric (GE). The profession needed in this field is a biomedical
engineering, which is someone who is an expert with a range of medical
devices. In addition, there are also many engineering graduates, one of
which is electrical engineering, who can work in the field of medical and
biological analysis as technicians for various GE Healthcare products.
Workfield and Product [2]
• In the world of medical devices, medical and biological analyzes are used to
monitor the patient's condition from various clinical measurement
parameters. One example of a medical device product is the CARESCAPE
Monitor B850, which is produced by the world technology giant, General
Electric (GE). GE has a sub-company in the health sector which is also
known as GE Healthcare. This type of medical device product is commonly
referred to as Patient Monitor. With this type of Patient Monitor, we can
observe the condition of the patient's heart rate, pulse, oxygen levels, and
body temperature. The measurements that can be made depend on the given
product specifications.
Biosensor
Definition
• Biosensors are sensors that combine biological components with electronic
components (transducers) that convert signals from biological components
into measurable outputs. Biosensor can also be interpreted as an analytical
tool that combines biological components with physicochemical detectors.

• The biosensor consists of:

 Sensitive biological elements such as tissues, microorganisms, organelles, cell
receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc., are biological materials that
interact with the studied components. Such sensitive elements can also be made by
biological engineering.
 A physicochemical (optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, etc.) operating transducer
that converts the signal resulting from interaction with the component under test so
that it can be measured easily.
 Biosensor reader related to electronics or signal processing for display.
Ilustration of Biosensor
Workfield and Product [1]
• Abbott Point of Care Inc.

• Product : I-Stat

• This product works in the health sector, serves to

analyze blood conditions, such as blood pH values and
blood CO2 and O2 levels. This product aims to get faster
and more accurate blood condition analysis results. The
results of this blood condition analysis are then
connected online to the nearest hospital so that if the
blood condition is not good, medical personnel can
immediately handle it.
Workfield and Product [2]
• Microchip Biotech Inc.

• Product : Microchip-based implant

• This product is a sealed self-administered drug delivery

device that has 100 auto-dispensing doses of medication.
Drug dispensing on this device uses two methods,
namely by setting at the time of initial installation and
by using sensors that regulate drug dispensing
according to the body's physiological conditions.
Clinical Engineering
Definition
• Clinical Engineering can be
defined as the application of
medical and biological engineering
in a clinical environment to
improve health services.

• A clinical engineer is a
professional who supports and
advances patient care by applying
managerial skills to healthcare
technology.
The Clinical Engineer’s Role within
the Hospital [1]
• Clinical engineers are involved at various levels in the
safe, appropriate and economical use of technology in
the healthcare system.

• Supported by clinical technicians, professional clinical

engineers are responsible for the design and
maintenance of hardware for quality control, and
interpretation of signals that forming medical
instrumentation.
The Clinical Engineer’s Role within
the Hospital [2]
1. An Advisory Service on Available Technology

2. Evaluation and Purchase

3. Maintenance

4. Hazard prevention

5. Clinical Measurement

6. General Technical Support and Facilities

7. Education and Training

8. Research and Development

The Clinical Engineer’s Role within
the Hospital [3]
• Clinical engineers interact with all departments within
the hospital and must have a favorable view of the use
of technology and alignment with the organization.

• Clinical engineers are also familiar with vendors and

new technologies due to the nature of their profession,
which makes them an ideal choice for coordinating
clinical evaluations and providing the necessary
technical input in technology assessments.
Medical &
Bioinformatics
Definition
• Bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, and information technology to
further the knowledge of biological genomic and conduct research to discover cures.

• Bioinformaticians develop processes to gather and represent data, write and conduct
surveys, design and execute clinical trials, and program statistical and three-
dimensional models. They develop and compile massive amounts of data related to
genometrics and consult with other science researchers to analyze and interpret data
sets. Individuals with PhD or MD degrees are typically lead grant-funded
investigations and people with master’s degrees often serve as laboratory research
coordinators.

• Biomedical informatics analyzes bioinformatic data sets to customize cures for patients
and streamline care processes in healthcare facilities.

• Biomedical informatics specialists are people who work with healthcare outcomes.
Health informatics specialists train staff and create educational documents for
systems. Clinical analysts evaluate data while clinical informatics specialists digitize
medical records. Clinical informatics managers oversee the daily operations of
healthcare facilities including budgets, safety and regulatory compliance.
Product and Work Result [1]
Gene Sequencing

• The basic principles for obtaining

DNA sequences have remained
rather stable over the past few
decades, although the specific
technologies have evolved
dramatically. The most widely
used sequencing techniques rely
on attaching some sort of
‘‘reporter’’ to each nucleotide in a
DNA sequence, then measuring
how quickly or how far the
nucleotide migrates through a
medium. The principles of Sanger
sequencing, originally developed
in 1974
The principles of Sanger sequencing of DNA.
Product and Work Result [2]
Genomics Databases

• Genome projects involve far-

reaching collaborations among
many researchers inmany fields
around the globe, and it is critical
that the resulting data be easily
available both to project members
and to the general scientific
community

• In the United States, the primary

public genomics resource is that of
the National Center for
Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
The NCBI website (http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) provides a
seemingly endless collection of The result of a simple query of the GenBank database at NCBI. This query
found 9007 entries in the GenBank nucleotide database containing the
data and data analysis tools. term ‘‘tyrosine kinase.’’
 Workfield
Bioinformatics Biomedical informatics
Work Environments • Scientific research laboratories • Scientific research laboratories
• Hospitals • Hospitals
• Academic medical centers • Academic medical centers
• Pharmaceutical laboratories • Pharmaceutical laboratories
• Outdoors • Research institutes
• Agricultural settings • Clinics
Sample Careers • Researcher • Clinical analyst
• Lead investigator • Clinical informatics manager
• Research coordinator • Research coordinator
• Professor • Educator/trainer
• Software developer • Biostatistician
• Computer programmer • Project manager
• Biostatistician • Chief Medical Information
Officer (CMIO)
• Chief Information Officer (CIO)
• Computer programmer
• Systems analyst
Rehabilitation
Engineering
Definition
• The two most frequently used terms today are
assistive technology and rehabilitation
engineering. Although they are used somewhat
interchangeably, they are not identical.

• Rehabilitation engineering is the application of

science and technology to ameliorate the
handicaps of individuals with disabilities. In
contrast, assistive technology can be viewed as
a product of rehabilitation engineering
activities.

• Assistive technology is any item, piece of

equipment or product system whether
acquired commercially off the shelf, modified,
or customized that is used to increase or
improve functional capabilities of individuals
with disabilities
Product and Example of Assistive
Technology
Categories of Assistive Devices

• Prosthetics and Orthotics

• Assistive Devices for Persons with

Severe Visual Impairments

• Assistive Devices for Persons with

Severe Auditory Impairments

• Assistive Devices for Tactile

Impairments

• Alternative and Augmentative

Communication Devices

• Manipulation and Mobility Aids

• Recreational Assistive Devices Augmentative communication classification system (from Church

and Glennen, 1992).
 Product and Example of
Rehabilitation Engineering [1]
Alternative keyboards can replace or
operate in addition to the standard
keyboard. (a) Expanded keyboards have
a matrix of touch-sensitive squares that
can be grouped together to form larger
squares. (b) Minikeyboards are small
keyboards with a matrix of closely
spaced touch-sensitive squares. (c) The
small size of a minikeyboard ensures
that a small range of movement can
reach the entire keyboard. (d) Expanded
and minikeyboards use standard or
customized keyboard overlays. (e) Some
alternative keyboards plug directly into
the keyboard jack of the computer,
needing no special interface or software
Add-on wheelchair system (from Church and
(from Church and Glennen, 1992).
Glennen, 1992).
 Product and Example of
Rehabilitation Engineering [2]
(a) This system generates temporal
signatures from one set of myoelectric
electrodes to control multiple actuators.
(b) Electrical stimulaton of the forearm to
provide force feedback may be
carried out using a system like this one
(from Webster et al., 1985).

Patient exercising his shoulder extensor

muscles with wall pulleys (from Le Veau,
1976).
Physiological
Modelling
Definition
• A quantitative physiological model is a mathematical representation that
approximates the behavior of an actual physiological system.

• Qualitative physiological models, most often used by biologists, describe the actual
physiological system without the use of mathematics.

• Creating a model is always accompanied by carrying out an experiment and obtaining

data. The best experiment is one that provides data that are related to variables used
in the model.

• A model constructed from basic and natural laws then becomes a tool for explaining
the underlying processes that cause the experimental data and predicting the behavior
of the system to other types of stimuli.

• Models serve as vehicles for thinking, organizing complex data, and testing
hypotheses.
Flowchart of Modelling
• The first step involves
observations from an experiment
or a phenomenon that lead to a
conjecture or a verbal description
of the physiological system.
• An initial hypothesis is formed via
a mathematical model. The
strength of the model is tested by
obtaining data and testing the
model against the data. If the
model performs adequately, the
model is satisfactory, and a
solution is stated. If the model
does not meet performance
specifications, then the model is
updated and additional
experiments are carried out.

Flow chart for modeling

Product and Work Result [1]
Transfer of Substances Between Two
Compartments Separated by a Thin
Membrane

• The time course of the transfer of a

solute between two compartments
separated by a thin membrane is
examined using Fick’s law of diffusion,
as given by

where Two compartment model of diffusion,

q = quantity of solute where dx ¼ membrane thickness (cm).
A = membrane surface area
c = concentration
D = diffusion coefficient
dx = membrane thickness
 Product and Work Result [2]
An Overview of The Fast Eye
Movement System

• A fast eye movement is usually referred

to as a saccade and involves quickly
moving the eye from one image to
another image.

• Saccade is a French term that means to

pull, which originated from the jerk of
the reins on a horse. This type of eye
movement is very common and is
observed most easily while reading.

Weinnman company is engaged in brain Kls martin is moving in manufacture

work during sleep and its therapy Sample saccadic eye movement of approximately 10 degrees.
of surgical instruments and implants
Data was collected with a sampling rate of 1000 samples/s.
Bionanotechnology
Definition
• Bionanotechnology is defined as the incorporation of biological molecules
into nanoartifacts.

• The highly refined molecular binding specificity is particularly valued and

used to facilitate the assembly of unique structures from a solution of
precursors and for capturing chemicals from the environment prior to
registering their presence via a transducer (biosensors).

• Further applications involve using the widely encountered ability of

biomolecules to easily accomplish actions associated with difficult and
extreme conditions in the artificial realm, such as the catalysis of many
chemical reactions, and exploiting optical nonlinearity with single photons, a
feature that can be exploited to construct all-optical computers.
Product and Work Result [1]
Saphyr Workflow
 Product and Work Result [2]
Some RNA Molecules Have
Unexpected Sugar Coating

• Scientists have discovered sugar-

coated RNA molecules decorating
the surface of cells.

• These so-called “glycoRNAs” poke

out from mammalian cells’ outer
membrane, where they can interact
with other molecules.

A variety of molecules protrude from the cell surface,

including glycoproteins, glycolipids, and the newly
discovered glycoRNAs. This illustration depicts RNA as
a double-stranded stem and a loop, and the glycan as a
Source : https://www.bionano.com/ Tinkertoy-like structure branching off it.
 Product and Work Result [3]
Nature’s nanomachines

• Viewing a bacterial flagellar motor in atomic detail.

Cryo-electron microscopy reveals a bacterial
flagellar motor in atomic-level detail

• In 1986, Eric Drexler published Engines of

Creation, a vision of what the nascent science of
nanotechnology might mean for the future. Drexler
claimed that nanoscale robots would one day swim
through our bloodstream, attacking invaders like
viruses and removing sclerotic deposits from the
blood-vessel walls.

Source : https://www.bionano.com/
Biomedical
Instrumentation
Definition
• Biomedical Instrumentation is an application of biomedical engineering,
which focuses on the devices and mechanics used to measure, evaluate, and
treat biological systems.

• It focuses on the use of multiple sensors to monitor physiological

characteristics of a human or animal.

• Many biomedical instruments use a transducer or sensor to convert a signal

created by the body into an electric signal.

• Bioinstrumentation is a new and upcoming field, concentrating on treating

diseases and bridging together the engineering and medical worlds. The
majority of innovations within the field have occurred in the past 15-20
years. Bioinstrumentation has revolutionized the medical field, and has
made treating patients much easier. The instruments/sensors convert
signals found within the body into electrical signals.
 History and Development

Basic instrumentation systems using sensors to measure

a signal with data acquisition, storage and display
Timeline for major inventions and discoveries that led to capabilities, and control and feedback.
modern medical instrumentation.
 Product and Work Result [1]

Pulse Oxymeter

Electrocardiogram Instrumentation
 Product and Work Result [2]

Electromyogram Instrumentation Electroenchepalogram Instrumentation

Neural Engineering
Definition
• Neural engineering is the field of engineering interfaced with biological techniques to
replace, repair and analyze the neural systems.

• The aim of this type of biomedical field is to analyze and provide solutions to
neuroscience-related problems.

• This field of engineering also deals with rehabilitative solutions for nervous system
conditions. The emphasis on engineering and quantitative methodology applied to the
nervous system distinguishes neural engineering from traditional areas in
neuroscience such as neurophysiology.

• The association of neuroscience and engineering defines neural engineering separately

from other engineering disciplines such as artificial neural networks.
Product and Work Result [1]
Disrupting Neurocircuitry

• By understanding how neurons work,

biomedical engineers specializing in
neural engineering can look for ways to
either stimulate or disrupt this
neurocircuitry.

• Implantable devices similar to the

pacemakers used in the cardiac setting
be used to control nervous system
disorders such as Parkinson’s disease,
depression and epilepsy.

https://youtu.be/y5gIS8F4yvI
 Product and Work Result [2]
Visual Prostheses
• An artificial retina could soon become reality as many groups
are developing devices to replace damaged retinas. A
consortium of researchers in Australia, for example, are
working on bionic vision technologies to restore sight to
people with degenerative vision loss due to either retinitis
pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration. In both
conditions, there is a problem in the part of the eye that senses
light but the neural circuitry and visual processing ability of
the brain is still intact.
• Using a camera attached to a pair of glasses, signals are
transmitted to a microchip implanted in the retina. From here,
small electrical currents are sent to surviving neurons in the
brain. Current technology limits the number of implanted
electrodes to about 100, so the resolution captured by the
camera is processed and reduced to create rudimentary
images. But these images can make a world of difference to
someone who otherwise cannot see.
Product and Work Result [3]
Tissue Engineering
Definition
• Tissue engineering is a biomedical engineering discipline
integrating biology with engineering to create tissues or
cellular products outside the body (ex vivo) or to make
use of gained knowledge to better manage the repair of
tissues within the body (in vivo).

• This discipline requires understanding of diverse

biological fields, including cell and molecular biology,
physiology and systems integration, stem cell
proliferation and differentiation with lineage attributes,
extracellular matrix chemistry and compounds, and
endocrinology. It also requires knowledge of many
engineering fields, including biochemical and mechanical
engineering, polymer sciences, bioreactor design and
application, mass transfer analysis of gas and liquid
metabolites, and biomaterials.
Principle in Tissue Engineering
• Some of the fundamental scaling challenges
that face the tissue engineer in the
implementation of cell therapies or creation
of grafts and bioartificial organs.

• In these bioartificial structures, the tissue

compartments must be scaled to mimic
nutrient transport existent within natural
capillary beds found in the body. Generally,
these in vivo beds are composed of 100 mm
thick tissue slabs sandwiched by vasculature.

• Thus, the microenvironment of ex vivo

bioartificial devices must also maintain these
limitations in order to provide appropriate
concentrations of nutrients to tissue
cultures.

The four principal size scales in tissue engineering

and cellular therapies.
Product and Work Result [1]
Bone Marrow Transplantation (BMT)

• Bone marrow is the body’s most prolific

organ. It produces on the order of 400
billion myeloid cells daily, all of which
originate from a small number of
pluripotent stem.

• The bone marrow is comprised of 500 to

1000 billion cells and regenerates itself
every 2 to 3 days, which represents
normal hematopoietic function.

Hematopoietic cell production. The production fluxes through the

lineages can be estimated based on the known steady-state
concentration of cells in circulation, the total volume of blood, and
the half-lives of the cells. Note that the 400 billion cells produced
per day arise from a small number of stem cells (from Koller and
Palsson, 1993).
Product and Work Result [2]
Skin and Vascular Grafts

• Skin is the body’s third most prolific

tissue. It basically consists of two
layers: (1) the dermis, the main cellular
components of which are stroma or
fibroblasts, and (2) the epidermis, the
main cellular components of which are
epidermal cells that are at various
stages of differentiation into
keratinocytes.

• Both cell types grow very well in

culture, and ex vivo cultivation is not Advanced Tissue Sciences bioreactor for culture of their skin
the limiting factor with this tissue. product, Trancyte ®, derived from human foreskins

• Interestingly, transplanted dermal

fibroblasts have proven to be
surprisingly nonimmunogenic.
Biotechnology
Definition
• Biotechnology is a science-driven industry sector that uses living organisms
and molecular biology to produce healthcare-related products. Biotechnology
companies also develop therapeutics or processes (such as DNA
fingerprinting). Biotechnology is best known for its role in medicine and
pharmaceuticals, but the science is also applied in other areas such as
genomics, food production, and the production of biofuels.

• Biotechnology involves understanding how living organisms function at the

molecular level, so it combines a number of disciplines including biology,
physics, chemistry, mathematics, science, and technology.

• Modern biotechnology continues to make significant contributions to

extending the human lifespan and improving quality of life, including
providing products and therapies to combat diseases, generating higher crop
yields, and using biofuels to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 History and Development
• Biotechnology in its basic form has existed for thousands of years, dating back to an era when humans
first learned to produce bread, beer, and wine using the natural process of fermentation. For centuries,
the principles of biotechnology were restricted to agriculture, such as harvesting better crops and
improving yields by using the best seeds and breeding livestock.

• The field of biotechnology began to develop rapidly from the 19th century with the discovery of
microorganisms. Gregor Mendel’s study of genetics and groundbreaking work on fermentation and
microbial processes by giants in the field such as Pasteur and Lister. Early 20th-century biotechnology
led to the major discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming, which went into large-scale production in
the 1940s.

• Biotechnology took off in the 1950s, spurred by a better understanding in the post-war period of cell
function and molecular biology. Every decade since then produced major breakthroughs in
biotechnology. Some of the highlights are the following: The discovery of the 3D structure of DNA in the
1950s. Insulin synthesis and the development of vaccines for measles, mumps, and rubella in the 1960s.
Massive strides in DNA research in the 1970s. The development of the first biotech-derived drugs and
vaccines to treat diseases such as cancer and hepatitis B in the 1980s. The identification of numerous
genes and the introduction of new treatments in decades for managing multiple sclerosis and cystic
fibrosis in the 1990s. The completion of the human genome sequence in the 1990s, which made it
possible for scientists worldwide to research new treatments for diseases with genetic origins like
cancer, heart disease, and Alzheimer’s
Product and Work Result [1]
Food and Agriculture Product
Product and Work Result [2]
Drug
Biomaterial
Definition
• A non-living material used as a medical device and capable of interacting
with biological systems.

• Biomaterial have a biocompatibility factor of a material which is a

property where the biomaterial does not give an adverse response and a
toxic response to the body and vice versa, the body does not give an adverse
reaction to the material.

• Application : Joint replacements; Bone plates; Bone cement; Artificial

ligaments and tendons; Dental implants for tooth fixation; Blood vessel
prostheses; Heart valves; Skin repair devices (artificial tissue); Cochlear
replacements; Contact lenses; Breast implants; Drug delivery mechanisms;
Sustainable materials; Vascular grafts; Stents; Nerve conduits; Surgical
sutures, clips, and staples for wound closure; Pins and screws for fracture
stabilization; Surgical mesh.
Impact of Biomaterial
• Throughout the ages, materials used in
medicine (biomaterials) have made an
enormous impact on the treatment of
injury and disease of the human body.
Biomaterials use increased rapidly in the
late 1800s, particularly after the advent of
aseptic surgical technique by Dr. Joseph
Lister in the 1860s. The first metal devices
to fix bone fractures were used as early as
the late eighteenth to nineteenth century;
the first total hip replacement prosthesis
was implanted in 1938; and in the 1950s
and 1960s, polymers were introduced for
cornea replacements and as blood vessel
replacements. Biomaterials have made an enormous impact on the
treatment of injury and disease and are used throughout
• Today, biomaterials are used throughout the body.
the body.
 Product and Work Result [1]

A typical total hip joint A metallic artificial knee joint with an

replacement is made ultra high molecular weight polyethylene
primarily of metal. bearing surface.
(a) Metal plates and screws are used to hold fractured
bone segments together during healing. (b) Through
the use of x-rays an implanted metal plate with screws
can be visualized in this patient’s foot and hand.
 Product and Work Result [2]

Metallic devices are used to As an alternative to dentures, patients Breast implant material
fuse segments of the spine can have metallic dental root prosthetics
together when vertebral implanted to replace each missing tooth.
bones are fractured due to
osteoporosis or back injury.
Medical Imaging
Definition
• Medical imaging refers to several different technologies that are used to
view the human body in order to diagnose, monitor, or treat medical
conditions.

• Each type of technology gives different information about the area of the
body being studied or treated, related to possible disease, injury, or the
effectiveness of medical treatment.
 Top Ten Diagnostic Imaging Device
Manufacturers
1. Fujifilm Holdings

2. GE Healthcare

3. Siemens Healthcare

4. Philips Healthcare

5. Shimadzu Corporation

6. Toshiba Medical Systems

Corporation

7. Carestream Health

8. Hitachi Medical Corporation

9. Hologic

10. Esaote
Example of Medical Imaging Devices [2]

Tactile Imaging Echodiagram

Ultrasound

Endoscopy
Example of Medical Imaging Devices [2]

CT Scan Device MRI Device

Prosthetic Device &
Artificial Organ
Definition
• Prosthesis (plural: prostheses; from Ancient Greek prosthesis, "addition,
application, attachment") or prosthetic implant is an artificial device that
replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through trauma, disease, or
a condition present at birth (congenital disorder). Prostheses are intended to
restore the normal functions of the missing body part.

• Artificial organ is an engineered device or tissue that can be integrated or

implanted into humans for interfacing with living tissues to replace
damaged organs
Example of Product [1]

Artificial Heart Artificial Kidney Bionic Hand Prosthetic Knee

Example of Product [2]

Prosthetic Ankle Prosthetic Arm Artificial Eye

 Example of Manufacturer

Touch Bionic

PT. KUSPITO Ortotik Prostetik

Ottobock
Reference
• John D. Enderle, Susan M. Blanchard, Joseph D. Bronzino. Introduction to
Biomedical Engineering.

• Other references.
Assignment #1
• Report, A4, MyITS Classroom