UNIT

DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND CIRCUITS

2
LESSONS COVERED

2.1 Diode operation

2.2 Diode equivalent models
2.3 Diode circuits
2.4 Special Diodes
2.5 Applications
2.5.1 Rectifier
2.5.2 Clippers
2.5.3 Clampers
2.5.4 Voltage Multiplier

LESSON 2.1 DIODE OPERATION

 DIODE
A diode is a two-terminal electronic device that allows current to flow easily in one direction while presenting
a high resistance in the reverse direction.

PN junction is a border between p-type and n-type semiconductor combined, the most important
region.

Depletion Layer – the region at the junction of p- and n-type semiconductor where free electrons and
holes recombine that creates pairs of oppositely charged ions on each side of the junction.

 Individually, P and N type extrinsic semiconductor acts just like a resistor.

 To maximize their use, N-Type and P-Type should be combine to create a DIODE.

NOTE:
 N-Type and P-Type are electrically NEUTRAL
 P or N doesn’t mean an excess in ELECTRON or HOLE
 It simply mean that one ELECTRON or one HOLE doesn’t have a pair
 P or N refers only on Majority Carrier and not the charged

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 7

 DEPLETION REGION is also called as:
DEPLETION ZONE
DEPLETION LAYER
SPACE CHARGE REGION
SPACE CHARGE LAYER

The depletion region acts like a wall between p-type and n-type semiconductor and prevents
further flow of free electrons and holes.

NOTE:
 Depletion Region is an empty charge region.
 The width of depletion region is depends on the amount of impurities added to
the semiconductor.
 Width of depletion region increases in the lightly doped semiconductors over a given period.

 TYPES

 CASES

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 8

 BIASING

1. UNBIASED DIODE
 DEPLETION LAYER
1. Free Electron on N-Region side diffuse in all direction
2. Some across the junction that enters P-region
3. It become minority carrier in the P-Region
4. Soon it recombines with the holes (from free electron it become valence electron)
5. Each time N-Region diffuse free electron across the junction, it creates an ION
N-Region = Positive ion
P-Region = Negative ion
6. Each pair of positive and negative ion is called DIPOLE
7. These DIPOLES act as a wall that prevent any flow of free electron from N-Region

The net negative charge at p-side of the p-n junction prevents further flow of free electrons crossing
from n-side to p-side because the negative charge present at the p-side of the p-n junction repels the free
electrons.
Similarly, the net positive charge at n-side of the p-n junction prevents further flow of holes from p-side
to n-side.
Immobile positive charge at n-side and immobile negative charge at p-side near the junction acts like a
BARRIER or WALL and prevent the further flow of free electrons and holes.

 BARRIER POTENTIAL (THRESHOLD VOLTAGE)

 Dipole has an electric field between positive and negative ion
 Any additional electron that enter depletion layer, electric field tries to push this back to N-region until
equilibrium is reached
 Electric field between ion is equal to the difference in potential (positive, negative), it is called the barrier
potential

Voltage across the Depletion Region.

At 25 degree Celsius (ambient temperature)

Germanium Vt = 0.3V
Silicon Vt = 0.7V

2. FORWARD BIAS DIODE

To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the condition that allows current
through the pn junction.

The external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS. The resistor limits the forward current to a value that
will not damage the diode. The negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the
positive side is connected to the p region. This is one requirement for forward bias. A second requirement is
that the bias voltage, VBIAS, must be greater than the barrier potential (VB).

As electrons from the n side are pushed into the depletion region, they combine with holes on the p side,
effectively reducing the depletion region. This process during forward bias causes the depletion region to
narrow.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 9

 Battery push free electron in the junction
*Battery < Barrier Potential
• No current will flow

*Battery = Barrier Potential

 No current will flow

*Battery > Barrier Potential

 Free electron has enough energy to pass through Depletion Region and recombines
 Current will start to flow

NOTE:
Current will flow easily in Forward Bias Diode as long as Battery voltage is GREATER than barrier
potential.

FORWARD BIAS
 ON SWITCH
 Current will flow
 Depletion Region lessen

• Negative terminal of the battery will replenish those "lost" due to migration across the junction.
• Similarly the positive terminal will remove electrons from the P type material, creating more holes,
to replenish those lost by recombination.
• If the applied voltage exceeds the barrier voltage, it will completely replenish the depletion layer.
• Once this occurs, electron migration across the junction will resume.

 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN BARRIER POTENTIAL

 AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
Is the temperature outside the diode and is typically 25 degree Celsius (depends on the country)

 JUNCTION TEMPERATURE
Is temperature inside the diode right at the junction

When diode is conducting: (due to heat created by recombination)

Junction Temperature > Ambient Temperature

As temperature increase:
 Number of free electrons and holes increase
 Depletion layer decrease
 Threshold voltage decrease

The barrier potential of a silicon diode decrease by 2mV for each degree Celsius rise, and 2.5 mV
decrease for Germanium.

𝒎𝑽 𝒎𝑽
∆V = -2 (∆𝑻) ∆V = -2.5 (∆𝑻)
°𝑪 °𝑪

3. REVERSE BIAS DIODE

Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode. The external bias
voltage is designated as VBIAS just as it was for forward bias. The positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n
region of the diode and the negative side is connected to the p region. Also note that the depletion region is
shown much wider than in forward bias or equilibrium.

Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source “pulls” the free electrons,
which are the majority carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction. As the electrons flow toward the
positive side of the voltage source, additional holes are created at the depletion region. This results in a
widening of the depletion region and fewer majority carriers.

 Negative terminal of the battery attracts holes

 Positive terminal of the battery attracts electron
 Holes and free electron flows away from junction

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 10

  Depletion region widens
As the Reverse voltage increase,
Depletion region become wider
Potential difference increase
 Stop when Potential Difference = Battery Voltage
 Free electrons and Holes stop moving away from the junction
 Another way of understanding this, is to consider the conduction properties of the depletion region.
 It is completely depleted of majority current carriers.
 The free electrons produced by the doping process in the N type material, have migrated across the
junction and the majority carriers, (holes), in the P type have been lost, due to recombining with these
electrons.
 Therefore the conduction properties within the depletion layer, have been reduced to that of pure silicon
and so it forms a high resistance barrier, between the conductive material either side.

REVERSE BIAS
 OFF SWITCH
 Current is approximately zero
 Depletion Region increase

 Reverse Saturation Current

Estimation Formula
 Every 10 °C increase = 100% increase in saturation current
 Every 1°C increase = 7% increase in saturation current

10 °C = 2 Is
1°C = 1.07 Is

Exact Formula

𝑰𝒔𝒇 = 𝑰𝒔𝒊 𝒆𝟎.𝟎𝟕 ∆𝑻

Where:
ISf = final reverse saturation current
ISi = initial reverse saturation current

 BASIC CIRCUIT

 DIODE CURVE
NON LINEAR DEVICE
 I vs V graph is not straight due to barrier potential.
 When Vb is less than Vth, diode current is small, when Vb exceed Vth, diode current increase rapidly.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 11

 FORWARD REGION
When Vb is less than Vth, diode current is small, when Vb exceed Vth, diode current increase rapidly.

 REVERSE REGION
Negative Voltage input to a diode.
Small current due to Surface Leakage, Transient and Saturation Current.

CURRENT FLOWING IN REVERSE BIAS DIODE

1. Saturation Current
-Very small current
-Due to thermal energy that continuously create a pair of free electron and holes
-Called Minority-Carrier Current
 Saturation Current is the reversed current caused by thermally produced minority carrier
 Saturation means can’t get more than what is produced thermally.

Note:
Increasing the reverse voltage (battery) will not increase saturation current since minority carrier is
thermally created

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 12

 2. Surface Leakage Current
Small current that flows on the surface of the crystal caused by surface impurities and imperfection
in the crystal structure

3. Transient Current
 As reverse voltage increase, Depletion layer widens, as it adjust to its new width, current flow
on the external circuit with its time dictated by the RC circuit
 When Depletion Layer stop to increase, transient current drop to zero
 It is Ignore at frequency less than 10Mhz (skin effect)

General Rule:
Current is approximately zero in Reversed Bias silicon diode (too small to notice)

 BREAKDOWN REGION
 Excessive Negative Voltage input to a diode.
 Rapid Increase in Current due to avalanche.
 Will destroy the diode.
 Minimum reverse bias voltage that makes the diode conduct appreciably in reverse.
 Maximum reverse bias voltage that can be applied without causing an exponential increase in the
leakage current in the diode.

BREAKDOWN
is characterized by the rapid increase of the current under reverse bias.

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
-is the corresponding applied voltage
-typically 50V (can be found in the datasheet)

NOTE:
As long as the current is limited, exceeding the breakdown voltage of a diode does no harm to the
diode.

Once breakdown voltage is reach, a large minority carriers suddenly appears in Depletion Region,
diode conduct heavily-due to avalanche effect

AVALANCHE EFFECT
---It is a form of electric current multiplication that can allow very large currents within materials
which are otherwise good insulators.
---occur at higher reverse voltage (at breakdown)

HOW AVALANCHE EFFECT HAPPENS

1. During reverse bias mode, we have small reverse minority carrier current (at saturation)
2. When Reverse voltage increase, it force minority carrier to move quickly
3. These Minority carrier collides with the atom on the crystal and having enough energy can
knock valence electron loose, producing free electron
Geometric progression (1, 2, 4, 8)
One free electron will knocks one free electron to create 2 free electron
4. It happens over repeatedly until reverse current become large

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 13

 Note:
There is a hysteresis effect; once avalanche breakdown has occurred, the material will continue to
conduct even if the voltage across it drops below the breakdown voltage
This is different from a Zener diode, which will stop conducting once the reverse voltage drops
below the breakdown voltage.

LESSON 2.2 DIODE EQUIVALENT MODELS

 DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

 1st APPROXIMATION (IDEAL DIODE)

 Diode is equivalent to a switch: Acts as a perfect conductor when forward biased and as a perfect
insulator when reverse biased.
 Used or ideal for troubleshooting

FORWARD
 Perfect Conductor (Zero Resistance)

REVERSE
 Perfect Insulator (Infinite Resistance)

 2nd APPROXIMATION (PRACTICAL DIODE MODEL)

Or Simplified Model or Constant Voltage Source
 No current exist until source voltage overcome the barrier potential of the diode.
 Excellent for troubleshooting and design analysis

FORWARD
 When supply is greater than 0.7 V

REVERSE
 When supply is less than 0.7 V

 3rd APPROXIMATION (COMPLETE DIODE MODEL)

Piecewise-Linear Model
 Includes bulk resistance, RB
 After diode turns on, voltage increases linearly and proportionally with increase in current

Bulk Resistance – ohmic resistance of semiconductor material

During conduction:
VD = 0.7 V + IDRD

After diode turns on, Diode voltage increase LINEARLY and in proportion with the increase in
current in current.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 14

 BULK RESISTANCE
 Above Knee Voltage, current increase rapidly. Meaning, small voltage causes large increase in the
diode current.
 After the barrier potential has been overcome, all that impedes the current is the OHMIC
RESISTANCE of the P and N region
 BULK RESISTANCE is the sum of ohmic resistance (P and N).

RB = RP + RN

Note: RB is often less than 1 ohms

Depends on the datasheet. Always less than 1 ohms

Usual value is 0.23 ohms (1N4001-Fairchild Semiconductor)

The typical 1N4001 has a forward voltage drop of 0.93 V when the current is 1A and the junction
temperature is 25°C.

𝟎. 𝟗𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝑩 = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑 Ω
𝟏−𝟎

If you test thousands of 1N4001s, you will find that a few will have as much as 1.1 V across them when
the current is 1A.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the load voltage and load current on the circuit below using 1st approximation.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 15

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
2. Calculate the load voltage and load current on the circuit below using 2nd approximation.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
3. Calculate the load voltage and load current on the circuit below using 3rd approximation.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 16

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 17
LESSON 2.3 DIODE CIRCUITS

 DIODE CONFIGURATION (with DC Inputs: SERIES)

For the series configuration shown, draw the equivalent circuit and determine VD , VR and ID using 2nd
approximation.

a. Determine first the state of the diode.

b. Then draw the equivalent circuit and determine VD , VR and ID

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
4. Determine Vo and ID for the series circuit shown.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 18

 5. Determine ID, VD2 and Vo

 DIODE CONFIGURATION (with DC Inputs: PARALLEL AND SERIES-PARALLEL)

6. Determine VO, I1, ID1, and ID2 for parallel diode configuration of circuit below.

7. Determine the current I for the given network.

8. Determine the voltage Vo for network shown.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 19

ACTIVITY

1. What is the barrier potential of a silicon diode when the temperature is 100˚C.
ANS. Vf = 0.55V

2. A silicon diode has a saturation current of 5nA at 27˚C. Estimate the I S at 100˚C?
ANS. 784.03 nA (Estimation); 828.35 nA (Exact)

3. Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo for the series dc configuration. (Use 2nd approximation)
ANS. I = 2.07 mA, V1= 9.729 V, V2 = 4.554 V, Vo = -0.446 V

V2

4. Determine the current I1, I2 and ID2 for the given network. (Use 2nd approximation)
ANS. I1 = 212.12 uA, I2 = 1.54 mA, ID1 = 1.33 mA

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 20