Introduction

What exactly is engineering? What does an engineer do?

Engineering is the application of mathematics, empirical evidence and scientific,

economic, social, and practical knowledge in order to invent, innovate, design, build,
maintain, research, and improve structures, machines, tools, systems, components,
materials, processes and organizations.

A modern and informal definition of engineering is “the art of making things work” An
engineered part of an engineering system does not occur naturally. It is something that
has required knowledge, planning and effort to create. (Visualization, Modeling, and
Graphics for Engineering Design by Dennis K. Lieu, Sheryl A. Sorby)

The term engineer comes from the Latin word enginerare, which means “to create”.

Engineer is the profession in which knowledge of mathematical and natural sciences,

gained by study, experience and practice is applied with judgment to develop and utilize
economically the materials and forces of natures for the benefit of humanity.
(Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, ABET)

Engineering Graphics is a type of technical drawing, that is used to define requirements

fully and clearly for engineered items. It is the graphical or pictorial solution of engineering
problems. More than merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a language—a graphical
language that communicates ideas and information from one mind to another. Most
especially, it communicates all needed information from the engineer who designed a part
to the workers who will make it. This is one of the first skills formally taught to most
engineering students.

Where and how does graphic fits in?

Engineering graphics has played three important roles/purpose through its history:
• Communication - Engineering graphics served as a mean of communication. It has
been used to convey concepts and ideas quickly and accurately from one person to
another.
• Record Keeping/ Documentation - It is a mean of recording of history, of an idea, and
its development over time. As designs became more complex, it became necessary
to record the ideas or the features that worked well in a design so that they could be
repeated in future applications.
• Analysis/ Visualization - It has served as tool for analysis to determine critical shapes
and sizes as well as other variable needed in an engineered system.

Drawings convey the following critical information:

• Geometry – the shape of the object; represented as views. The basis for much
engineering drawing is orthographic representation (projection).
• Dimensions – the size of the object is captured in accepted units.
• tolerances – the allowable variations from the nominal size for each dimension.
• Material – represents what the item is made of.
• Surface finish – specifies the surface quality of the item.

Evolution of Design

“Necessity is the mother of invention” A new machine, structure, system or device

is the result of the need.
A new machine, structure, or system, or an improvement, must exist in the mind
of an engineer or designer before it can become a reality. This original concept or idea is
usually placed on paper and communicated to others by the way of the graphic language
in the form of freehand idea sketches. This idea or design sketches are then followed by
other sketches, such as computation sketches, for developing the idea fully.

On screen is an example of an evolution of design of a phonograph made by

Thomas Alba Edison. It started with the sketch of the idea of the design which started on
December 1877 and on the right side is the patented design dated May 1880

The Graphic Language

Many of the troubles of the world are caused by the fact that the various people do not
understand one another. The infinite number of languages and dialects that contributed
to this condition resulted from a lack of intercommunication of people widely separated in
various parts of the world.

Drawing is a graphic representation of real thing, an idea, or a proposed design for

construction later. Drawing may take many forms, but graphic method of representation
is a basic natural form of communication of ideas that is universal and timeless in
character.

Although we have not been able to get together on a world language of words and
sentences, there has actually been a universal language in use since the earliest times:
the graphic language.

The earliest men communicated orally, undoubtedly by grunts and other elementary
sounds. When they wished to record an idea, they made pictures upon, skins, stones,
walls of caves or in whatever materials they could find. The earliest forms of writing were
through picture forms, such as the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which then were simplified and
became the abstract symbols used in writing today.
Two Types of Drawing

Engineering drawing and artistic drawing are both types of drawing, and either may be
called simply "drawing" when the context is implicit. Engineering drawing shares some
traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures.

Artistic drawing and Engineering drawing have different goals.

• Artistic Drawing - Artistic drawing may replicate nature or convey an emotion or

artistic sensitivity in some way (subjective impressions) and it is meant to be looked
at.

• Technical Drawing - Technical drawing replicates real things, and it is meant to

communicate practical information about the subject. The purpose of engineering
drawing is to convey information (objective facts). Engineering drawing requires
some training to understand (like any language); but there is also a high degree of
objective commonality in the interpretation (also like other languages). In fact,
engineering drawing has evolved into a language that is more precise and
unambiguous than natural languages. Engineering drawing uses an extensive set
of conventions to convey information very precisely, with very little ambiguity.

Development of Engineering Graphics

• Earliest Technical Drawing – 2130 BC Chaldean Engineer Gudea

The earliest known technical drawing in existence is the plan view for a design of fortress
drawn by Chaldean engineer Gudea about 2130 BC. It is engraved upon a stone tablet.

First Written Evidence of The Use of Technical Drawing – 30 BC Roman Architect

Vitruvius

The first written evidence of the use of technical drawing was in 30 BC when the Roman
Architect Vitruvius wrote a treatise on architecture in which he said, “ The architect must
be skillful with the pencil and have a knowledge in drawing so that he readily can make
drawings required to show the appearance of the work he proposes to construct.”

• First Perspective – 1415 Florentine Architect Fillipo Brunelleschi

The first known picture to make use of linear perspective was created by the Florentine
architect Fillipo Brunelleshi (1377-1446). Painted in 1415, it depicted the Baptistery in
Florence from the front gate of the unfinished cathedral. Perspective drawing technique
was invented during the Renaissance period (1300 – 1500)
 • Early Descriptive Geometry – 1795 Gaspard Monge

Gaspard Monge (1746 – 1818) faced this problem when he started as an

Engineer in the French Military. He devised a system that could be used to communicate
an object to anyone across the world. This system is called Orthographic
Projection and was quickly adopted by army engineers. However France was at war and
Monge's system was kept top secret. It wasn't until many years later that Monge was
allowed to publish and teach his system. Shortly this system spread across and
revolutionized world industry. His book, La Geometerie Descriptive, is still regarded as
the first text to expound the basic principles of projection drawing.

• Modern Technical Drawing 1849 William Minifie

The first text on technical drawing in United States was Geometrical Drawing
published by William Minifie a high school teacher in Baltimore. In this time the graphic
language was more or less an art, characterized by fine-line drawings made to resemble
copper plate engraving by the use of shade lines and by the use of water color “washes”.
Up to the nineteenth century, drawings were generally made in what is called first-
angle projection in which the top view was placed under the front view, and the left side
view was placed at the right of the front view, etc.
During the early part of of the twentieth century, many books on the subject were
published in which the graphic language was analyzed and explained in connection with
its rapidly changing engineering design and industrial applications.

• 2-D CAD Systems 1982 John Walker

• 3-D CAD Systems 1990s French Engineer Pierre Bezier

The invention of the 3D CAD/CAM is attributed to a French engineer, Pierre Bezier. He

developed UNISURF, between 1966 and 1968, to ease the design of parts and tools for
the automotive industry. Then, UNISURF became the working base for the following
generations of CAD software.

One of the most influential events in the development of CAD was the founding of MCS
(Manufacturing and Consulting Services Inc.) in 1971 by Dr. P. J. Hanratty, who wrote the
system ADAM (Automated Drafting And Machining).

Key products for 1981 were the Unigraphics solid modelling packages, and the release
of the surface modeler CATIA (Dassault Systemes).

Autodesk was founded 1982 by John Walker, which led to the 2D system AutoCAD.
The next milestone was the release of Pro/ENGINEER in 1987, which heralded greater
usage of feature-based modeling methods and parametric linking of the parameters of
features.

Release of mid-range packages such as SolidWorks in 1995, Solid Edge in 1996 and
Autodesk Inventor in 1999.

Example of Drafting Standards

• American National Standard Drafting Manual—Y14
American National Standard Institute (ANSI)
American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• ISO (The International Organization for Standardization), known as ISO, is an
international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various
national standards organizations.
• Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS)
• British Standard (BS)
• Australian Standard (AS)

There are standards that support a uniform, effective graphic language for use in
industry, manufacturing, engineering, and science. In the United States, providing these
standards has been the work of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) with
the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE), the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
Participants in these organizations help develop the American National Standard Drafting
Manual—Y14, which is composed of a number of separate sections that are published as
approved standards as they are completed
These standards are frequently updated to communicate information so that it
meets the needs of modern industry and engineering practice. They are considered the
most authoritative guide to uniform drafting practices in the United States today.
International standards, often defined by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), and the ASME or ANSI standards for drawing practices are similar
in many respects. The greatest differences are in the preferred method of projection: first
angle versus third-angle projection, and in the units of measurement in dimensioning.

Types of Projection

There are two main types of projection: perspective and parallel.

1. Perspective Projection
Perspective projection is not based on parallel lines. It is an approximate representation
of the object as it would be seen by the eye in respect to depth perception. The projection
lines converge to single point. In perspective projections, the projectors come together at
the station point to form a cone. Perspective drawings represent objects as we see them
or as they would appear in a photograph.
 2. Parallel Projection

A parallel projection is a projection of an object in three-dimensional space onto a

fixed plane, known as the projection plane or image plane, where the rays, known
as lines of sight or projection lines, are parallel to each other. It is a basic tool in
descriptive geometry.

These are broken down into subtypes

Orthographic projections are one type of parallel projection.

In orthographic (meaning right-angle) projections, the parallel projectors are
perpendicular to the plane of projection. Because orthographic projections show objects
in a way that their features can be represented at true size or scaled at a proportion
of true size, they are especially useful in specifying the dimensions needed in technical
applications. If the projectors are parallel to each other, but are at an angle other than 90°
to the plane of projection, the result is called an oblique projection.

3. Orthographic Projection

Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the parallel lines

of sight are perpendicular to the projection plane. It is usually positioned relative to
the rules of first-angle or third-angle projection. The difference between the two is
the view. However, it is not a realistic view of the object, because it requires
multiple views to get all of the information in order to “see” the design. But more
accurate measurements can be obtained because all views have the same scale.

An orthographic projection can also include a section view, which is when a portion
of the object is cross sectioned along the specified plane, and the information
about that section is displayed. It’s used to show internal specifications.
 4. Oblique Projection

Oblique is a simple type of projection that only requires one image. It can be drawn
with traditional tools because it’s not complex. It depicts a 2D image of a 3D object.
The object is drawn from the front view, and then the other areas are added in
relation to it. It can be divided into two types based on the scaling of the object:
cavalier projection, which uses a 1:1 scale, and cabinet projection, which uses a
2:1 scale. It uses parallel lines to produce the source of the object in the image.

Technical drawings of 3D objects usually use one of four standard types of projection,
• Multiview
• Axonometric (includes isometric)
• Oblique
• Perspective

5. Axonometric Projection

Axonometric is another type of orthographic projection. It is considered complex

because only one image is drawn on the paper’s plane. There are three types of
classifications. The most common is isometric, where the angles between the three
axes are equal. The second is diametric. Only two of the angles between the axes
are equal in this type. Trimetric is the third type. It can have three axes with different
angles between them. It is the most common type. Axonometric projection is good
for rectangular or square objects rather than objects with curved lines.
 6. Multiview Projection

Multiview projection is a technique of illustration by which a standardized series

of orthographic two-dimensional pictures are constructed to represent the form of
a three-dimensional object. Up to six pictures of an object are produced
(called primary views), with each projection plane parallel to one of the coordinate
axes of the object. The views are positioned relative to each other according to
either of two schemes: first-angle or third-angle projection. In each, the
appearances of views may be thought of as being projected onto planes that form
a six-sided box around the object. Although six different sides can be
drawn, usually three views of a drawing give enough information to make a three-
dimensional object. These views are known as front view, top view and end view.
Other names for these views include plan, elevation and section.

The terms orthographic projection and orthogonal projection are sometimes

reserved specifically for multiview. However, orthographic and orthogonal more
correctly refer to the right angle formed between the projection rays and
the projection plane, versus the angle formed between the subject of the
drawing and the projection plane. Thus, orthographic projections
include axonometric or auxiliary views in addition to multiviews.

Note: Orthographic projection technique can produce either Multiview Drawing (that each
view show an object in two dimension) and Axonometric Drawing (that show all three
dimensions of an object in one view)
Classification of Projection

Projection methods are used to represent a 3D object in simple terms so that it can
be understood more easily. It is used in engineering drawing and design so that the
structure created by a designer can be communicated to manufacturers and builders. A
pictorial view of a design can’t always show the details in complicated shapes that contain
information related to how it will be manufactured.
Important Objectives the Student Should Strive to Attain

• Accuracy – “No drawing is of maximum usefulness if it is not accurate.”

• Speed – “Time is gold.” It is a product of intelligent and continuous work.
• Legibility – “Drawing is a means of communication.” It must be clear and legible in
order to serve its purpose well. Care should be given in details, especially to
lettering.
• Neatness – Untidy drawings are result of sloppy and careless methods.

Stages of Design Process

It has been estimated that 70% to 80% of the cost of product development and
manufacture is determined during the initial design stages. Although many industrial
groups may identify them in their own way, one procedure for designing a new or
improved product follows the stages shown.

1. Problem identification: First, a clear statement of the need for and objectives for
the design must be written.
2. Ideation: Technical sketches are often used to convey concepts to
multidisciplinary teams.
3. Refinement/analysis: Designs may be rethought, based on engineering analysis.
CAD models and sketches are useful during the analysis and compromise stage.
Accurate 2D or 3D CAD models and drawings are created to refine the design.
4. Implementation/documentation: Production and/or working drawings providing
the details of manufacture and assembly are finalized and approved.

Ideally, the design moves through these stages, but as new information becomes
available, it may be necessary to return to a previous stage and repeat the process.
For example, based on engineering analysis, the familiar phrase “back to the
drawing board” might come into play at the refinement/analysis stage.
References:
Giesecke F.E., Mitchell, A., Spencer, H.C., Hill,I.L., Dygdon, J.T., Novak, J.E., Lockhart,
S.(2009). Technical drawing (13th Edition). Philippines: Pearson Education South Asia

Giesecke F.E., Mitchell, A., Spencer, H.C., Hill,I.L., Dygdon, J.T.(1985). Technical
drawing (7th Edition). New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.

National Building Code of the Philippines

Fundamentals of Engineering drawing, by Waren J. Luzadder

http://tolerancing.net/engineering-drawing/engineering-drawing.html

https://www.indovance.com/knowledge-center/projection-methods-used-in-mechanical-
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