PRACTICAL:1

What is Computer Network?

Computer network refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share
resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications
protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.

1.HUB:
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that
it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is
the simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components
with identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured to
prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in digital
format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub
passes it on in signal form.

TYPES:

▪ Passive Hubs: They do not amplify or regenerate incoming signals before rebroadcasting
them to the network. They do not improve the performance of local area networks (LANs),
and may limit maximum media distances. Typically, passive hubs are connected to other
devices in a star configuration.
▪ Active Hubs: Those are hubs that can clean, raise and distribute the signal together with
the network with their power supply. It is both a repeater and a cable hub. The total distance
between nodes can be increased.
▪ Intelligent Hubs: They work like active hubs and include remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices.

ADVANTAGES:

▪ Connectivity: The primary function of the hub is to permit clients to attach to a network in
order that they will share and have conversations. For this purpose, hubs use network
protocol analyzer.
 ▪ Performance: Hub is understood for having very a smaller number of performance impacts
on the network. This is often because it operates using a broadcast model which rarely
affects the network.
▪ Cost: Comparing to switches, hubs are really inexpensive. Basically, thanks to its sort of
simplicity. Therefore, they will assist you to save lots of money. And also due to their
products they are widely available within the market.
▪ Device Support: Hubs can connect different types of media all at once with a central hub.
Albeit the media want to operate at different speeds they will be wont to support them.
▪ Area Coverage: Area coverage of a network is restricted to a certain distance. Hub extends
the space of the network such communication is formed easy.

DISADVANTAGES:

▪ Collision Domain: The function of the collision domain and again transfer of packet does
not affect actually it increases more chances of collision in between domains.
▪ Full-Duplex Mode: Hubs cannot communicate fully duplex mode; it can only operate in
half-duplex mode.
▪ Specification: Hubs cannot support networks that are large like a token ring. This is often
because hubs must share data among all the devices within the network.

DIAGRAM:

Figure1: Hub [1]

2.REPEATER:
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater as
a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the
signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work
on the Physical layer.

TYPES:

According to the types of signals:

▪ Analog Repeaters: They can only amplify the analog signal.
▪ Digital Repeaters: They can reconstruct a distorted signal.

According to the types of networks:

▪ Wired Repeaters: They are used in wired LANs.

▪ Wireless Repeaters: They are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.

According to the domain of LANs:

▪ Local Repeaters: They connect LAN segments separated by small distance.
▪ Remote Repeaters: They connect LANs that are far from each other.

ADVANTAGES:

▪ Repeaters are simple to install and can easily extend the length or the coverage area of
networks.
▪ They are cost effective.
▪ Repeaters don’t require any processing overhead. The only time they need to be
investigated is in case of degradation of performance.
▪ They can connect signals using different types of cables.
DISADVANTAGES:

▪ Repeaters cannot connect dissimilar networks.

▪ They cannot differentiate between actual signal and noise.
▪ They cannot reduce network traffic or congestion.
▪ Most networks have limitations upon the number of repeaters that can be deployed.

DIAGRAM:

Figure2: Repeater [1]

3.SWITCH:
A switch is a multiport device that improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited
routing information about nodes in the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like
hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can
read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.
Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the virtual circuit
capability. Switches also improve network security because the virtual circuits are more difficult
to examine with network monitors. You can think of a switch as a device that has some of the best
capabilities of routers and hubs combined. A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the
Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which
means that it can operate as both a switch and a router.

TYPES:

▪ Unmanaged switches: These are the switches that are mostly used in home networks and
small businesses as they plug in and instantly start doing their job and such switches do not
need to be watched or configured. These require only small cable connections. It allows
devices on a network to connect with each other such as a computer to a computer or a
computer to a printer in one location.
▪ Managed switches: These types of switches have many features like the highest levels of
security, precision control, and full management of the network. These are used in
organizations containing a large network and can be customized to enhance the
functionality of a certain network. These are the costliest option but their scalability makes
them an ideal option for a network that is growing.
▪ LAN switches: These are also known as Ethernet switches or data switches and are used to
reduce network congestion or bottleneck by distributing a package of data only to its
intended recipient. These are used to connect points on a LAN.
▪ PoE switches: PoE switches are used in PoE technology which stands for power over
Ethernet that is a technology that integrates data and power on the same cable allowing
power devices to receive data in parallel to power. Thus, these switches provide greater
flexibility by simplifying the cabling process.

ADVANTAGES:

▪ They increase the available bandwidth of the network.

▪ They help in reducing workload on individual host PCs.
▪ They increase the performance of the network.
 ▪ Networks which use switches will have less frame collisions. This is due to the fact that
switches create collision domains for each connection.

DISADVANTAGES:

▪ They are more expensive compare to network bridges.

▪ Network connectivity issues are difficult to be traced through the network switch.
▪ Broadcast traffic may be troublesome.
▪ If switches are in promiscuous mode, they are vulnerable to security attacks. e.g., spoofing
IP address or capturing of ethernet frames.
▪ Proper design and configuration is needed in order to handle multicast packets.
▪ While limiting broadcasts, they are not as good as routers.

DIAGRAM:

Figure3: Switch [1]

4.BRIDGE:
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of
bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments
that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for
transferring frames. By looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment,
bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two
physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to
divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments and
managing the flow of data between the two.

TYPES:

▪ Transparent Type: This type of bridge is not visible to other stations or devices on the
network. It is not to reconfigure the station because the bridge is either added or deleted
from the network. The function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward the data
packet based on the MAC address. It is the most popular type of bridge used in computer
networks.
▪ Translational Type: This type of bridge is used to convert one networking system to
another. That means it translates the received data. For example, two different networks
such as the token ring network and the Ethernet network can be connected using the
translational bridge. Depending on the direction, it can remove or add the fields and
information from the frame when needed.
▪ Source-route Type: This type of bridge is designed by IBM for the token ring networks.
The entire route of the frame is embedded within the frame and the routing operation is
performed by the source station to forward the frame and follow the specific route. The
special frame discovered by the host is called as discovery frame. It spreads over the whole
network and uses all the paths possible to reach the destination.

ADVANTAGES:

▪ Extension of the Network: The bridges are used as a repeater to extend the network. That
means thee networks with different topologies can be connected
▪ Increases Bandwidth: Separate collision domain is shared by some of the individual nodes
present on the network, which results in increased bandwidth.
▪ The reliability of the network is high to maintain the network easily. The traffic on the
network can be reduced by dividing the local area network into several segments.
▪ When the different MAC protocols are used for different segments, frame buffering is
created.
DISADVANTAGES:

▪ The cost of the bridges is more when compared to hubs and repeaters. It is mainly used
only in the network traffic load of the LAN. While in variable data load, either hub or
repeater is used.
▪ The speed of the network is slow when compared to the repeater due to the frame buffering
and relays.
▪ The potential performance of the network is poor because additional processing is required
to view the MAC address of the frame on the network.
▪ Individual filtering of the broadcast traffic is not possible by the bridge.
▪ During the forward of broadcast traffic, broadcast storms are formed due to the high
broadcast traffic on the network.

DIAGRAM:

Figure4: Bridge [1]

5.MODEM:
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone
lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies
and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem performs the reverse
transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer.
The digital data is usually transferred to or from the modem over a serial line through an industry
standard interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies offer DSL services, and many cable
operators use modems as end terminals for identification and recognition of home and personal
users. Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

TYPES:

• Dial-up Modem: Dial-up modems transmits analog signal via telephone lines. This modem
is uses mostly to make connection with ISP using of analog signals.
• Cable Modem: In the cable modem, to use the coaxial cables those are connected to the
back edge of modem.
• ADSL Modem: ADSL stands for “Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line” and these types
of modems uses the telephone line for sending and receiving all information.
• DSL Modem: DSL stands for “Digital Subscriber Line “, and it is also known as
“Broadband Modem “. DSL modems offer broadband services for using of different types
of internet connections.
• External Modem: External modem likes as standalone modem because it doesn’t integrate
any router. This modem is connected with the computer through USB stick, WIFI or
Ethernet cable.
• Integrated Modem: This modem is embedded into computer in the form of USB or PCI
card. But, this type of modem allows only single computer system to make connection with
internet.
• Onboard Modem: Onboard modems are embedded onto motherboard, so this modem has
not any chance for removing, but it can be disable with using of jumper or BIOS setup.
• Removable Modem: This modem can be inserted or removed as per the requirement, and
these modems are used into traditional laptops PCMCIA slot.
• Wireless Modem: Wireless Modem is also known as “Radiofrequency Modem “, and these
modems are developed to work with cellular technology and wireless local area networks.
• Fax Modem: Fax modem is used for transmitting and receiving any document over the
telephone line, and this modem works like as fax machine.
• Intelligent Modems: Intelligent Modems are more costly to other modem because it is able
to diagnostic error checking within the modem itself. This modem consists internal read
only memory (ROM) coding and microprocessor chips to offer sophisticated
communications protocols.
ADVANTAGES:

• Modern are used to connect computers in a network so that the data / information can be
exchange between them.
• These modems can communicate with the help of analogue and digital signals.
• The number of laptops and computer that can be connected with modem entirely depends
upon the modem manufacturer.
• A good quality of modem has good speed compared to others and vice versa. Normally the
have good speed.
• There are significant amount of model and manufacturer available in the market to choose
from.
• The modems are easily available in the market.

DISADVANTAGES:

• The internal modems cannot be connected with a wireless connection.

• These modems are also a real candidate for virus and malware attacks.
• They are slow when connected in HUB.
• Some modems are not available in the market hence in some cases they may have
availability issues.
• They fail to track and maintain the traffic between LAN and the internet.
• If the modem is not connected with a fiber optic cable you may face slow internet speed
and hence this is the major disadvantage of modem in this high-speed internet world.
• They need to be configured with a computer and service provider before using the internet.
• Installing and configuring a modem is time-consuming and needs the professional guidance
of network engineers.

DIAGRAM:

Figure5: Modem [1]

6.ROUTER:
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of
interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent
devices, and they store information about the networks they’re connected to. Router are also used
to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers can also be connected internally
to other routers, creating zones that operate independently. Routers establish communication by
maintaining tables about destinations and local connections. A router contains information about
the systems connected to it and where to send requests if the destination isn’t known. Routers are
general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous networks. They are usually
dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate input and output network interfaces for each
connected network. Routers normally work at the Network layer of the OSI model.

TYPES:

• Wireless: It is present in the office, home or railway station, etc. It creates a wireless signal.
Suppose you are in the office; we can connect to the internet using wireless signals because
your laptop is within the range. We can provide security to routers by entering user id and
passwords.
• Wired Router: The name itself defines its meaning. A wire is available to connect to the
network. If we visit a bank or small college, or office, we can observe that a PC or Laptop
is connected to the internet using an Ethernet cable, and that is the wired router. It has a
separate Wi-Fi access point.
• Edge Router: It seats at the edge of the backbone of the network and can connect to the
core routers. It can be wired or wireless and will distribute internet data packets between
one or more networks. But it will not distribute internet data packets within networks.
• Core Router: It is designed to operate in the internet backbone or core. It supports multiple
telecommunication interfaces of the highest speed and usage in the core internet. It can
forward IP packets at full speed on all of them. It supports the routing protocol that is used
in the core.
• Virtual Router: It is the default for a computer sharing network. It functions as per the
virtual router redundancy protocol (VRRP); it becomes active when the main or primary
router fails or becomes disabled. It takes multiple routers in a group so that they can share
a virtual IP address.

ADVANTAGES:

• It provides connection between different network architectures such as ethernet & token
ring etc.
• It can choose best path across the internetwork using dynamic routing algorithms.
 • It can reduce network traffic by creating collision domains and also by creating broadcast
domains.
• It provides sophisticated routing, flow control and traffic isolation.
• They are configurable which allows network manager to make policy based on routing
decisions.

DISADVANTAGES:

• They operate based on routable network protocols.

• They are expensive compare to other network devices.
• Dynamic router communications can cause additional network overhead. This results into
less bandwidth for user data.
• They are slower as they need to analyze data from layer-1 through layer-3.
• They require considerable number of initial configurations.

DIAGRAM:

Figure6: Router [1]

7.GATEWAY:
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the Transport
layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors; gateways are
used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking technologies such as
Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own
routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration
procedures and policies. Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router
with added translation functionality is a gateway.

TYPES:

• Unidirectional Gateways: They allow data to flow in only one direction. Changes made in
the source node are replicated in the destination node, but not vice versa. They can be used
as archiving tools.
• Bidirectional Gateways: They allow data to flow in both directions. They can be used as
synchronization tools.
• Network Gateway: This is the most common type of gateway that provides as interface
between two dissimilar networks operating with different protocols. Whenever the term
gateway is mentioned without specifying the type, it indicates a network gateway.
• Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O): It connects devices on the Internet to satellites and
spacecraft orbiting the earth. Two prominent I2O gateways are Project HERMES and
Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO).
• IoT Gateway: IoT gateways assimilates sensor data from IoT (Internet of Things) devices
in the field and translates between sensor protocols before sending it to the cloud network.
They connect IoT devices, cloud network and user applications.

ADVANTAGES:

• Used to expand the network.

• Gateway is a server so it provides some security.
• We can connect two different types of networks.
• Protocol conversion is done.
• Effectively handles the traffic problems.
• And also establishes connections between internal network and external network.
DISADVANTAGES:

• Not an intelligent device. So, noise prevention is not done.

• Never filter out the data
• Somewhat costly
• Protocol conversion is done so transmission rate is slower.
• Somewhat hard to handle.

DIAGRAM:

Figure7: Gateway [1]

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