One-dimensional Two-phase Flow Graham B. Wallis Associate Professor of Engineering. rin, ‘Thayer School of Engineering Dartmouti h CollegeOne-dimensional Two-phase Flow Copyright © 1969 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Ail rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without ‘the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-75170 07-067942:8 7891011 KGPKGP 8987654Preface The purpose of this book is to make a thorough presentation of the basic techniques for analyzing one-dimensional two-phase flows and to show how they can be applied to a wide variety of practical problems. The subject. has immense importance in a large variety of traditional engi- neering ‘disciplines. It is ripe for development to the point where it can rank on a par with compressible fluid flow and boundaiy layer theory as.a mature branch of fluid mechanics. Eyentually some of the simpler material should diffuse down into eatly undergraduate courses. Since it would take many volumes to do justice to all aspects of two-phase flows, the scope of this book has been limited to flows which are essentially one dimensional, occurring in ducts and channels or on continuous surfaces. The use of velocity and concentration profiles per- mits variations across the direction of flow. Multidimensional phe- nomena. are introduced only when they are needed to put the one-dimen- sional assumptions in perspective or to provide results which are needed before the problem can be adequately specified. For example, the two- dimensional flow field around and within a bubble rising in a liquid is vvl PREFACE not derived or discussed, but the resulting dependence of velocity on diameter is quoted. Of course, many of the one-dimensional equations and techniques are readily extended to the general case by substituting the appropriate vectors for scalars in the mathematics. In the interest of brevity, attention has been confined almost entirely to the fluid mechanies of two-phase flow. Detailed discussions of heat and mass transfer phenomena and of the mechanics of nucleation during phase change have been omitted. The reader who is interested in certain problems of boiling, condensation, flashing, freezing, combus- tion, and flows with chemical reaction will therefore find that he may need to gather some supplementary information before a complete analysis can be performed. Most of the analytical developments have been selected for their generality and usefulness for predicting parameters which are of engi- neering interest. Typical variables of concern are pressure and density variations along a duet, rates of discharge from containers, liquid film thickness, spatial variations in the concentrations of the phases, flow patterns, and the factors which limit the performance of equipment. The book is designed for use both as a university text and as a reference for engineers and researchers. It is divided into two parts. Part 1, consisting of Chaps. 1 to 7, is concerned with analytical tech- niques which have a broad and quite general validity. These techniques are illustrated by cxamples from various fields of engincering. The emphasis is on generality, the mastering of key concepts, and the develop- ment of analytical skill, familiarity, and facility. Part 2 is organized around particular phase combinations, flow regimes, and practical applications. For example, the specific topics of fluidization and scdimentation are considered as subsections under the heading of “Fluid-particle Systems” which is the title of Chap. 8. An entire chapter is devoted to each of the major gas-liquid flow patterns. All of the techniques which are developed in Part 1 ave used in Part 2 when they are appropriate for the particular situation. Specific caleula- tion procedures, correlations, flow regime boundaries, and the individual idiosyncrasies of certain systems are discussed. The emphasis is on the prediction of useful engineering parameters. Single-phase flows are discussed at any length only in Chap. 6 in order to clarify the concepts of wave motion and interaction. Many textbooks in fluid mechanics are weak in this area. ew, if any, make any reference to continuity waves. Most of them fail to point out that compressibility and gravity waves are examples of a general class of dynamic waves which are produced by forces resulting from any form’ of concentration gradient. In order (0 preserve a reasonable size, many theoretical develop-PREFACE. vii ments are relegated to the status of problems in which the route is indi- cated or the answer is provided but the details of the derivation are omitted. The many fascinating aspects of multidimensional, multiphase flows are also excluded except when they have special relevance for completing the description of particular phenomena. The reader is assumed to possess a basic knowledge of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics and to be familiar with the methods for deriving conservation equations from suitable control volumes. No attempt is made to reiterate the derivation of fundamental theorems and in most cases merely the results are written down. It may be useful for students who are unfamiliar with the particular form of some of these relationships to derive them from first principles and gain confidence in their validity. From the academic point of view the book is probably too long for a single course. Parts 1 and 2 can be used for a two-term sequence for graduate students in mechanical, civil, or chemical engineering or with a particular interest in fluid mechanics in a flexible curriculum. A more elementary course, perhaps suitable for a senior elective following a general fluid mechanics course, can be constructed by combining Chaps, 1 to 4 with related material from Chaps. 8 to 12, The more advanced topics of wave motion, unsteady flow, velocity profiles, and interfacial phenomena can then be reserved for a later course. Honors students who are more interested in the overall theoretical picture might study Part 1 in detail, leaving Part 2 for independent reading. For the professional engineer and researcher, Part 1 provides a theoretical perspective within which he ean view the entire scope of the subject and perhaps broaden his interests. Part 2 provides the answers to more specific practical problems. I have not tried to write a scientific or technological history. A detailed account, of who did what, when, and how has been avoided. ‘The book is intended to be read on its own and to be intelligible without frequent reference to the published literature. Bibliographical material is cited only in order to give credit where credit is due or to indicate where the reader may find more specific and detailed information. The text has developed from parts of the lecture notes for summer courses which I offered jointly with John G. Collier at Dartmouth College (1965, 1966, 1968), The University of Glasgow (1967), and Stanford Uni- versity (1967). ‘This material has been considerably reorganized to be more suitable for use by’students and by those who are unfamiliar with the field. Numerous worked examples and problems have been added to give physical meaning to the theoretical concepts and to promote an awareness of practical applications. I am very much indebted to my students, J. Michael Turner,vili PREFACE Andrew Porteous, Philip E. Meyer, Dale E. Runge, Stephen 8. MacVean, Stanley F. Birch, Gary Grulich, Thomas E. Brady, and Donald A. Steen who worked problems, searched the literature, wrote computer programs, and performed experiments which contributed immensely to the text. The work would also have been impossible without the administrative and clerical support of the Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College, in particular the thoroughly reliable and painstaking secretarial work of Edith G, Henson. The part of Chap. 3 describing entropy generation in separated flow |s mostly taken from my article in the International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer (vol. 11, pp. 459-472, 1968) and is reprinted by per- mission, I am also indebted to the Institution of Chemical Engineers (London, England) for allowing me to quote the material on sedimenta- tion in Chap. 8 from my paper at the Symposium on the Interaction between Fluids and Particles, London, 1962. The choice of nomenclature was mostly decided during conversa- tions with Dy. Novak Zuber in 1964, during which we tried to develop a consistent set from the prolific symbols used by numerous authors in many fields. Granam B. WatsContents Preface List of Symbols xvii Partone ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES 1 Introduction 3 Ll wile 18 wid What Is Two-phase Flow? $ Mothods of Analysis & Correlations 6 - Simple Analytical Models 6 Integral Analysis 6 Differential Analysis € Universal Phenomena 6 Flow Regimes 6 Notation 9 Simple Definitions 9 Properties 14CONTENTS Pressure Drop 14 Coordinates 14 J Units 16 Problems 15 References 6 2 Homogeneous Flow uv 21 Introduction 17 2.2 One-dimensional Steady Homogeneous Equilibrium Flow 18 Further Development of the Momentum Equation 23 2.3 The Homogeneous Friction Factor 26 Laminar Flow 26 Turbulent Flow 28 24 Pressure Drop in Bends, Tees, Orifices, Valves, Ete. 36 2.5 Unsteady Plow 35 Problems 37 References a 3. Separated Flow a 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Steady Flow in which the Phases Are Considered Together but Their Velocities Ave Allowed to Differ 43 Continuity 44 Momentum 44 Energy 46 Evaluation of Wall Shear Stress and Void Fraction 49 Flow of Boiling Water in Straight Pipes 35 3.3 One-dimensional Separated Flow in which the Phases Are Considered Separately 61 Continuity Equations 61 Momentum Equations 62 °8.4 Flow with Phase Change 64 . 3.5 Flow in which Inertia Effects Dominate 68 3.6 Use of the Concept of Entropy Generation to Evaluate the Coefficient a 78 3.7 Energy Equations 80 Problems. 82 References 88 4. The Drift-flux Model 9 4.1 Introduction 89 v4.2 General Theory 90 J438 Gravity-dominated Flow Regimes with No Wall Shear 90 44 Corrections to the Simple Theory 97 4.5 Sign Conventions and Identification of Components 1 and 2 101 4.6 Unsteady Flow 103CONTENTS xt Problems 103 References 105 5 Velocity and Concentration Profiles 106 5.1 Introduction 106 5.2 Qualitative Aspects 107 5.3. Differential Analysis 108 Velocity Profiles in Single-phase Flow 108 Velocity Profiles in Two-phase Flow 109 54 Integral Analysis 115 5.5 More Complex Methods of Analysis 117 Problems 118 References wa. 6 One-Dimensional Waves 1 6.1 Introduction 122 6.2 Continuity Waves in Single-phase Flow 123 ‘The Formation and Stability of Continuity Shocks 127 Stability of Continuity Waves 130 The Effect of a Source of Matter 180 6.3 Continuity Waves in Incompressible Two-component Flow 133 64 Dynamic Waves 185 Dynamic Waves in Single-component Flow 136 Examples of Dynamic Waves in Single-component Flow 186 Long Waves in Canal of Constant Width 136 ‘Waves in a Homogeneous Compressible Fluid 137 Dynamic Waves in Incompressible Two-component Flow in a Constant Avea Duct 187 An Example of Dynamic Waves in Incompressible Two-component Flow; Waves in a Rectangular Horizontal Duct 139 ‘The Effect of Compressibility on Dynamie Waves in Two-component Flow 14f . The Effect of Phase Change 146 . 6.5 ‘The Interaction between Dynamic and Continuity Waves 140 Single-phase Flow 146 Incompressible Two-component Flow 149 6.6 Dynamic Shock Waves 162 Normal Compressibility Shocks 162 Oblique Shock Waves 164 Relaxation Phenomena 165 Problems ’ 156 References 160 7 Interfacial Phenomena . 161 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Velocity Boundary Conditions 161 7.3 Stress Boundary Conditions 162 Surface-tension Effects 162TA 75 CONTENTS The Effect of Phase Change on Interfacial Stresses 165 Further Effects 169 Problems. References parttwo PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 8 Suspensions of Particles in Fluids 8.1 8.2 8.3 84 86 8.7 8.8 89 Introduction 175 One-dimensional Vertical Flow of a Uniform Incompressible Dispersion with No Wall Friction 176 General Theory of Uniform Steady Flow 176 ‘Perminal Velocity of a Single Particle 176 Evaluation of the Index n 178 Forces on the Particles and the Fluid £79 Particulate Fluidization 183 ‘The Minimum Fluidization Velocity 183 Pressure Drop through a Fluidised Bed 188 Fixed Bed 18% Incipient Fluidization 186 The Fluidized State 186 Summary of Calculation Procedures for Particulate Fluidized Beds 187 Stationary Bed 187 Moving Bed 187 Unsteady Flow in Particle Dispersions 189 Propagation of Continuity Waves 189 Bateh Sedimentation 190 A “Genoralized”” Representation of Batch Sedimentation 194 Partiele-particle Forees 202 Unsteady Flow in the Presonce of Patticle-particlo Forces 204 Stability of Fluidized Systems 205 Compressible Flow of Particle Suspensions 207 One-dimensional Steady Flow 207 Homogenoous Equilibrium Flow 209 Limiting Gases of Nonequilibrium Flow 2/0 Velocity Equilibrium, Thermal Insulation 210 ‘Thermal Equilibrium, Velocity Insulation #10 Thermal and Velocity Insulation 2/0 Similar Solutions for Constant Fractional Lag 211 Perturbation Techniques 213 Shock Waves 2/3 ‘The Relaxation Zone $15 Oblique Shocks 218 ‘Two- and Three-dimensional Effects #18 Other Effects #19 8.10 Additional Foree Components in Rapidly Accelerating Flows 219 169 42 U5CONTENTS alii 8.12 8.13 Apparent Mass 219 ‘The Basset Force 221 Friction Characteristics of Particle Suspensions 222 Laminar Flow 224 Turbulent Flow 228 Pneumatic Transport 228 Nonuniform Particle Distribution 228 Stratification 229 Gravitational Effects 229 Symmetrical Radial Concentration Variations 250 Channeling or Spouting in Fluidized Beds 280 Periodic Flows 230 Slugging 230 ‘Wave Formation in Stratified Flow 231 Aggregative Flows 231 Floceulation 281 Bubbling 282 Percolation Theory 284 Problems 235 References 239 9 Bubbly Flow 243 oF 9.2 9.3, 9.4 9.5 Introduction 248 Bubble Formation 244 Bubble Formation at an Orifice 244 Formation of Bubbles by Taylor Instability 246 Formation of Bubbles by Evaporation or Mass Transfer 247 ‘The Influence of Shear Streases on Bubble 247 One-dimensional Vertical Flow of a Bubbly Mixture without Wall Sheer 247 ‘The Rise Velocity of Single Bubbles 248 The Influence of Containing Walls 257 Influence of Vibrations 262 ‘The Influence of Void Fraction 262 Modifications to the Simple Theory to Take Account of Variations in Concentration and Velocity 255 Unsteady Flow 266 Special Problems Associated with the Bubbly Flow Regime 260 Bubble Size 260 Agglomeration and Fracture of Bubbles 260 Bubble Growth and Céllapse 261 Friction and Momentum Flux in Bubbly Flow 268 ‘The Velocity of Sound in Bubbly Mixtures’ 26% ‘The Limits of the Bubbly Flow Regime 265 Isothermal Homogeneous Flow of Gas-liquid Mixtures in Straight Pipes 269xiv CONTENTS 9.10 Isothermal Homogeneous Flow with Area Change Only 277 ‘Use of the Equations of Motion for Both Components 274 9.11 Shock Waves 274 Problems, 24 References 209 10 Slug Flow 282 10.1 Introduction 282 10.2 General Theory 282 Bubble Dynamics 282 Bubble Velocity 283 Void Fraction 284 Pressure Drop 284 10.3 Vertical Slug Flow 285 Rise Velocity of Single Bubbles in Stagnant Liquid 286 Inertia Dominant. 285 Viscosity Dominant 287 Surface Tension Dominant 287 The General Case 288 Use of the Bubble Velocity in the Drift Flux Model 291 Improvements to the Simplified Theory 292 Correction for Long Bubbles 294 Viscosity Effects 299 10.4 Horizontal Slug Flow 299 Bubble Velocity 299 Void Fraction 302 Pressure Drop 802 10.5 Slug Flow in Inclined Pipes $04 10.6 The Limits of the Slug-flow Regime 807 10.7 Pressure Oscillations in Slug Flow . $12 Problems. 313, References 314 1. Annular Flow 315 1L1 Introduction 315 11.2 Horizontal Flow $16 ‘The Boundaries of the Annular and Stratified Regimes in Horizontal Flow 316 Correlations 317 Separated Flow, Annular Geometry Model 317 ‘The Interfacial Shear Stress 318 The Wall Shear Stress 323 Evaluation of Pressure Drop and Void Fraction 324 Extension to the General Case $26 Improvements to the Theory 326 Integral Analysis 326 ‘The Liquid Film 326CONTENTS Xv 11.3 1a ALS ‘The Gas Core $29 Differential Analysis 330 Countercurrent Vertical Annular Flow 330 Falling Film Flow 31 Stability of Falling Films 885 Flooding 336 Empirical Flooding Correlations 336 Turbulent Flow in Both Components 936 Viscous Plow in the Liquid 339 Prediction of Flooding from the Separate Cylinders Model 343 Turbulent Flow 349 Viscous Flow in the Liquid 44 Vertical Upwards Cocurrent Annular Flow 345 The Boundaries of the Vertieal Annular Flow Regime 345 The Slug-annular Transition 346 Criteria for Upwards or Downwards Flow in a Liquid Film 346 “Bridging” of the Gas Core $47 “Entrainment”? Measurements Using a Sampling Probe 347 Comparison of Void Fraction Data with Theory 348 Pressure-drop Measurements 850 Discussion $51 ‘The Annular-mist Transition 961 Correlations for Predicting Void Fraction and Pressure Drop 851 The Dartmouth Correlation for Void Fraction 351 The Modified Martinelli Correlation 363 Simple Flow Models 364 Separate-cylinders Model 854 Homogeneous Model 365 Separated-flow Model 355 Improvements to the Separnted-ow Model $60 ‘The Liquid Film 860 ‘The Gas Core 363 The Gas-liquid Interface 366 Additional Effects 367 Problems 368 References 372 12 Drop Flow 375 1A 12.2 12.8 12.4, 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 Introduction 375 Single-drop Formation $76 Drop Size Spectra 378 The Terminal Velocity of Single Drops in a Gravitational Field 381 One-dimensional Vertical Flow without Wall Friction 382 Flooding in Drop Flow 882 . Drop Fluidization 384 Pressure Drop in Forced Convection 385xvi CONTENTS 12.10 Entrainment 386 Qualitative Observations 886 The Effect of Inlet Conditions and Tube Length 888 Definition of a Critical Gas Velocity $88 Prodiction of the Critical Gas Velocity 390 Droplet Concentration and Velocity Distributions 391 Problems 393 References 396 Appendix 398 Index 403List of Symbols Cy Cee area; a constant or coefficient amplification factor in Bq. (6.124); a constant or coefficient; acceleration body force field; damping factor; a constant or coefficient; correction factor body force per unit volume; breadth; index; constant a constant; coefficient of apparent mass drag coefficient friction factor defined in Eq. (4.21) correction factors velocity of dynamic wave relative to average or weighted average velocity; velocity of sound; specific heat; coefficient of consolidation molal concentration of non-condensable gas velocity of compressibility wave wave velocities in homogeneous and stratified flow specific heat at constant pressure specific heat at constant volume diameter of pipe bubble diameter drop diameter orifice diameter xviz Re Qvde see hie OF Jar SEF TOP Ry 3 Bqt Rae use RE ONES ee LIST OF SYMBOLS energy dissipation per unit volume particle diameter defined by Eq. (8.80); fraction or percent entrainment base of natural logarithms; thermodynamic energy per unit mass force per unit volume of entire flow field force; funetion defined in Eq. (11.25) foree per unit volume of component mass flux acceleration due to gravity height; sign of shear stress enthalpy; heat transfer coefficient; height volumetric flux drift flux a constant; Bankoff parameter [Eq. (5.49)]; velocity ratio (Eq. (8.125)] a constant; thermal conductivity roughness length; fractional thermal lag [Eq. (8.126)] mixing length natural logarithm Mach number; mass exchange per unit volume per unit time mass flux in boiling or condensation; index; mass flow rate ratio; fraction of cylindrical bubble cross section occupied by liquid; a coefficient dimensionless inverse viscosity; index index in correlations; velocity ratio pressure pressure drop perimeter volumetric flow rate volumetric flow rate per unit width heat transfer rate radius, radius of curvature; gas constant radius. vector coordinate of a point in space Pipe or duct radi parameter defined in Eq, (3.87) source of mass entropy temperature temperature difference time wave velocity wave velocity relative to Vo; local velocity frietion velocity characteristic transverse velocity in the Reynolds flux model component velocities unperturbed component velocities average velocity; single-phase velocity relative velocity drift velocity of component 1 relative to the volumetric average average single-phase velocity weighted average velocity [Eq. (6.75)]LIST OF SYMBOLS xix Seasenene Vo continuity wave velocity be continuity wave velocity relative to average or weighted average velocity ve shock-wave velocity % specific volume v volume Ww mass flow rate w work we, shaft work by shear work xX generalized sedimentation coordinate (Eq. (8.68)]; Martinelli parameter (Eq. 3.31) 2 quality (Eq. (1.7)] y generalized sedimentation coordinate y spatial coordinate; distance from wall 2 coordinate in direction of motion « void fraction; volumetric fraction of component 2 8 contact angle (degrees); shock angle; source of matter per unit length; dimensionless pressure drop 7 isentropic exponent 3 film thickness; volumetric flow rate ratio « volumetric fraction of component 1; Reynolds flux r fraction of dissipated energy transferred to component 2 ” limiting viscosity at high rates of shear; fraction of force due to phase change acting on component 2 o angle to vertieal; wedge angle x wavelength; parameter defined by Eq. (10.57) a viscosity y kinematic viscosity, x/o © natural constant, a density o surface tension 7 shear stress 6 heat flux; function; velocity potential $i %> Martinelli parameters (Eqs. (3.24) and (3.25)} ® shape factor ° frequency 2 correction factor (Fig. 3.13); reaction frequency (Eq. (2.92)] ¥ 4 function defined by Eq. (8.18) Tr ‘mass flow per unit width Subscripts component 1; state 1; location 1 component 2; state 2; location 2 air acceleration : bubble continuous phase; curvature; core in annular flow drop; discontinuous phase exit; effective value of liguid or fluidxx LIST OF SYMBOLS F friction g gas @ gravitational % component #; interface; inlet; inside; inflexion; quantum state a relative te or pertaining to average volumetric flux j m mixed mean in homogeneous flow; value at tube center in single-phase flow x, N normal O initial or boundary value; orifice; outside; zero quality; zero flow rate; stagna~ tion; relative to stationary fluid or particles p pipe; particle 3 wold; slug; shock; entropy # tangential; turbulent w wave; wall y yield single particle; drop or bubble in an infinite medium; limiting value TP two phase é when the concentration of the continuous phase is at angle 6 to vertical Note: Subscripts in Chap. 6 denote partial differentiation while subscripts outside brackets enclosing partial derivatives denote variables which are kept constant accel acceleration crit critical mf i friet friction max maximum min minimum Dimensioniess Groups Fr Froude number M =~ Mach number Nu Nusselt number Pr Prandtl mumber Re Reynolds number We Weber number Doi{Do(or ~ 9:4 oP%or — pe) @ ¥ Pro me perty group: Nxs Edtvés number: js ___ dros" [gD(os ~ p)]*LIST OF SYMBOLS * Me 7 igDGr ~ oP jt B25 ms " Diglor = ps) Apt = Upsdz) — py cos @ ° ales ~ 0) fee)" my Tete (Pe Ne Prefix differential partial differential small change negative increment gradient operator divergence dr element of volume at r dA clement of area ddboon Superscripts * — dimensionless form of; at point where the Mach number is unity modified; perturbed; in new frame of reference + dimensionless form of velocity profiles Abbreviations Btu British thermal unit cfin cubic fect per minute em ceatimeter fps feet per second ft feet hr hour lb pound mm__ millimeter psia pounds per square inch absolute °F degrees Fahrenheit Some Uncommon Abbreviations Used in References Atomie Energy Commission AEEW Energy Establishment, Winfrith, UKAEA AERE Atomic Energy Rescareh Vstablishment, UKAEA ANL Argonne National Laboratory CISE, Centro Informazioni Studi Esperienze, Milan, Italy EURAEC Euratom-Atomie Energy Commission Joint Program. NYO New York Operations Office of U.S. Atomie Encrgy Commission UKAFA — United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority xxiOne-dimensional Two-phase Flowpart one Analytical Techniques1 Introduction 1.1 WHAT IS TWO-PHASE FLOW? A phase is simply one of the states of matter and can be either a gas, a liquid, or a solid. Multiphase flow is the simultaneous flow of several phases. T'wo-phase flow is the simplest case of multiphase flow. The term two-component is sometimes used to describe flows in which the phases do not consist of the same chemical substance. For example, steam-water flows are two-phase, while air-water flows are two-component. Some two-component flows (mostly liquid-liquid) consist of a single-phase but are often called two-phase flows in which the phases are identified as the continuous or discontinuous components, Since the mathematics which describe two-phase or two-component. flows are identical, it does not really matter which definitions are chosen. The two expressions will therefore be treated as synonyms in most developments in this book. There are many common examples of two-phase flows. Some, such as fog, smog, smoke, rain, clouds, snow, icebergs, quicksands, dust storms, 34 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW and mud, occur in nature. Others, such as boiling water, tea making, egg scrambling, salad tossing, jam spreading, cream whipping, sugar stirring, and sphaghetti twirling, are frequent occurrences in kitchens and dining rooms. Several everyday processes involve a sequence of different two-phase flow configurations or flow patterns. In a coffee percolator, for example, the water is first boiled to form steam bubbles, alternate slugs of liquid and vapor then rise through the central tube, and the hot water percolates through the coffee grounds and eventually drips down into the pot. When beer is poured from a bottle, the rate of discharge is limited by the rise velocity of slug-flow bubbles in the neck; subsequently bubbles nucleating from defects in the walls of the glass rise to form a pleasing foam at the surface. Bread and cakes begin with a multiphase mixing process, are cooked with the release of bubbles, except when the appro- priate ingredient is forgotten, and are eventually consumed orally in one of the most common multiphase phenomena of all. ‘The subtle blend of flavor, texture, and temperature that is achieved in a perfect Martini is the result of skillful control of a two-phase chemical- engineering process. Biological systems contain very few pure liquids. Body fluids, such as blood, semen, and milk, are all multiphase, containing a variety of cells, particles, or droplets in suspension. ‘Their behavior can be described by much the same equations as are used for analyzing paints, inks, pastes, and nuclear fuel slurries. A more technical example can be taken from the familiar area of fire prevention and control. Almost without exception the various methods of fire extinguishing are all multiphase processes, involving sprays, jets, foams, or powders. Even the extinguishers which use pure gas cannot be analyzed without considering the flash evaporation which occurs as the material is expelled from the high-pressure storage cylinder. Moreover, the fires themselves usually result from a reaction between solid or liquid fuels and oxygen in the air, produce smoke and steam, which are invisible unless they are two-phase, and cause death by irritat- ing the nose and throat until the victim drowns in his own multiphase secretions. Deliberate fires in boilers, automobile engines, and rockets are designed to burn two-phase dispersions. Examples are equally profuse in the industrial field. Over half of all chemical engineering is concerned with multiphase flows. Many industrial processes such as power generation, refrigeration, and distilla- tion depend on evaporation and condensation cycles, The performance of desalination plants is limited by the “state of the art” in two-phase technology. Steelmaking, paper manufacturing, and food processing all contain critical steps which depend on the proper functioning of multi-INTRODUCTION 5 phase devices. Many problems of air and water pollution are due to unwanted two-phase flows. 1.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS Two-phase flows obey all of the basic laws of fluid mechanics. The equations are merely more complicated or more numerous than those of single-phase flows. The techniques for analyzing one-dimensional flows fall into several classes which can conveniently be arranged in ascending order of sophisti- cation, depending on the amount of information which is needed to describe the flow, as shown in the following paragraphs. CORRELATIONS Correlation of experimental data in terms of chosen variables is a con- venient way of obtaining design equations with a minimum of analytical work, The crudest correlations are mere mathematical exercises, readily performed with modern computers, while more advanced techniques use dimensional analysis or a grouping of several variables together on a logical basis. A virtue of correlations is that they are easy to use. As long as they are applied to situations similar to those that. were used to obtain the original data, they can be quite satisfactory, within statistical limits which are usually known. However, they can be quite misleading if used. indiscriminately in a variety of applications. Furthermore, since little insight into the basie phenomena is achieved by data correlation, no indication is given of ways in which performance can be improved or accuracy of prediction increased. In general, correlations will be avoided in this book unless they possess a viable claim to generality. Those which are quoted will be dimensionless and have some theoretical basis or have been tested against a variety of data, SIMPLE ANALYTICAL MODELS Very simple analytical models which take no account of the details of the flow can be quite successful, both for organizing experimental results and for predicting design parameters. For example, in the homogeneous model the components are treated as a pseudofluid with average properties, without bothering with a detailed description of the flow pattern. A suspension of droplets in a gas, a foam, or the stratified flow of a gas over @ liquid are all treated exactly alike. In the separated-flow model the phases are assumed to flow side by side, Separate equations are written for each phase and the interaction between the phases is alsoONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW idered. In the drift-flux model attention is focused on the relative ion. Each of these simple models is aceorded an entire chapter in Part 1 is used extensively throughout Part 2 of this book. SRAL ANALYSIS 1e-dimensional integral analysis staris from the assumption of the of certain functions which describe, for example, the velocity or entration distributions in.a duct. These functions ave then made to fy appropriate boundary conditions and the basic fluid-mechanies tions in integral form. Similar techniques are quite commonly used nalyzing single-phase boundary layers. RENTIAL ANALYSIS lifferential analysis the velocity and concentration fields are deduced suitable differential equations. Usually, following the one-dimen- | flow idealization, the equations are written for time-averaged tities, as in single-phase theories of turbulence. More sophisticated ons of the theory may even consider temporal variations, Efforts will be made throughout the book to show how the various of analysis are related. Usually the more complex theories lead - inclusion of additional effects and the prediction of numerical values rection factors, which can be applied to the simpler theories in order tease their accuracy. The complex theory may also lead to an tical rather than empirical relationship between the important les. Thus these sequential levels of analysis resemble a pyramid ich the broader and more general theories serve to support the more ximate and simpler techniques, SAL PHENOMENA dition to this hierarchy of analytical methods, there is a class of owerful techniques based on universal phenomena that are inde- nt of the flow regime, the analytical model, or the particular system. al of these methods are the various theories of wave motion and 1um techniques for obtaining the locus of the limiting behavior of a 1. ‘These ideas thread their way through the various chapters and o bind them together into a uniform conceptual framework. standing of these concepts should develop as each new applica- described, )W REGIMES ice that is paid for a greater accuracy in prediction of results is an @ in complexity. In two-phase flow the amount of knowledge INTRODUC which is ingly gre rising in : Tne Vise Den Surt ‘The last i can take Heat tran Perk is to breal dominant Part morpholos Pattern is not adequ tinguishin, flow or th terminolog have been not be qu phological flow in gas regimes w usually rex are denotec drop flows) may. be us monotonou As an @ sequence maps in wh: two indeper ponents thi: 1.2 and 13INTRODUCTION, 7 which is needed in order to perform a detailed analysis is often surpris- ingly great. For example, in studying the motion of a single gas bubble rising in a stagnant liquid, one is concerned with all of the following effects: Inertia of the gas and the liquid Viscosity of the gas and the liquid Density difference and buoyancy Surface tension and surface contamination ‘The last item above is itself extremely complicated since “contamination” can take the form of dirt, dissolved matter, or surface-active agents. Heat transfer and mass transfer to the bubble also alter its motion. Perhaps the first step in rendering this hydralike problem tractable is to break it up into various regimes which are each governed by certain dominant geometrical or dynamic parameters. Part of the definition of the flow regime is a description of the morphological arrangement of the components, or flow pattern. The flow pattern is often obvious from visual or photographic observations but is not adequate to define the regime completely because of additional dis- tinguishing criteria, such as the difference between laminar and turbulent flow or the relative importance of various forces. In order to keep the terminology manageable, the numerous imaginative expressions which have been used throughout the literature to describe flow patterns will not be quoted. It is far simpler to-restrict classifications to the moz- phological flow patterns (for example, bubbly, slug, annular, and drop flow in gas-liquid systems) and create further subdivisions into distinct regimes within each of these classifications. Hybrid flow patterns, usually representing a region of transition from one pattern to another, are denoted by hyphenated expressions (thus, slug-annular and annular drop flows). Some synonyms (e.g., “fog” or “mist” instead of “drop”) may be used when perfunctory repetition of a single word becomes monotonous. . ‘As an example of the complexity of two-phase flows, Fig. 1:1 shows a sequence of flow patterns occurring in an evaporator as more and more liquid is converted to vapor. Obviously different parts of the evaporator require different methods of analysis, and the problem of how one regime develops from another has to be considered also. _ Numerous authors have presented flow-pattern and flow-regime maps in which various areas are indicated on a graph for which there are two independent coordinates. For a given apparatus and specified com- ponents this is readily done in terms of the flow rates, as shown in Figs. 1,2 and 1.3, However, since the flow regime is governed by about a8 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOM Qo [ Slug-annulor a All QD Bubbly slug Fig. 1.1 Approximate sequence of flow patterns in : vertical tube evaporator. dozen variables, a two-dimensional plot is quite inadequate for genera representation. In this text the criteria for regime boundaries, whe . they are known, will be discussed in detail as each regime is analyzed When these criteria are represented on a two-dimensional plot for par ticular applications, it will be found that the areas covered by a particula regime change drastically both in size and shape, as variables such a pressure and diameter are changed. or certain combinations of param eters, whole regimes disappear from the map altogether.INTRODUCTION 8 1.4 NOTATION Before proceeding with the analysis of two-phase flow it will be necessary to define some of the relevant terminology. Although a detailed list of nomenclature is given at the front of this volume, it may require some explanation, Tn addition, a certain familiarity with the simple retation- ships among some of the parameters will enable the analysis to be under- stood more rapidly. SIMPLE DEFINITIONS ‘The two components are distinguished by subseripts 1 and 2 in general, or by subscripts / and g for a liquid-gas system or f and s for a fluid-solid system, Component 2 is usually chosen to be the dispersed phase or the lighter phase in a stratified flow. ‘The total mass rate of flow (in pounds per second) is represented by the symbol 17. The total flow is the sum of the component flows. 1000 TTT TTT TTT E 7 Drop-onnular 1 100 t { a Annulor Homogeneous 4 3 Slug-annular, < Bubbly slug 10] Stug Bubbie 1 poi L pbitii 0.1 100 10 Liquid flux jj, fos > Fig, 1.2 Flow-pattern boundaries for vertical upflow of air and water at 15 psia in a 1-in.-dinm tube deduced from equations in the text.10 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW 3 3 = Plug and churn flow 3 23 * = Intermediate region 2 £2 Annular flow ge Fy © = Nonwetting £5 86 ¥ = No disturbance waves 3, 32 ¥ = Pulses 400r 8A 5 i ith 58] os 4 = Disturbance waves with 234 a5 |, smail ripple waves Bal] es 4 = Disturbance waves with ge large ripple waves 3S . = 300}- 4 s 4 aoa . s la g la . 2 . & “ . = a ‘ g Disturbonce woves | 8 8 Ss 7 and ripple waves 100F.. 7? Intermediate region | Plug and churn flow ol pS 0 100 200 300 Water flow rate, Ib/hr Fig. 1.3 Various “regimes” or subdivisions of the annular flow pattern for cocurrent upward flow of air and water in a 1}4in.-diam pipe at 15 psia. (Hall-Taylor and Hewitt.) Therefore W=Wit We a.) ‘The volumetric rate of flow (in cubic feet per second) is represented by the symbol Q, The following rélationships are obvious: Q= a+ (1.2) mM : 1.3 a= (1.8) Qa = Ws (1.4)INTRODUCTION n Every part of the flow field is occupied by one or other component. Hf a represents the fraction of an element of volume which is occupied at any instant by component 2, then, evidently, if the element is chosen small enough, « can only be 0 or 1. However, for most purposes a volume much larger than the discrete particles (drops or bubbles) is chosen, and « then represents an average volumetric concentration. Usually a is measured as an average over the whole flow cross section and a sufficient length of duct to eliminate local fluctuations. ‘Thus, if a pipe of length Zand cross-sectional area A is suddenly isolated by closing valves at both ends, the contents can be analyzed and the total volume Vs of com- ponent 2 in the pipe can be determined, The average value of « is then (a) = 7h (as) Often it is not possible to measure (a) over a long length of pipe because the flow is not uniform. In this case a large number of instan- taneous readings over a length 51 give the time average of a at a given location. ‘The average value of « both in space and time is then Sfotx,t) dr dé {a) = “Sala (1.6) Usually the symbol a is used loosely to represent an average volumetric concentration without bothering to define exactly how the average is to be taken. Thus, extra care is needed when periodic phenomena and nonuniform concentrations are important. In gas-liquid flows, « usually represents the void fraction, or volumetric concentration of the gas. It is often convenient, particularly in boiling or condensing applica- tions, to have a measure of the fraction of the total mass flow across a given area which is composed of each component. The quality is there- fore defined as Ww, oF (L7) Evidently x is subject to averaging laws when flow is unsteady or non- uniform, The average is to be taken over a specified surface and for a period of time. Therefore _ IGsad at = "Gaad (18) The symbol j is used to represent volumetrie flux (in feet per second) or volumetric flow rate per unit area, The flux is really a vector quantity but at the level of sophistication which is appropriate at present, j will be used exclusively to represent the scalar component in the direction of motion along a pipe or duct. The flux is related to the local compo-wz ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW nent concentration and velocity as follows: A= da) (a9) ja = ay (1.10) ‘The total focal flux is J=hthe (1.11) The following results are self-evident. Q1 = fiida (1.12) Qe = JjadA (1.13) The average volumetric flux across an area A is then Ga) =a (14) Unless variations across the flow are being considered, the brackets are usually omitted from Eq. (1.14). ‘The mass flux is represented by the symbol G (in pounds per hour per square foot). Clearly, for a small element in which the density of each component can be regarded as uniform: Gs = pa (1.16) Gr = paje (1.16) G=A+h (7) The average mass flux of component 2 across an area A is Ww @== (1.18) Although the most general description of two-component flow involves a consideration of the three-dimensional and temporal variation of all the above quantities, we shall usually be content with the one- dimensional flow assumptions and work entirely in terms of averages across the duet. Under certain circumstances, however, when large vari- ations across the duet occur, the theory will prove inadequate and more detailed analysis will be necessary. Some useful relationships for one-dimensional flow are summarized below. (1.19) 1.20)" (1.21)INTRODUCTION 13 wets (1.22) n=2 (1.23) e Ge= i (1.24) @, = we (1.25) Wi = Qi (1.26) (1.27) (1.28) (1.29) From Eqs. (1.26) through (1.29), z_tml—e@ Zhe (1.30) The relative velocity is defined as Yar = (2 — 1) = —2n (1.31) Drift velocities are defined as the difference between the component velocities and the average as follows: (1.32) (1.33) The drijt fluc represents the volumetric flux of a component relative to a surface moving at the average velocity, i.c., ju = az — J) . (1.34) ju = (1 — avi — 9) (1.35) Substituting Eq. (1.11) into Eq. (1.34) and using Eq. (1.10), we obtain Ju = ja — of +92) = fa — @) — agi (1.36) Similarly, jis = ja — (1 — ea (1.37) ‘Therefore : ‘ jin = ~du (1.88) This symmetry is an important and useful property of the drift flux.4 ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW Substituting for 7; and je in Eq. (1.37) by using Eqs. (1.22) and (1.28), we get ju = a1 — a) ~ %) = a1 -— oon (1.39) ‘Therefore the drift flux is proportional to the relative velocity. Any system of units may be used in the above equations as long as the requirements of consistency and compatibility are satisfied. Velocities which are characteristic of the overall flow, such as wave velocities, are represented by capital letters with appropriate subscripts. For example, the continuity wave velocity is given the symbol Vy and the shock-wave velocity the symbol V.. PROPERTIES To distinguish between the symbol for volume and the symbol for velocity, the former is written in script form. Thus, the volume of a bubble is U, and the specific volume of gas is %. Care should be taken in distinguishing these symbols; for example vs, is the liquid velocity relative to the gas, whereas %, represents the change in specific volume on vaporization. The subscript convention is reversed in the case of thermodynamic properties; thus %, = % — % and hy, = hy — hy.F ‘There should be no difficulty in identifying the common symbols for properties such as p for density and x for viscosity. Surface tension is not so widely used and does not have a standard symbol; it will be represented by o with the units of force per unit length. Both enthalpy and heat-transfer coefficient have the symbol A but the context should make the distinction clear. PRESSURE DROP The symbol for pressure drop in a pipe is Ap. On the other hand dp/dz represents the rate at which the pressure increases with distance in the z direction. Therefore if z denotes the coordinate down the axis of a pipe measured in the direction of flow, the pressure drop over a length L will be = 2 dp Ap = -ff Ze (1.40) COORDINATES , Since the symbol 2 has already been chosen to represent the quality, it will be avoided for use in describing the coordinate system. Usually z will be the coordinate measured in the direction of flow and y the coordi- nate measured from a boundary, such as a-wall. The radial distance from a pipe axis will be denoted by r. } In hand work it is often convenient to use the density rather than specific volume as the basic variable in order to avoid possible confusion between the »’s and the v’s.INTRODUCTION 16 UNITS All equations are written in a consistent dimensional form and are suitable for use with any convenient system of units. Superfluous factors which represent the ratio between various conventional units have been omitted entirely. Any student who has learned to cope with the plethora of units (which have evolved by historical accident) in elementary fluid meehanies and thermodynamies courses should have developed sufficient maturity to have no difficulty using the equations in this book. PROBLEMS 1a, A bubbly mixture flows in a I-in.-diam pipe. The gas low rate is 30 efm and the Dubble velocity is determined photographically to be 100 fps. What is the void fraction? What is the liquid velocity if the liquid flow rate is 6 efm? 4.2. 300 Ib/hy of air at 70°F and 20 psia flow together with 300 ib/nr of water in a 1.25-in.-diain pipe. What is the overall volumetric ftux j? If the drift flux jgy is 10 fps, what are the average velocities of the phases? 13. A steam-water mixture with 1% quality flows at atmospheric pressure in the riser of a coffee percolator. ‘The void fraction is measured to be 80%. What is the ratio of the average steam velocity to the average water velocity? 1.4. In a certain fluid-solid system (a quicksand) the drift flux is related to the yol- umetrie concentration ¢ of the fluid by the equation in = 58-2) fps If a flux jy = 1 ips of fluid flows upward through a stationary bed of particles, what is the value of «If the particles are spheres, which have a random packing value of ¢5 = 04, is the system ‘fluidized’ or do the particles rest on one another? 1.5. Express @ in terms of the quality} the individual phase velocities, and the densities. 1.6. Express j in terms of the individual mass flow rates, the pipe diameter, and the phase densities. 1.7. Show that the drift flux is independent of the motion of an observer. 1,8, On a graph of je versus ji, for phases with given properties, show lines of constant j, constant @, and constant z. Can lines of constant « be drawn? Why not? 1.9. On the graph of j2 versus j;, show lines of constant a, if am (a) 5, = const ®) m% = const (c) juz = const (@) jue = hah — a)" 1.10. Express the momentum flux in one-dimensional flow in terms of G, , a, and the densities of the phases, For what value of a will the momentum flux be 2 minimum if @ and x are constant? For what values of « will G be a maximum if and the momentum flux are fixed? LU, Solve Prob, 1.10 using the kinetic-energy flux instead of the momentum flux. 112, Show that for incompressible flow in a constant-area duct, j is constant with position, although the individual fluxes may vary.16 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW 113, Show that the drift flux is zero when @ = 0 or « = 1, 144. Prove that avs 115, A glass is filled lo the brim with draft beer. After it has stood for a while until bubble activity ceases, He glass is observed to be 70% full. What was the original void fraction? Estinate the quality of the mixture issuing from the tap. 116, Estimate the maximum value of a ins stable fonm which was made from bubbles 1mm in diameter and has drained for a very long time until the liquid filaments are a few molecules thick 117. What value of « corresponds to a close-packed array of spheres? 148, Water at 100 psia enters a straight evaporator tube. If the velocity ratio ty/ty is constant at the value 2,5, and the mass fiux is 2X 106 Ib/(hr)(ft*), what are the values of void fraction and momentum flux when z = 0, 0.1, and 0.5? 1.19, Ina particular vertical flow regime the relative velocity is constant and equal to rp. Draw the lines of constant. « on a graph of j; versus js. Show that the lines envelop a curve in the quadrant which represents countercurrent fow. This envelope is the ‘flooding line” outside which operation is impossible, Show that the equation of the flooding line is Lyal® + |gal*® = v0%4 = py REFERENCE 1, Hall-Taylor, N., and G. F. Hewitt: AERE-R3952, UKABA, 19622 Homogeneous Flow 2.1 INTRODUCTION Homogeneous flow theory provides the simplest technique for analyzing two-phase (or multiphase) flows: Suitable average properties are deter- mined and the mixture is treated as a pseudofluid that obeys the usual equations of single-component flow. All of the standard methods of fluid mechanics can then be applied. ‘The average properties which are required are velocity, thermody- namic properties (e.g., temperature and density), and transport properties (e.g., viscosity). These pseudo properties are weighted averages and are not necessarily the same as the properties of either phase. The method. of determining suitable properties is often to start with more complex equations and to rearrange them until they resemble equivalent equations of single-phase flow. For example, the virtual viscosity of an emulsion can be obtained by analyzing the three-dimensional flow field in the two components. In another case, the apparent properties for a gas-partiele mixture are found from the separate equations for each component by assuming a class of similar solutions (Chap. 8, p. 212). wv18 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW Differences in velocity, temperature, and chemical potential between the phases will promote mutual momentum and heat and mass transfer. Often these processes proceed very rapidly, particularly when one phase is finely dispersed in the other, and it can be assumed that equilibrium is reached. In this case the average values of velocity, temperature, and chemical potential are the same as the values for each component and we have homogencous equilibrium flow. ‘The resulting equations are simple and easy to use, but it is often advisable to check the validity of the equilibrium assumptions by using the more accurate theories which will be presented in later chapters or by performing a detailed analysis of other transport processes which are beyond the scope of this book. For exam- ple, rapid acceleration and pressure changes make the equilibrium theory inaceurate for describing the discharge of flashing steam-water mixtures through short nozzles or orifices. It is necessary to consider the rates of bubble nucleation and growth in the superheated liquid. Nonequilibrium effects also occur when supercooled vapor condenses in high-velocity steam or when particles of solid propellant are burned in the nozzle of a rocket engine. In some eases the use of homogeneous theory is obviously inappro- priate. For example, countercurrent vertical flows, which are driven by gravity acting on the different densities of the phases, cannot be described by a suitable “average” velocity. This chapter will develop homogeneous flow theory using a sufficient number of examples to illustrate the techniques. More specific and detailed applications will be found in later chapters. 2.2 ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY HOMOGENEOUS EQUILIBRIUM FLOW The basic equations for steady one-dimensional homogeneous equilibrium flow in a duct are: Continuity W = pavA = const (2.1) Momentum — W9! = —4 9 — Pry — Apag cos 6 (22) dae 2 Energy z ~ @ = wt (« +5 + ro) 3) In the above equations A and P represent the duct area and perim- eter, 7» is the average wall shear stress, d¢./dz is the heat transfer per unit length of duet, z, is the vertical coordinate, and 6 is the inclination of the duet to the vertical. Work terms are assumed to be zero in the energy equation in most cases. It is often possible to use the momentum and energy equations in integral form when one is only interested in changes between particular points in the duct.HOMOGENEOUS FLOW 19 Equation (2.2) is often rewritten as an explicit equation for the pres- sure gradient. Thus di P go-am™ 4) ‘The three terms on the right side can then be regarded as frictional, accelerational, und gravitational components of the pressure gradient. Since engineers (being pessimists) ure mostly interested in pressure drops, the following definitions are usually adopted. P dp\ _ Wado ~ (2), "TE 2.6) - (2), = pag cos 0 (2.7) The total pressure gradient is then the sum of the components, as follows: ap _ (we ap ap & 7 a), + (#),.+ a&)e In addition to the above equations we usually have some knowl- edge about the equation of state for the components. For a steam-water mixture, for example, the steam tables or Mollier chart ean be employed. Vor a mixture of a gas and a solid, an equivalent equation of state can be derived by assuming equilibrium at all times between the components or by making other appropriate assumptions. ‘The mean density can be expressed in various ways. In terms of the volume fraction a, it is pn = ps + = on _ 9) whereas in terms of the quality or mass fraction specific volumes are addi- tive. Therefore (2.8) f ,lre (2.10) Pa PL Li Pm The mass of each component per unit volume can be expressed in terms of a or x to give thé following equations: 20m = aps (2.11) (1. ~ 2)pm = (1 — @)pr (2.12) Vor homogeneous steady flow with velocity equilibrium, the void20 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW fraction and quality are =o _ ih «=o nny (2.13) _ Ws LG "- WWE (2.14) ‘An example of simple homogeneous flow can be taken from the case of isentropic expansion of a steam-water mixture through a nozzle with no friction or heat transfer at the walls. For expansion between two pres- sures at constant entropy the final state can be determined on a Mollier chart. Therefore the enthalpy change and final density can be deter- mined. ‘The exit velocity then follows from the integral of Eq. (2.3) and the area from Eq, (2.1). The technique is exactly the same as the equiv- alent technique that is used for predicting the expansion of dry steam, Errors, however, are likely to be introduced because of nonequilibrium effects. ‘The water and steam are not in thermal equilibrium nor do they have equal velocities in a rapid expansion. Friction and heat transfer between the phases also introduce irreversibility which violates the con- stant-entropy assumption. Example 2.1 Dry saturated steam from a large container at 100 psia is expanded ‘through a frictionless adiabatic nozzle to a final pressure of 15 psia. What are the exit velocity and flow per unit area? Solution From steam tables, for isentropic expansion as above, we find that the exit wetness is 10.7 percent. ‘Therefore the exit specific volume and enthalpy are: ee = (0.893)(26.32) + (0.107){0.0167) = 23.5 ft#/Ib hy = 1150.7 — (0.107) (969.6) = 1047 Btu/lb ‘The inlet enthalpy is hy = 1187.3 Btu/lb, Gravitational terms are negligible in Eq, (2.3), which reduces for adiabatic flow to the equation % 2 ‘Therefore ve = (2 X-140.3 X B22 X 778)? = 2660 fps ‘The mass flow per unit area is derived from Eq. (2.1). W _ Ve _ 2600 . Ee agp = 8Ib/Ct ee) Example 22 Formulate equations for the one-dimensional frictionless expansion of ® dilute ges containing e dispersion of small solid particles, Assume homogeneous flow with uniform velocity, and consider the two limiting conditions which bound the possible thermal behavior, nemely, = 140.3 Btu/lb 1. No heat transfer between the gas and the particles 2, Thermal equilibrium at. all times between the componentsHOMOGENEOUS FLOW an Using these results, calculate the exit velocity, upstream stagnation pressure, and exit gas tcmperature for expansion of a mixture of 2 1b of sand {specific heat 0.21 Btu/{Ib)(F)] per pound of air to a. Mach number of 2 at 15 psia, ‘The upstream stagnation temperature is 1500°P. Solution The simplest method of solution is to derive the equation of state and adiabatic expansion law for » pseudo gas consisting of the sand and the air combined. Let T be the air temperature and let all the air properties be denoted by subscript a. For 1 pound of the air alone the usual equation of state is Pate = RT (2.15) If the particle density is very lange compared with the air density and if the two-phase mixture contains m pounds of partieles per pound of air, the apparent, density (or specific volume) will be related to the air density (or specific volume) by the approximate equations (see Prob. 2.1) fa att (2.18) bev Using Eq. (2.16), Eq. (2.15) can be rewritten to give an equation of state for the pseudo gas consisting of both air and particles, as follows: Re waste? (2.17) Therefore the effect of adding the particles is simply to modify the appropriate value of R in the perfect-gas equation. | ‘The expansion law will depend upon the mutual heat transfer. If there is no heat transfer and no friction between the air and the particles (since they are assumed to have the same velocity}, the air will expand isentropically according to the law pects = const (2.18) Since 1 +- m is a constant in Eq. (2.16), Eq. (2.18) is equivalent to the relation pov = const (2.19) ‘Therefore for the aero heat-transfer case the mixture behaves exactly as a {psoudo gas with the same value of the isentropic exponent 7 a8 for air’slone, yout with a modified value of R = R,/(1 +m): “~ On the other hand, if the gas and particles are always in thetmal equilib rium, the total entropy of them both taken together stays constant. If the particles havea specific heat of ¢ Btu/(1b) (°F), their entropy increase accompany- ing a transfer of heat dQ to tho air is dey = — Bm em te perth of air (2.20) ‘The entropy increase for the air is ar ds, = 2 = om GF Rat (2.21) Combining Eqs. (2.20) and (2.21) we got dsq + dsp = a (Cpe + me) — 2, =0 (2.22)22 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW Therefore the pseudo gas obeys the expansion law Pople = const (2.28) where y-l Ra ate (24) Solving Eq. (2.24) for y and using the relation Ry = cpa — Cra we have Spa me * esa F me ‘This result could also have been deduced by realizing that the effective specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume are (2.25) era + me Coq + me Tem dn ‘The effect of mutual heat transfer is therefore to modify the isentropic exponent to the value given by Eq. (2.25). The pseudo gas therefore behaves as if it possessed a value of = Ro/(1 + m) and a value of y given by Eq. (2.25), but in other ways obeys all of the well-known one-dimensional flow relationships of gas dynamics that can be taken from a standard text such as Ref. 1. Alternatively these results can be deduced from Eqs. (2.1), (2.2), and (2.3), neglecting gravity and friction and assuming no external heat transfer. For the numerical example we have to deal with a pseudo gas with a value of = 83 = 17.8 (ebb, /Albm)(PP) and a value of y = 1.4 for assumption 1 and — 0.241 + (2){0.21) 7 = 0178+ @)0.21) ‘The stagnation pressure follows from the equation 1.11 for assumption 2 Po= Pe @ +r uey 2.26) and the exit air temperature from the equation T= Te Q +25 ate) 27 ‘The exit velocity is oe Me RT (2.28) Putting in the appropriate numbers we got: 1, For no mutual heat transfer Po = 117 psia T, = 1090°R = 630°F Ve = 1870 fps 2, For equilibrium betwoen the components Po = 109.5 psio —T, = 1605°R = 1145°F Ve = 2020 fpsHOMOGENEOUS FLOW 23 FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOMENTUM EQUATION The momentum equation can be developed further by expressing the wall shear forces in terms of a friction factor and a hydraulic mean diameter D, The average wall shear stress is tw = CiVbonv® (2.29) The frictional pressure gradient is then (®\ = # (2), = 2C som D (2.30) ‘A convenient modification to Eq. (2.30) can be made by substitution in terms of the volumetric and mass flow rates. Thus peje wt Gs (2.31) poo — = te (2.32) Therefore _ (ap\ _ 20,6 2), - 2 (2.33) Alternatively we may choose to work in terms of the specific vol- umes of the components and the quality. From Eqs. (2.10) and (2.32) we have p= £ = Glove + ( — 2)r] = Ger + 2) (2.34) Using Eqs. (2.31) and (2.34) in Eq. (2.30) then gives aj 20,4? - (2), =F ton (2.38) Since the mass flow rate is constant and each phase has the same velocity, the accelerational pressure gradient in ig. (2.6) becomes ‘dp\ _ gt (2), =@ de (2,36) Substituting for » from Eq. (2.1) in (2.36) gives ‘dp\ _ 4 (W - (i), = 68 (2) ean Expanding the differential we find dp\ _ md (1\_ @ 14d -(2),-¢£@) oie (2.38)24 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW Further, from differentiating Bq. (2.10), i(n) > ws (o~ o Te as ea o2(2) (2.39) or, in terms of the specific volumes of the phases, dfiv_ dey _ p) de (2) re en (2.40) In the two-phase region (e.g., vapor-liquid) for a pure substance, # and v, are only functions of pressure. For a two-component mixture, like- wise, » and can be expressed in terms of the pressure as long as the thermodynamic path can be determined. [Fquation (2.40) can then be rewritten as € (1) oy 88 4 [nt 4 ay #(2) = ult + [ag +02) = (2.4) The acceleration pressure drop, in terms of quality, flow rate, and prop- erty variations, is now found from Eq. (2.38), with the use of Eq. (2.41), to be ~ (2), -@ mg +e [Gra *| — (i t+ 2%) oa “at (2.42) "The gravitational pressure drop is found ia terms of quality by sub- stituting for p, from Eq. (2.10) in (2.7). The result is ap 1 -({S2) = a 4: @ jo 7 9 OS TF aie (2.48) Combining Eas. (2.35), (242), and (2.48) in the form of Tq. (2.8) and rearranging, we eventually obtain an expression from which the pressure gradient can be calculated as follows: @ dp es Cn + wy) + Gon = Oy + 201) | t aA A pam dz dv, 14 @ [9G += oe (2.44) This equation can be expressed in many other ways by making substitu- tions in terms of other chosen variables. However, the form of the eque- tion will be retained and the physical significance of each term will be unchanged. In fact, any one-dimensional steady-flow analysis will even-HOMOGENEOUS FLOW 2 tually be found to lead to an equation of the form dz 1da _dp | Cr+ Cr + Caqae t Cag cos 8 dz 1 (2.45) In this equation Cr, Cs, Ca, and C, are influence coefficients, which express the effect of friction, phase change, arca change, and gravity on the pres- sure gradient. ‘The term J? in the denominator has the same significance as the square of the Mach number in single component flow. Comparing Bq. (2.44) with (2.45) and using Bq. (2.32) we can therefore deduce that, the velocity of a compressibility wave in a homogeneous two-phase mix- ture is This result will be deduced more direetly in Chap. 6. Using Eqs. (2.9), (2.11), and (2.12) an alternative expression in terms of @ is found to be = {loos + (1 ~ oop [aoe(— $2) + 0 ~ aos (-#)" (2.47) The pseudo velocities of sound in the components taken alone and following the thermodynamic path consistent with the two-phase flow may be defined as dp dv,\~! ote Dn gt ‘ eo (- ) (2.48) dp dy\-' 1B ot = 22 = ot (8 ) (2.49) “ene these definitions, Eq. (2.47) can be rearranged to give _ wise . . = [ave + 1 = adel [ics 2,4 los | (2.50) Tn cases where pic? > pxce? and p. >> ps (e.g, an air-water mixture at atmospheric pressure) this equation reduces to the approximate expression 2 peo 2.51 On a a) @51) Evidently the velocity of sound in a homogeneous mixture ean be far less than the velocity of sound in the gas alone. A miniroum occurs at @ = 34 and for air and water at atmospheric pressure, this gives a sonic velocity of about 70 fps. Usually the rate of change of quality is calculated from the energy equation by equating heat transfer to latent heat changes. However, if2% significant “flashing” t occurs bee: ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW use of pressure changes, the quality is not only a funetion of enthalpy, and a more correct way to proceed is as follows. Let the quality be a funetion of both enthalpy and pressure, Then for a given thermodynamic system we have v= x(h,p) (2.52) Whence, by differentiation, dz _ (ae\ dh dp & ~ Nh), & (2), a 2.53) Moreover Ox) 1 (3), “in (2.54) Equation (2.44) now becomes 20; 2tndh 1dA | geos@ dD Ge, + a) + GF hig de 7 @'(ts + 202) tet wt te dz on om dz 2 |, Oe 2) ™ oe 1+@ [-% + (1-2) ap ton (22), (2.55) Many alternative forms of Iq. (2.55) could have been obtained by using different thermodynamic properties in Eq, (2.52), In practice the condition for a Mach number of unity is more likely to be given by Eq. (2.46) than by the equivalent result whieh would be obtained by using the whole denominator of Eq. (2.55), This is because of nonequilibrium effects which preclude rapid phase change caused by sudden pressure changes. If kinetic-energy effects are ay ppreciable, the enthalpy gradient can- not be calculated directly from the energy equation, and a more complex form of Eq. (2.55) results (see Prob. 2.25). . Nonequilibrium phase-change effects can be analyzed by assuming an effective thermodynamic path to replace Eq, (2.52), This might con- sist of only allowing a given fraction of the equilibrium quantity of vapor to be formed, or of a more thorough analysis in which the actual quality is related to nonequilibrium heat- and mass-transfer processes,!4 2.3 THE HOMOGENEOUS FRICTION FACTOR LAMINAR FLOW Many methods have been proposed for evaluating the two-phase homo- Beneous friction factor, C,, which is the only empirical parameter in Eqs. + The term flashing is usually used to deseribe vapor formation caused by pressure changes, whercas boiling refers to vapor formation as a result of heat addition.HOMOGENEOUS FLOW 27 (2.44) and (2.55). In laminar flow the simplest technique is to find a suitable “virtual viscosity” for the mixture. For example, a theoretical solution for a suspension of fluid spheres at low concentrations is nem (: + 2be ttt 35 1 nt Ben) (2.56) wa i where the subseript 1 refers to the continuous phase. If the suspension consists of solid particles, jz» is very large and Eq. (2.56) beeomes Rin- stein’s equation? B= m(l + 2.5a) (2.57) If, on the other hand, the emulsion consists of bubbles containing gas of a low viscosity, the result is w= wn(l + @) (2.58) Unfortunately, Hgs. (2.56), (2.57), and (2.58) are only valid at concen- trations below about 5 percent for which the change in viscosity is small. Numerous rheological models for taking account of larger values of # and particles of various shapes and sizes have been proposed and will be dis- cussed in later chapters, Many two-phase mixtures are nonnewtonian. Often the details of the two-phase flow pattern are not known and an idealized rheological model cannot be defined. Faced with the neces- sity of choosing some expression for the viscosity, many workers have chosen averages which fit the limiting eases in which either phase is not present. Some common expressions for gas-liquid flow are 1_e@ l-s2 ==545=" MeAdams! (2.59) B Bo Bs w= 2ph,-+ (1 —x)us — Ciechitti* (2.60) Bh af ty +P Dukler* 2.61) It is often convenient to relate the viscosity, friction factor, and friction pressure drop in two-phase flow to the equivalent values for single-phase flow of one of the phases alone. For example, from Eq. (2.59) in laminar flow b-[st+a-a]" (2.62) For flows with change of phase, if the subscript fo is used to denote the case in which liquid flows in the same pipe with the same mass velocity as the combined flows, we have; using Eq. (2.62) for laminar flow “(2° LG ley (2.63)28 ONE-OIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW ‘The ratios between the frictional pressure gradient for the two-phase flow and the frictional pressure gradients for related single-phase flows are usually known as two-phase multipliers and are denoted by the symbol ¢? with appropriate subscripts, for example, _ —(@p/de)e but = ap] e40 eon If ¢so* can be determined, then the first term in the numerator of Eq. (2.44) or (2.55) can be replaced by 2C59 TE Ge; (2.68) 2c, Bi Per + tun) = bn? TURBULENT FLOW Single-phase friction factors in turbulent flow are usually correlated in terms of the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness. Except in extreme cases the actual value does not differ by more than a factor of 2 from the rule-of-thumb estimate of C, ~ 0.005. In commercial situa- tions where pipes are subject to corrosion, distortion, and sealing, the accuracy with which pressure drops can be computed in single-phase flow is often no better than 25 percent and it would be presumptuous to expect a better correlation in the case of two-phase flow. ‘The three common alternatives for estimating two-phase turbulent friction factors are 1, Use a constant value for all conditions. A good choice is Cs = 0.005 (2.66) Figure 2.1 shows a comparison between this prediction and some data taken in the high-velocity annular-mist flow regime. Under these conditions a considerable fraction of the liquid flow is entrained in the form of droplets, and homogeneous theory provides a reason- able approximation. 2. Use a friction factor calculated from some equivalent single-phase flow. For example, for low-quality vapor-iquid mixtures it may be assumed that the friction factor is the same as it would be if the total mass flow (liquid plus vapor) flowed entirely as liquid. The appropriate Reynolds number is Re, = <= . 2.67, er (2.67) and it is readily shown that bnt= 142 (e _ 1) (2.68) PoHOMOGENEOUS FLOW 29 0.0075 1 ; ; . ’ ' ou 3 ' 4 ! 1 aE fly oa Ao obo g oy 4 ' » 0 0 3 1 8 .00050p° * © . “ . 7 v a ° + 5 ° . a 3 . 3 + ° 3 5 4 Meyer ond Turner 3 0.548" LD. copper tube Gas mass flow rates, slug /see é | p=latmos Meyer 0.0025 Cocurrent oir/water upflow 10.266 x10"? 0 0.951 x 107? 384 x» a 007% Gos mas flow rates, sha/see oa 3 90.607 x" v 1.640% # 0.130 x10 ane 9 0.200 x » . 7 0.286 x " ol \ 1 . 1 \ 1 0 3 1 2 We = liquid mass flow rate, 107? slug/sec Fig. 2.1 Homogeneous friction factor for annular-mist flow, (Meyer and Wallis.?) ‘This method was used by McAdams et al.‘ and Owens.* Typical results are shown in Fig. 2.2 which also represents the kind of accuracy which can be achieved using this method. At high quali- ties approaching the pure vapor condition, it is more accurate to replace Eq. (2.68) by an analogous expression based on the all-vapor flow condition. 3. Substitute one of the expressions for equivalent viscosity in the Reynolds number and use the single-phase friction-factor charts. For example, Blasius’ equation for smooth pipe flow is Cy = 0.079 Re~®% (2.69) Using Eq. (2.59) and the definition of gso? in Eq. (2.64), it is readily found that wofeGMbe EJP am ‘The predictions of Eq. (2.70) for water are tabulated in Table 2.1. Similar tables can be drawn up for cryogenic or refrigerant fluids to enable rapid design predictions to be made. An alternative procedure for calculating frictional pressure drop iss ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW Predicted two-phase pressure gradient, psi/ft 10] 1 1 biti 10 20 40 60 80 100 200 Measured two-phase pressure gradient, psi/ft Fig. 2.2 Predicted versus measured two-phase pressure gradient for 0.118 in.-diam, 30-in-Jong tube, Water at pressures from 71 to 374 psia, and qualities from 4 to 50 percent. (Owens.*) Table 2.1a Vatues of ¢yo* for steam-water mixtures predicted by the homogeneous model (Eq. (2.70)] Steam Pressure, psia a quality, : wt % 3206 1 44} 1.19] 1.10 | 1.05 1.0. 5 12] 1.89 | 1.49 | 1,28 1.0 10 06} 2.73 | 1.95 | 1.56 1.0 20 8 27 | 2.81 | 2.08 1.0 30 4 | 5.71] 3.60 | 2.57 1.0 40° 7 03 | 4.36 | 3.04 1.0 50 45 | 8.30] 5.08 | 3.48 1.0 60 14 | 9.50 | 5.76 | 3.91 1.0 ‘ 70 7 6.44 | 4.38 1.0 80 a 7.08 | 4.74 1.0 90 5 7.75 | 5.21 “1.0 100 8 8.32 | 5.52 1.0HOMOGENEOUS FLOW aL Table 2.1b Values of $0? for steam-water mixtures based on Martinelli’s empiricas correlation Steam Pressure, psia quality, wt% | 14.7 | 100 | 500 | 1000 | 1500 1 56, 385) 1.8] 1.6] 1.35 5 | 30 15 58] 36] 24 10 | 69 28 8.9] 5.4] 3.4 20 | 150 56 16.2 8.6] 5.1 30 | 245 83 23.0 | 11.6 | 6.8 40 | 350 | 115 29.2 | 14.4 | 8.4 50 | 450 145 34.9 | 17.0 7 9.9 60 | 545 | 174 40.0 | 19-4 | LL. 7 | 625 | 199 44.6 | 21.4 | 12.1 80 | 685 | 216 48.6 | 22.9 | 12.8 90 | 720 | 210 48.0 | 22.3 | 13.0 100 | 525 | 130 30.0 | 15.0} 8.6 to avoid use of the friction factor and to use correlations for the two-phase multipliers instead. The details of this technique will be left to the next chapter, For the particular case of boiling water the results of such a correlation scheme, evolved by Martinelli and Nelson,? are shown in ‘Table 2.18 for comparison with the predictions of Eq. (2.70). Quite large 100, 1 ° 22 x 10° ib/he-ft? 4 AP Xn nw ° Blix 0 a 129K ww ~ v G=0.84xK» « Mortinelli S32 cand Nelson 1 Round tube, 0.197 in, 1.0. Pressure , 1000 psi a) sR “8 2 2 27 Homogeneous model 1 0.001 . 0.01 O1 1 Vapor quality, * 3 Dependence of fo on mass flux for water at 1000 pain. (Mus- cettola.}*)@ ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW differences between the tables are evident. Which of them is the more correct depends on the flow regime. The Martinelli-Nelson predictions tend to be better for separated flows, whereas homogeneous theory is better for dispersed flows. For example, Fig. 2.3 shows a drift from the Martinelli-Nelson predictions toward homogeneous theory as mass velocity, and hence entrainment, is increased in high-speed steam-water flows. Example 2.3 Formulate equations for predicting the pressure drop during the homogeneous flow of a boiling liquid in @ round tube of constant area with a uniform heat flux. Neglect kinetie- and potential-energy terms and the effects of flashing and compressibility (Lhese assumptions are only valid at high pres- sures and low velocities when the overall pressure drop is small compared with the absolute pressure). Assume a constant friction factor. Solution First, we relate the rate of heat addition per unit length to the heat flux, as follows De (my where ¢ is the heat flux (in British thermal units per hour per square foot). Using the definition of G, and remembering that W is constant, Eq. (2.3) becomes, with the given assumptions, dh 40 om oe 2.72) Substituting Eq. (2.72) into Eq. (2.55) we get, neglecting flashing and compressibility, dp _ Cy cos @ = Bm Bene, + wv) + Gree A Ty, GD + 0 + aie 278) ‘The enthalpy of the mixture is given by the equation hm hy + axhyy (2.74) If pressure changes are small, fy and hy, may be treated as constants. Equation (2.72) is now used in conjunction with Eq. (2.74) to give de Ae dz ~ GDhy, Since ¢ is constant, Eq. (2.75) may be integrated from the inlet, value of 2: to the point z = 2 to give af Ghy, D . Substituting for Eg. (2.76) in Eq. (2.73), denoting the density at inlet by ps, and integrating over the tube length L, it is eventually found that 2L C,G* 2L\? e op = FE BY create + a9 (2.75) wea (2.76)HOMOGENEOUS FLOW 33 In the special case where x; = 0 an alternative form of Eq. (2.77) in terms of the quality atz = Lie rules ( wa Lg cos @ ( ee ) on ap Et (LD) + Grover + En (1 + Site (2.78) This problem is discussed in greater detail by Owons,* In applying Eq. (2.77) it is most advisable to check the assumptions since compressibility and kinetic- energy efects rapidly becorne important as mass velocities are increased and. flashing must also be considered whenever the relative change in pressure is appreciable. Example 2.4 Saturated water at a rate of @; = 2 X 10° Ib/{hr)(ft*) enters the bottom of a vertical evaporator tube 14 in. in diameter and 5 ft long, The tube receives a heat flux of 2 X 10° Btu/(hr}(ft?}, and there are no heat losses. Caleutate the pressure drop through the evaporator for inlet pressures of (a) 350 psia and (8) 1000 psia. Assume a constant friction factor of 0.005, Solution Assuming homogencous flow theory this is simply an application of Eq (2.77), (a) From steam tables, at 350 psia, vy = 1.3064 ft/lb, vy = 0.01912 ft/lb, and hyp = 794.7 Btu/lb From Eq. (2.77) = (2)(120) (0.005) {2 X _105)*(0.01912) | (240)2(0.005) (2 X 105)7(1.3064) 4p (32.2) (3600)(144) + (B600)2(794.7) 82.2044) 4 @X 1094(1,3064) (4) (120) 794.7(82.3)(3600) (144) 4 B22V2 X 10)(794.7)0064) fa 2X 109 (1.8084) (480) ] HE * 109.3084) 2.2) (14) @ XK 109(794.7) (0.019 = 0.015 + 0.315 + 0.505 + 0.165 psi = 1.02 psi Since this value is small compared with 350 psia, the assumption of constant fluid properties is justified. We should also check for compressibility effects and confirm that the exit steam is not superheated, ‘The exit quality, from Eq. (2.76), is 6 4b _ 2x 1090430) _ = Gy D @ x i0)(TO4.T) ~ 605 The compressibility and flashing effeets aro checked by evaluating the terms in the denominator of Hq. (2.55). From steam tables we find sf = 8 FEe, i ip 3.8 X 1078 ft#/(Ib) (psi) ayy ap? (da; es 79 abel = 3.9 X 10° psit atz=0 = =2 X 10-4 psi“! ate = 0.534 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW ‘The largest numerical value of the bracket in the denominator therefore occurs at ¢ = 0.6. The value of the whole denominator is (2X 10*)2(0.6)(3.8 X 1078) 1 G144y82 2) O00} = 0.9985 The assumptions are therefore justified. However, if both G and 6 were inercased by a factor of 10, the denominator would become 0.85 and could not be put equal to unity without introducing significant evvor, {b) At 1000 psia the relevant property values are vy) = 0.424 f18/Ib, vs = 0.0216 ft8/Ib, hy, = 649.5 Blu/lh. Putting in the numbergas above we get _ 0.424 71 208 psi Spa = 0525 73564 gau.g = 0.208 Psi 0.0216 0.424 794.7 | = 0.015 TarG19 + 9315 Pp g4 gags 7 143 psi Apo = 0.111 In 17.3 = 0.317 psi ‘The total pressure drop is therefore 0.208 + 0.143 + 0.317 = 0.668 psi Example 2.5 Air and water at 70°F flow in a vertical pipe of diameter 0.98 in. at rates W; = 31.3 X 10° slug/see and W, = 0.583 X 107? stug/see. ‘The exit pressure is 14.7 psia and the pressure 18 in, upstream is found to be 15.0 psia, How does this compare with the predictions of homogencous flow theory with Solution Since the pressure drop is low, it is a reasonable approximation to assume constant property values in calculating the gravitational and frictional pressure drops. The acceleration component is due to the expansion of the gas. Since W, > Wo the thermodynamic path is probably isothermal (sce Example 2.2}. Equation (2.44) is first put into a convenient form by utilizing Eqs. (2.31) and (2.32) to eliminate z, using qs. (2.11) and (2.12). Since the area change, quality change, and compressibility of the liquid are essentially zero, we abtain dp ‘é (2.79) Since the gas expansion is isothermal, we have dug 1 Wee (2.80) dp PPy 2.80) ‘The variables of interest are evaluated as follows: +R 50.8 tH/o0e Wet We A = 6.08 slugs/(sec) (ft?) Making the requisite substitutions in liq. (2.79) we find _ ep _ (217 & 1079) (2.22 x 10 ds 136 Since the pressure gradient is so low, the velocities hardly change down the duet and the overall pressure drop is found by multiplying the gradient by = 5.08 X 10- psi/in,HOMOGENEOUS FLOW 36 the length, as follows: Ap = (6.08 X 10-18 = 0.092 psi ‘The error in pressure-drop prediction is mostly due to the poor estimate of liquid fraction which is given hy homogeneous theory at these values of the flow rates. The flow pattern is, in fact, slug or annular and the gas flows much faster than the liquid. ‘The experimental liquid fraction was actually 0.23, which is much greater than the value of 0.061 which homogeneous theory pre- dicts. Erors of this order of magnitude are to be expeoted when using a theory for a flow regime to which it docs not apply. ‘The separated-flow model is far more appropriate in the present case. Slug-fow theory or a theory which is valid in the transition region from slug flow to annular flow is even more accu- rate, a8 will be shown in Chaps. 10 and 11. In many cases the solution to a problem cannot be found in closed form and it is necessary to put equations such as (2.55) or (2.79) in terms of finite differences and to use numerical methods of integration. Note that the denominator of Eq, (2.79) together with Eq. (2.80) ean be combined to show that the square of the Mach number in an isothermal homogeneous gas-liquid system is Gin p M= (2.81) 2.4 PRESSURE DROP IN BENDS, TEES, ORIFICES, VALVES, ETC. ‘The usual way of calculating pressure drop through pipe fittings in single- phase flow is to replace the fitting by an equivalent length of pipe. ‘The same procedure can be applied to two-phase flows. The equivalent pipe lengths tend to be somewhat longer in the two-phase flow ease. Several problems relating to pressure-drop prediction in nozzles and orifices will be found at the end of this chapter. 2.5 UNSTEADY FLOW Homogeneous theory can be extended to unsteady flows by including time-dependent terms in the equations of continuity, momentum, and energy. For one-dimensional flow these equations are, in differential form. a dpm | 2 _ Continuity a + Re (en?) = 0 (2.82) ay, a\ ap P Momentum — Pm att ae) =~ Ge 7 Png C088 ~ FZ Tw (2.83) Energy 3 [= (- + | +2 — Fo) = pavg cos 8 (2.84)36 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW These equations can be combined in numerous ways, depending upon the conditions of interest. A particularly useful development is to substitute the identity Pm& = Pmht — DP (2.85) into Eq. (2.84) and expand the differentials to get dpm 4 Sen?) oh on’ (0S) [2 4 | + on (GE +E) dw’ 1 /dqe + pn Ht ve + 9 cos 0) = 4 i 4(%- =) (2.86) Making use of Eqs. (2.82) and (2.83) then gives the result ah _ 1 fap Pry 1 (qe ow a tot E(B of a) gah gf (e -#) esi ‘The use of this equation may be illustrated by considering the case of flow in a high-pressure straight-tube evaporator in which pressure changes and viscous dissipation are small compared with the other energy terms during a transient. Let the tube diameter be D, the wall heat flux g, and let there be no shaft work, Equation (2.87) then becomes ah yh 14¢ it nD (2.88) Tf pressure changes and their effect on properties are negligible, the enthalpy and density may be expressed as h = hy-+ thy (2.89) aut ie (2.90) Substituting Eqs. (2.89) and (2.90) in Eq. (2.88) eventually yields Pry 5) 2 (2.91) Yo (2.92) Equation (2.91) expresses the propagation equation for quality changes and can be integrated to obtain the dynamic response of a boiler channel, The left-hand side of the equation is the substantial time derivative of the quality and represents the time rate of change of quality for a given fluid particle (lagrangian viewpoint). ‘The quantity 2 has the dimensions of inverse time and can be called a reaction frequency. If a given particle is identified by the time f at which it starts to evaporate,HOMOGENEOUS FLOW ” Eq. (2.91) can be integrated to give able) = ae tenes -1) (2.93) Therefore the quality of a given fluid particle iner exponentially with time. Further developments along these lines lead to prediction of the transient response of evaporators and condensers.” PROBLEMS 24, Deduce Eq. (2.16) from Eq. (2.10) and state what conditions are necessary for an error of less than 5% in Eq. (2.16). 2.2. Solve Example 2.2 if the required exit velocity is (a) 1000 fps; (b) 1500 fps; and (c) 2500 fps. 2.3. Suppose that a homogeneous two-phase flow between parallel plates is assumed to consist of a large number of parallel sheets of the two phases oriented in the direction of the plates, Show that the equivalent viscosity is given by hmm 2.8. Solve Prob. 2.3 if the sheets of fluid are oriented perpendicular to the plates and show that B= oy + 1 ~ aay 2.5, Compare the equivalent viscosities predicted by Eqs. (2.59), (2.60), and (2.61) and the results of Probs. 2.3 and 2.4 for steam-water mixtures of 0.1, 1, and 10% quality at 10, 100, and 1000 psi 2.6. For air-water flow in a 2-in.-diam pipe at 70°F and 30 psia, calculate the friction factor by using the various techniques in the text. for the following conditions: in fps 1 10 10 | 100 10 | 200 2.7, Still dusty air is sampled by a stagnation pitot tube mounted on a jeep traveling ‘at 50 mph over the desert. ‘The air contains its own weight of sand per unit weight. What is the measured stagnation pressure?’ State clearly all the assumptions which are made. 2.8. A vertical tubular test section is installed in an experimental high-pressure water loop. The tube is 0.4 in. 1D and 7 ft long and is uniformly heated with 100 kw of power. Saturated water enters at the base at 1000 psia and with a flow rate of 1000 tb/hr. Caleulate the frictional, gravitational, accelerational, and total pressure drops using the various equations in the text. Compare the prediction for total pressure drop with the measured value of 8 psi. 29, Estimate the critical flow rate per unit area for a steam-water mixture, 26.9% quality, at a pressure of 125 psia. ‘The measured value is 1265 Ib,,/(ft) (sec). 240. Air and water flow from a large tank through a converging nozzle with exit area of 1 int, The air flow rate is 10 Ib/hr, the water flow rate is 10 Ib/sec, and the fluids are intimately mixed. ‘The temperature is 70°F and the external pressure is 14.7 psia38 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW What is the pressure in the tank? (Use Bernoulli's equation for the homogeneous mixture and neglect wall shear and gravity.) 2A, Consider the isentropic, adiabatic homogeneous equilibrium flashing discharge of carbon dioxide from a large storage cylinder at 1000 psin and 80°F. What are the quality, velocity, density, and flow per unit area as a funetion of pressure? What is the critical pressure at which choking occurs? Assume that choking corresponds to the maximum flow per unit area. 2.12, Consider low-velocity horizontal laminar flow of a gas-liquid mixture in # pipe. Let the gas volumetric flow rate be Q, and the liquid vohimetric flow rate Q. Tbe pressure drop for the liquid alone in the pipe is ap;. If the two-phase pressure drop is Apre, use equation (2.58) to show that, if py > ps spre _ 1. 20s Ops ae 2.13. If the liquid is dirty, small gas bubbles tend to behave like solid spheres. In this ease, solve Prob. 2.12 using Eq. (2.57) to show that, Apre a -1=35 0% Aps a; 2.14. Solve Prob. 2.12 for turbulent flow assuming that the friction factor is the same as for the liquid alone. Do the solutions to Probs, 2.12, 2.13, and 2.14 suggest a method of plotting two-phase flow data? (See Ref. 12.) 2.15. A coal-water slurry is pumped in # horizontal 2-in.-diam pipe over a distance of 100 ft at an average velocity of 10 fps. ‘The slurry is nonnewtonian with a limiting viscosity at high shear rates of 0.01 Ib/(ft)(sec). It consists of 45% by volume of coal with a density of 85 Ib/ft®. Single-phase flow tests in the sme pipe gave the following expression for the turbulent flow frietion factor Cy = 0,026Re* ‘What is tho pressure drop? What difference would it make if the viscosity of water at 70°F wore used in the Reynolds number instead of the limiting viscosity of the slurry? 26. It has been suggested that the intensity of “water hammer” in hydraulic lines could be significantly decreased by suspending small ait bubbles in the fluid. Discuss the possibilities of this idea. 247. Develop equations for describing the adiabatic compressible flow of a dusty gas in a long horizontal pipeline, assuming a constant value of the friction factor (Fanno line). 248. Develop equations for describing the flow of a dusty gas in a long pipeline if there is no friction but a constant wall heat flux (Rayleigh line). 219. Combine the solutions to Probs. 2,17 and 2.18 to generate the normal shock relationships for a homogeneous dusty gas. 220. Consider two-phase flow through the nozzle shown in Fig. 2.4. Assuming no phase change and incompressible homogeneous flow show that oma Bh lear) [rea )] rom #-4)'fr+e(#-1)] andHOMOGENEOUS FLOW 39 wo 2 Ps > a 24 Flow of a gasdiquid mix- ture through a nozzle. (Prob. oD 2.20.) How are these results altered if the nozale is sharp-edged and produces a vena contracta? 221. Figure 2.5 shows a proposed method for controlling the flow of oil through & nozzle valve by varying the air flow supplied to the set of hypodermic needles. What ig the relationship between the air and oil flow rates W, and W,? 2.22, Diehl has measured the pressure drop Ap for two-phase flow over tube banks. ‘His results were correlated by plotting Ap/Aps versus Qjos/(Qr + Qe)pe, where Apt was the pressure drop for the same mass flow (W, + W,}, of gas alone. Show that homogeneous flow theory, assuming a friction factor equal to the all gas friction factor, is quite close to the data presented in Fig. 2.6. 2.23, Show that the void fraction propagation equation analogous to Iq. (2.91) is da 4 da fee - ] at tae = [mero oa Deduce that, if to is the time at which an element of fluid starts to evaporate and 2 is constant, the density of the same fluid element after time ¢ will be albte) = pre meeo 2,24, Derive the normal shock-wave relationships for an isothermal, homogeneous bubbly mixture. (See Chap. 9.) 2.25. Equation (2.55) is not adequate for predicting the prossure gradient in evaporators if the kinetic energy of the fluid is appreciable, since in this ease the enthalpy cannot be determined directly from a heat balance, Use the energy equation to show that, Fig. 25 A two-phase flow control valve, ‘The air and oil stagnation temperatures and stagnation prestures are 100°F and 400 psia, Assume choking at the throat where A* = 0.1 in.a0 ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW 10° TERR Co Se 10" op ° bop ° 10? = mal © Air-water Jatm p/p = 0.0012 © Pentone-pentane 4d atm py/pp=0.0212 lo" | 107? lo"! 10° 10! 107 10 On Of* Oy Po Fig, 2.6 Diehl’s correlation'® of two-phase pressure drop for turbulent horizontal crossflow through tube bank with 45° layout. (Prob, 2.22.) in the absence of shaft work effects, Eq. (2.55) becomes 26,08 (Gon dae _ Gd ) dp _ Dow * \ind de + 9m cos 0) ® 146M) Men (F |e 1+ Grafham What is the choking condition in this case? 2.26. Compare the order of magnitude of the various terms in Hgs. (2.44) and (2.55) for vertical upward steam-water flow at 10% quality with @ = 10° lb/(hr) (ft?) and a wall heat flux of 10° Btu/(hr)(ft®) in a J-in.-diam pipe with a taper of }oo in./in. at pressures of 1, 10, 100, and 1000 psia. Is the correction introduced in Prob. 2.25 important under any of these conditions? 2.27. Investigate the effect on the thrust of a jet engine of injecting small, solid particles into the hot gases before expanding them through a nozzle. 2.28. What is the discharge rate from a round-edged 1-in.-diam hole in the pressure vessel of a nuclear reactor containing saturated water at 2000 psia? Assume choked isentropic, adiabatic homogencous flow and the following various cirewmnstances: (a) Equilibrium flow; (6) }4 of the amount of vapor predicted by the equilibrium assump- tion everywhere; (c) }9 of the amount of vapor predicted by the equilibrium assump- tion; (4) no vapor formation. 2.29. Air and water flow upward in a 10-ft-long, 2-in.-diam vertical pipe and discharge into the atmosphere at 14.7 psi. Assuming homogencous isothermal flow, at a tem- perature of 70°F caleulate the inlet pressure for the following volumetric fluxes meas-HOMOGENEOUS FLOW a Fig, 2.7 Air-lift pump demonstration, (Prob. 2.30.) Air of 70°F ured at atmospheric pressure: in ipa | 0.5 1 10 | 1s | 30 | 35 | 40 j 40 jo fps | 1 2 2 10 30 35 40 60 Under what, conditions is the exit flow choked? What is the exit pressure under choking conditions? Use numerical techniques. 2.30, Figure 2.7 shows an air-lift pump demonstration for use in a lsboratory. Predict pressure drop in the riser as a function of the air and water flow rates W, and Wy. If h = 1 ft and H = 2 ft, what is the relationship between W, and W,? Under what conditions is the power expended to run the air compressor per pound of water pumped a minimum? 21. Solve Prob. 2.30 for the case where h = 50 ft and H = 100 ft and the pipe diameter is increased to 6 in. Use numerical techniques. 2.32. Under conditions of rapid phase change, thermodynamic equilibrium as repre- sented by Eq. (2.52) is not obtained. Assume that enthalpy is constant in a rapid expansion but that the quality is given as a function of time, thus @ = x(p,t) Explore the one-dimensional flow relationships, assuming some simple expressions for this function such as power laws, exponentials, series expansions, ete. REFERENCES 1. Shapiro, A. HL: “Phe Dynamics and ‘Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,” The, Ronald Press Company, New York, 1958. 2. Taylor, G. L.: Proc. Ray. Soc. (London), vol. A148, p. 141, 1982. 3. Binstein, A.: Ann, Phys., vol. 4, p. 288, 1908, 4. McAdams, W. H., et al.: Vaporisation Inside Horizontal Tubes. II, Bonzene-Oil Mixtures, Trans. ASME, vol. 64, p. 193, 1942. 5. Cicchitti, A., et al.: Two-phaso Cooling Experiments—Pressure Drop, Heat Trans- fer and Burnout Measurements, Energi Nuct., vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 407-425, 1960.10. il. 12. LB. 14. ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW Dukler, A. E., etal.: Pressure Drop and Hold-up in Two-phase Flow, A. I. Ch. B.J., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 38-51, 1964. Meyer, P. B,, and G. B. Wallis: Co-current Upwards Annular-mist Flow, AEC Rept. NYO-3114-10, Sept., 1965, . Owens, W. L., Jr.: Two-phase Pressure Gradient, International Developments in Heat Transfer, Am. Soc. Mech. Bngrs., paper 41, vol. 2, pp. 303-368, 1961. Martinelli, R. C., and D. B. Nelson: Prediction of Pressure Drop during Foreed Circulation Boiling of Water, 'rans. ASM, vol. 70, p. 695, 1948. ‘Muscettola, M.: Two-phase Pressure Drop, UKABA Rept. ABEW-R284, 1963. Wallis, G. B., and J. H. Heasley: Oscillations in Two-phase Systems, Trans, ASME, ser. C, vol. 83, p. 363, 1961. Wallis, G. B.: Some Hydrodynamic Aspects of Two-phase Flow and Boiling. Part III. International Developments in Heat Transfer, Am. Soc. Meck. Engrs., paper 38, vol. 2, pp. 330-340, 1961. Diehl, J. B., and C. H. Unruh: Two-phase Pressure Drop for Horizontal Cross flow through Tube Banks, Am. Soc. Mech. Bngrs., paper 58-HT-20, 1958. Simpson, H. C., and R. §, Silver: Theory of One-dimensional Two-phase, Homo- geneous, Non-oquilibrium Flow, Symp. Two-phase Fluid Flow, London, Inst. Mech. Engra., pp. 45-56, 1962.3 Separated Flow 3.1 INTRODUCTION The separated flow model takes account of the fact that the two phases can have differing properties and different velocities. It may be devel- oped with various degrees of complexity. In the most sophisticated version, separate equations of continuity, momentum, and energy are written for each phase and these six equations are solved simultaneously, together with rate equations which describe how the phases interact with each other and with the walls of the duet. In the simplest version, only one parameter, such as velocity, is allowed to differ for the two phases while conservation equations are only written for the combined flow. When the number of variables to be determined exceeds the available num- ber of equations, correlations or simplifying assumptions are introduced. 3.2 STEADY FLOW IN WHICH THE PHASES ARE CONSIDERED TOGETHER BUT THEIR VELOCITIES ARE ALLOWED TO DIFFER Suppose that one of the assumptions of homogeneous equilibrium flow is relaxed in order to allow different velocities for the two phases, The 3aa ‘ONE-DIMENSIONAL TWO-PHASE FLOW conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy in steady one-dimen- sional flow can then be derived in terms of the two velocities v1 and »;. Alternatively, the extra degree of freedom of the system can be accounted for by introducing both the void fraction and the quality into the equa- tions. Some of the most useful forms of these equations will now be developed. CONTINUITY Normally, no mass is added to the flow from outside the duct and the overall mass flow rate is constant. Therefore W = Wi + We = const GD In the absence of phase change both W, and W, are constant individually. The mass flow rates can be expressed in terms of other variables in many ways. For example, if the areas of cross section of the two streams are A; and A», we have Wi = pmAi (3.2) Wa = pode (3.3) The mass fiux of each stream is then, from the relationships derived in Chap. 1, G, = pwi(1 — a) (3.4) G2 = patter (3.8) By using the definition of x, the above two equations can be used to give two alternative expressions for the overall mass flux as follows: @ = om pe (3.6) @ = owe 8.7) MOMENTUM Many alternative forms of the momentum equation ean be derived by manipulating relationships among a, @, G, v1, v2, and other variables. For steady flow in a round pipe, for example, one version is — P= He 4 G4 ton + (1 ~ ud + [ane + (1 ~ aps cos 0 (8.8)