Chapter 1

 Communication in the twenty-first century

This chapter will introduce several concepts about communication beginning from the
ancient Greeks until the twenty-first century. It will illuminate several perspectives about
communication, the most important one being that it is a necessary and important skill that
should be honed to become better citizens and to help in building one’s society. It will
explore the use of English in the world, as well as its usage in the Philippines. It will also
discuss the perils of language, and how we can find the seeds of racism, sexism, and classism
in the language that we use and what one can do to ensure that one’s language is an
academic and inclusive as possible.

Lesson 1: Communication Models

In this lesson, students will be exposed to the different ways of looking at communication. It
should give the students a good understanding of why communication should be studied at
the tertiary level, and the potential of such a course in helping them transform themselves
and their society, it includes communication models that students can use in the future, and
may explain why communication tasks in the past have either failed or succeeded. It is a good
introduction to the different processes, principles, and dimensions of communication that
students should be aware of when they start communicating in the academe and the
professional world.
Introduction

“The art of communication is the language of leadership.” (James Humes).

It is a mistake to believe that communication is a simple process. Although people

communicate with one another every day, the real question is whether the ideas one has
expressed are truly understood by another. Communication breakdowns happen in every
part of the globe, and these have led to a plethora of problems. Effective communication can
breach peace, spark revolutions, and affect change in government. However, to communicate
properly, one cannot simply strive to express oneself and leave understanding too late; one
must also learn how to organize one's thoughts, control one's emotions, use one's words to
articulate concepts and arguments, and express oneself in the best way possible.

The art of one's communication reflects the art of one's thinking. According to James Berlin
(1982), one of the major proponents of The New Rhetoric, "In teaching writing, we are not
simply offering training in a Useful technical skill that is meant as a simple complement to the
more important studies of other areas. We are teaching a way of experiencing the world, a
way of ordering and making sense of it" (776).

This is also true when it comes to all the language skills essential in communication, whether
this is in writing, reading, listening, or speaking. They are tools that help us analyze, critique,
and negotiate with the world. To construct ideas and bring people to believe in one's vision, it
is important to be able to communicate in an effective, articulate manner. On a personal
level, honing one's communication skills can also bring about success to one's personal and
professional life.

To lead nations or corporations, communication skills are essential. To work smoothly as a

team, communication is indispensable. And to create a vision that people will believe in, one
needs to learn how to communicate purposefully in today's society.
Communication Models

One way of thinking about communication processes is by looking at the different

communication models available. According to Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl (2013), in
their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications, "a model seeks to
show the main elements of any structure or process and the relationship between these
elements.…. it helps in explaining by providing in a simplified way information which would
otherwise be complicated or ambiguous."

Professor Ramona S. Flores (2016), in her book Oral Communication in Context, discusses four
models of communication in the chapter, "Explaining the Nature of Communication." She
discusses the different communication models as follows (Aristotle, Shannon-Weaver,
Schramm, and White, 2016):

The earliest model comes from Aristotle at around 5 B.C. In this model, Aristotle explains that
speakers should adjust their messages according to their audience and the occasion to
achieve a particular effect. Let us apply this to a modern example. After the Japanese
attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, then US President Franklin Roosevelt delivered a
stirring speech to declare war on Japan on December 8 (National Geographic, 2017). The
speaker, in this case, was US President Franklin Roosevelt and his speech was crafted
especially for the occasion, fled with strong words that were crisp and straight to the point.
The occasion was the US President's response to the attack on Pearl Harbor; the main
audience was the US Congress; and the effect was to persuade members of Congress to
declare war on Japan, which they did, with only one dissenting vote. These components of
speaker, speech, occasion, audience, and effect should be considered when communicating
one's message.
 AUDIENCE EFFECT
SPEECH
. SPEAKER
Aristotle’s Model of Communication

The Shannon-Weaver model was created by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (Fores,
2016). According to the website Communication Theory.Org, in 1948, Shannon and Weaver
wrote an article in the Bell System Technological Journal entitled "A Mathematical Theory of
Communication." According to Flares (2016). this is also often called the "Telephone Model,"
since it was developed because of the technology of the telephone and the experience of
"noise" coming from the switchboard.

The sender would be the person giving the message, while the encoder would be the
transmitter which converts the message into signals. Let us use the modern example of the
mobile phone. With our model example. the encoder would be the cellphone, and the
sender, of course. would be the person calling. The decoder, on the other hand, would be the
reception place of the signal which converts signals into message, which is why in modern
parlance, when there is "no signal." there is difficulty in decoding the message, The receiver
would be the destination of the message by sender which would be the person who is being
called and when there are problems, or "noise." that interferes with the message. then the
receiver would give feedback, which is usually phrased as "choppy.'' When the message
cannot be heard because of the signal, The messages are transferred through the use of a
channel; in the case of the telephone, the channel would be the cables, while in the case of
the cellphone, the channel would be radio frequencies (Communication Theory.Org). This
model can also be used in other situations, and can tell us how the message may sometimes
get lost because of the noise, which can be physical or psychological and how feedback is on
essential component of communication to ensure that the message is successfully received.
On the other hand, when it comes to Schramm's model a communication, there are two
primary models involved. The first one it built on the theories of Osgood, which is why this is
known as the

Osgood -Schramm model.

In this model, pay attention to the role of the interpreter. Encoding and decoding are not
automatic processes both go through the filter of the interpreter. Therefore, the message
may succeed or fail, based on the interpreter's appreciation of the message. There are times
when the lander and receiver may apply different meanings to the same message, and this is
termed "semantic noise" (Communicative Theories. Org), His second model, on the other
hand, builds this theory about the interpreter do the different fields of experience of the
sender and the receiver.
For the message to reach the receiver, there must be a common field of experience between
the sender and the receiver. Although the receiver might not fully appreciate all the nuances
of the message, as there are parts of the sender’s experience that the receiver has no
knowledge of, the receiver may still understand the core meaning of the message. According
to Sneha Mishra (2017), this field of experience may constitute “culture, social background,
beliefs, experiences, values, and rules.”

The last models is Eugene White’s Stages of Oral Communication. According to White,
it is possible to begin at any of the stages outlined in his model. People are under the
mistaken impression that when we communicate, e usually start with thinking, nut that is not
necessarily the case. Since it is a circular model, it means that oral communication is a
continuous process with no real beginning or end. The most important contribution from
Eugene White’s model is the concept of feedback, which can only be process by the speaker if
he or she has been monitoring the audience or the listener. Hence, the speaker must also pay
attention to the listener’s verbal and non-verbal cues (Flores, 2016).

In conclusion, communication is not a simple process that starts with the speaker and
ends with the listener there are many factors that should be considered. When it comes to
the message, how the message is organized and what field of experience it comes from
should be taken into consideration. When it comes to sender, the best communication is the
one that involves feedback. Furthermore, there are several kinds of “noise” that may severely
affect the reception of the message and thus, should be considered and avoided. Cultural
differences, technology, and interpretation need to be considered as well. To be good
communicators, one needs to pay attention to how people are responding to the message,
and adjust accordingly, rather than being preoccupied with simply expressing oneself.

Lesson 2: Communication Ethics

It is important to understand that whatever we communicate should be guided by certain
ethical principles. The US national Communication Association (NCA, 1999) discusses this in
their Credo for Ethical Communication, stating that, “Ethical communication is fundamental
to responsible thinking, decision-making, and the development of relationships and
communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical
communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness,
responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical
communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being
of individuals and the society in which we live.

In their Credo, there are four ethical principles of communication that are especially
relevant for students today.

Firstly, they “advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the
integrity of communication” (NCA, 1999). Nowadays, social media and speeches in public
have been so filled with black propaganda and whitewashing that there is a call to reiterate
the need for truth and honesty. It is important to be accurate when we communicate, and to
have facts and figures to prove our assertions. It is important to be reasonable, rather than to
be too emotional or threatening when we communicate.

Secondly, the NCA also endorses “freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and
tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed and in certain political climates, people may feel
threatened to the point that they no longer feel that it is safe to express what they feel or
think. This is not a good environment to live in. We fully agree with the NCA that to have a
vibrant democracy, we must be able to hear different perspective and have a high tolerance
for views that are different from ours. It is important to foster an environment where people
feel safe enough to express what they think and feel, and for these expression to be met with
reasonable dialogue and debate, rather than outright censure and violence.

Thirdly, the NCA (1999) states that they “condemn communication that degrades
individuals and humanity through distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and
through the expression of intolerance and hatred” (1999). This condemnation is important
because it safeguards society from racism, sexism, and violence against oppressed people.
History has shown us that a tolerance for hate speech, as well as speeches that incite violence
and the act of killing, have often instituted such violence in society, whether this is in the
context of slavery, colonialism, or misogyny.

Lastly, the NCA (1999) states that communicators should “accept responsibility for the
short and long term consequences of our own communication and expect the same of
others.” All too often, there have been people who do not feel accountable for their actions.
Therefore, if one risks to communicate maliciously, spread false news, or incite hatred or
violence, he or she should be ready to face the consequences of such actions. States are
beginning to realize this, especially in the porous medium of social media.

Everytime we communicate, we should consider the consequences of our actions. If

people were more responsible in their use of communication, there would be less conflict in
this world. Even though the four principles above are short and concise, they are important,
because they help us discern the difference between ethical and unethical communicators.
LESSON 3: Communication and Globalization World Englishes

 Globalization

Globalization has affected us in numerous ways. Airfare has become cheaper, and one can
travel internationally more than one could in the past. Many Filipinos have decided to work
or live abroad, with some of them migrating to other countries. The free trade of goods and
services all over the world has brought multinational companies and foreign investors to our
shores. Because of all of these factors, it is imperative to be aware of the differences between
our culture and the rest of the world's cultures. Because of the advent of the internet, the
world seems to be shrinking continually. One can communicate internationally in a matter of
seconds, whether one is sending an email, chatting in social media, or sending a text
message. One can read about different cultures, and have access to films, academic papers,
and the like from countries around the world, and vice versa. Given this increasingly shrinking
world, one should know the difference between the kind of English that we write and speak,
and the kind of Englishes that exist outside of the Philippines.

 World Englishes

David Crystal (2003) begins the first chapter of the book English as a Global Language with the
assertion that English is, in fact, the global language. After giving various examples to support
this statement, he questions the assertion by asking, "What does it mean to say that a
language is global?" (Crystal, 2003). In asking this, he considers the implications of English
having this status, especially for its many users who speak different mother tongues. In The
Story of English, Robert McCrum et al. (1986) discuss the "success story" of the rise of English.
They also provide a variety of examples that demonstrate the global presence of English. The
questions that follow help the reader explore the implications of the language's wide reach.
  Readings in World Englishes

Read "Speak English: The Story of a Once-obscure Language and How It Became the
Last Word in Global Communication," excerpted from the Chicago Tribune from The Story of
English (McCrum et al 1986). You may access the full excerpt via the following link: http:/
articles.chicagotribune.com/1986-09-07/features/8603070293_1_official- language-mother-
tongue-speak). Read only up to the first paragraph of page 2 of the article. The first and final
paragraphs of your assigned readings are given below for your reference.

(First paragraph)
The rise of English is a remarkable success story. When Julius Caesar landed in Britain
nearly 2,000 years ago, English did not exist. Five hundred years later, English,
incomprehensible to modern ears, was probably spoken by about as few people as currently
speak Cherokeeand with about as little influence. Nearly a thousand years later, at the end of
the 16th Century, when William Shakespeare was in his prime, English was the native speech
of between 5 and 7 million Englishmen, and it was, in the words of a contemporary, "of small
reatch, it stretcheth no further than this iland of ours, naie not there over all."

(Final paragraph)
The emergence of English as a global phenomenon- as either a first, second or foreign
language--has recently inspired the idea (undermining the above claims) that we should talk
not of English but of many Englishes, especially in Third World countries Where use of English
is no longer part of the colonial legacy but the result of decisions made since their
independence. Throughout the history of English there has been a contest between the forces
of standardization and the forces of localization, at both the written and the spoken levels.
The appearance of the first substantial English dictionaries in the 18th Century was a move
towards written standardization. It was Victorian England that realized the idea of "the
Queen's English," a spoken standard to which the "lesser breeds" could aspire. The industrial
revolution meant roads, canals and, above all, trains: People traveled more, both
geographically and socially. The pressures of class ambition speeded the emergence of a
standard form of English speech.

The (two most well-known varieties of English) are those of the colonial superpowers:
British English and American English, But there are many multilingual countries around the
world in which varieties of English have developed. This may be because English was initially
"transported to that country by English-speaking settlers- as in the United States Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand. It could also be that English may have been brought to that
country as a language of conquest by English- speaking colonizers- as in South Africa, Hong
Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines. In the latter countries, English has a particular
role as official language, medium of instruction, or even language of law and government.
English is also studied as a foreign language in some non- English speaking countries, such as
Holland and Yugoslavia, as mentioned earlier by McCrum, and in Korea and Japan. In these
countries, there is less exposure to English, and it is often learned for career progression
because it is the language of international business. 
As mentioned earlier, all of these World Englishes are equal in functionality, but not
all are equal in prestige. The idea, however, in writing, is to adhere to the Standard English of
one's country because each variety, including those of the United States and United Kingdom,
has its own peculiar or individual features. These features include differences in spelling,
punctuation, favored words and expressions, and sometimes, grammatical constructions. The
table that follows gives an example of some of these differences for American English and
British English.
Thus, two English speakers-one from the US and the other from the UK-may become
confused when encountering the other's unfamiliar accent and word choices in a
conversation and when seeing different spelling and punctuation conventions in writing.
Philippine English, as well, has its unique and idiosyncratic usages. For example,
"comfort room" is a Philippine term for "washroom," "toilet," or "lavatory." When Filipinos
say, "There's traffic," they mean "There's heavy traffic." Moreover, the word "salvage" in the
Philippine context can mean either "to save" or "to brutally murder, usually for political
reasons." Matthew Sutherland, who writes about Philippine English from an Englishman's
perspective talks about the expression "for a while." which he says baffles foreigners because
the expression does not exist outside of the Philippines. The UK's equivalent, he says, is "just
a second" or "just a moment" (quoted in Aguilar, 2004). Similarly, Sutherland notes that "for
a while" is frequently used in the Philippines on the telephone, whereas in the UK, the more
typical expression would be "hold on" or "hang on" (quoted in Aguilar, 2004). Importantly, he
mentions that these British idiomatic equivalents would be just as baffling to those unfamiliar
with these usages. Filipinos might, in response to being told to "hang on," may very well ask,
"Hang on to what?"

Sutherland also notes that "every English-speaking nation has its own set of English
phrases and idioms; English is equally idiosyncratic in, say, India, Jamaica, Zimbabwe, or
Singapore." In other words, there is no wrong way of speaking English as long as those who
speak it understand each other. In fact, Sutherland says, "The many versions of English
spoken around the globe merely serve to make English an even richer tongue." However, the
fact that all varieties of English have individual or peculiar usages is why it is important-in the
context of academic and professional writing-to follow a standard. This standard advocates
the use of a consistent spelling and punctuation system. It also avoids colloquial and informal
usages, eschewing these in favor of more widely understood uses or explaining such usages
for the reader if it becomes necessary to use them in writing.

The label for this variety is Standard English or-depending on the region-Standard American
English, Standard British English, or Standard Philippine English. This is defined as consisting
of "the conventional vocabulary and usage of educated speakers and writers of
English"(Robert & Turgeon, 1998). To use this kind of English means to follow a spelling or
punctuation system that is consistent with the prescribed standard. For example, Standard
Philippine English follows Standard American usages for spelling, punctuation, and the
formatting of dates. In terms of grammar and diction, Standard English "does not include
slang, vulgarism, regionalism, and other constrictions that are considered... unorthodox by
those seeking a language acceptable to a general audience" (Roberts & Turgeon, 1998). In
general, then, writers should avoid local idioms, expressions, and constructions like those
examples mentioned, and essentially, to use words that will be clearly understood by English
speakers from any region of the world. In summary, in everyday speech and informal
contexts, one is free to use his or her own variety of English. However, in more formal writing
context, one should be able to identify which features of this variety may not be understood
by the other speakers of English and to use alternatives that will understood by a wider
audience.

 Culturally Sensitive and Bias-Free Language

Just as important as awareness of the existence of World Englishes is that of practicing

cultural sensitivity. To write in a culturally sensitive way means to be aware that cultural
differences and similarities between people exist and that these should not be assigned a
positive or negative value via words and descriptions selected in writing. Academic and
professional writings are characterized by bias-free language. Students, scholars,
professionals, and anyone wishing to maintain harmonious communicative relations should
be careful in using words and phrases that do not discriminate against particular groups,
whether in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, social class, age, and disability. The essential
point is to communicate in a way that is respectful of diversity. 

Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or
categories.

1.) Race and Ethnicity

 Racism is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of a different race. In
general, it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group. Race is an emotionally
charged topic, so it is best to tread carefully with the language used and to refer to race, as
Patricia Arinto (2009) asserts in English for the Professions, " only if it is relevant to what you
have to say." Words that reinforce stereotypes and that imply all people of a particular race
or ethnic group are the same should be avoided) For example, although the assessment is
positive in the sentence "Naturally, the Asian students won the math contest." The word
"naturally" reinforces the stereotype or generalization that Asians have superior aptitude in
math.

Next, one must be attuned to the current terminology by which racial and ethnic
groups refer to themselves. This may be done by reading national newspapers and watching
television news, which typically are good indicators of current and preferred usage)
According to Kitty Locker and Donna Kienzler (2013), one should "refer to a group by the term
it prefers," which means some research is required to find out about acceptable and
preferred terms, For example, for a long time, "Native American" has been considered the
politically correct term for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, over the label "Red
Indian." But today, most Native American people prefer to be referred to by their specific
nation or tribe. In the Philippine context, there have been shifts in the preferences for terms
that Filipinos of Chinese ancestry use to describe their identity: from Isino, to Chinoy, to
Filipino Chinese. It is also important to be sensitive to religion when referring to various
ethnic groups. Assumptions should not be made that stereotype a race, nationality, or ethnic
group with a specific religion. For example, not all Arabs are Muslims, not all Indians are
Buddhists, and not all Filipinos are Roman Catholic.

2. Gender and Sexual Orientation

Sexism refers to the prejudice and discrimination based on sex or gender. To be

inclusive of all people in general references, one should favor gender-neutral words and
phrases over gender-biased words. For example, rather than “man-made,” one can say
“manufactured,” “synthetic,” or “artificial.” Instead of “layman’s term,” one can use
“ordinary terms.” Neutral words should also be chosen over words with “man” and “woman”
in job titles or description. For example, it is more appropriate to use “chairperson” in place
of “chairman”, “flight attendant” in place of “stewardess,” and “labor” in place of
“manpower.” One should also avoid sexist terms like “woman lawyer” and “male nurse” and
simply use “lawyer” and “nurse.”
Pronouns may also be gender-biased, for example, when the masculine “he” pronoun
is used as a generic one for both genders. Gender biased pronouns can be avoided by..
a. Dropping pronouns that signify gender and restarting the sentence,
b. Changing to plural construction, and
c. Replacing masculine or feminine pronouns with “one” or “you”

Other gender-related terms may have to do with gender orientation or sexual orientation. It
is important to be sensitive to new attitudes about homosexual, transsexual, and transgender
people. For example, most gay people prefer the term “gay” to the more clinical
“homosexual” as a label. “Lesbian” is currently the term preferred by gay women.
Transgenderpeople prefer to be referred to as being the gender that they identify as, not
their birth gender. Again, as a matter of priniciple, one should refer to societal groups in the
way that membersof these groups prefer to be referred tp. Note also that terminology in this
area is developing, and that not everyone agrees.

3. Social Class

Class discrimination or classism is a form of prejudice against a person or people

because of theiscial class. An example of language with a blas against class is the American
term "white trash." which is not orly a racial slur but a classist one that refers to white
people, usually from the rural Southern United States, coming from a lower social class inside
the white population. The term is negative not just because of the words that comprise it but
because of its connotation of danger; white trash people are seen as criminal. unpredictable,
and without respect for authority. In the United States and other cultures. there may also be
a kind of classism against those who are economically privileged. The rich are sometimes
referred to by the derogatory terms "preppie" and "yuppie," both of which connote not just
wealth but arrogance.

There are examples from Philippine culture as well, in the informal terms "conyo" and
"jologs," both derogatory terms referring to class. The first, used to describe young people
from the upper class who speak an idiosyncratic mix of English and Tagalog, connotes vanity
and consciousness about social status. The second, now perhaps replaced by the term
"jejemon," as used in reference to an idiosyncratic spelling or writing style, is used to describe
persons who look poor and out of style.

Classism may also appear even in more formal terminology. Sociologist/Activist Betsy
Leondar-Wrighi, argues in d video interview that classist terms "attribute favorable traits to
the wealihy and powerful" and "Those in poverty or near-poverty are similarly cast in a
negative light" (ClassismExposed, 2014). A more sensitive vocabulary uses terms that more
precisely portray the actual circumstances of people within the class structure. For example,
instead of "the owning class," one can use "the upper class" or "the privileged class," and
instead of "the underclass,." one can say "the less privileged" or describe a condition of
"chronic poverty." In the Philippines, "informal settlers" is now the more politically correct
term for "squatters."

4. Age
Ageism is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age, or
assuming that older people are less physically, intellectually or emotionally able than other
age groups. the capabilities of younger people should also not be underestimated on the
basis of their age Again, it is important to refer to a person's age only when that information
Is pertinent to what is being discussed. When referring to a generic group one should also ask
their subjects what wordings they prefer: Do they wish to be called "older persons" or "senior
citizens"? Do they prefer the label "youths," "teenagers," or "young people"? Lastly,
according to the American Psychological Association writers should be specific when referring
to males and females in terms of their age: females 18 years or older are women, not girls.
"Girls" refers to those in high school or younger (under 18). The same is true for "boys" and
“man”.

5. Disabilities

Dicriminationin this area often arises because of lack of understanding and awareness.
Therefore, first, it is important fo distinguish some terms that are mistakenly understood to
be synonymous. Various guides on blas-free communication and often-confused terminology
are available online. One example is " A Guide to Bias-Free Communications" published by
the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It defines the terms "'impairment." "disability." and
"handicap" as, respectively. (1) "a physiological condition," (2) "the consequence of an
impairment" which "may or may not be handicapping " and (3) "the social implication of a
disability: a condition or barrier imposed by society, the environment or oneself"? Thus,
according to these definitions, a "limp" is an impairment in which a leg or foot is damaged or
stiff. A disability that may resulf from arthrifis is difficulty in walking, or walking unevenly and
haltingly People who limp may be handicapped by having to climb stairs in buildings with no
elevators. Other guides from other cultural contexts may provide different definitions and
examples: it is essential when writing to do research on these definitions.

Finally, when referring to people with disabilities, the focus should be on the person,
not the condition (Arinto, 2009). In Patricia Arinto's English for the Professions (2009), she
advises writers to avoid hurtful expressions such as "retards" or even the seemingly neutral
description "the mentally retarded" and to use instead "people with mental retardation."
Similarly. instead of "the blind" and "cancer patients," one should instead use "people with
vision impairments" and "people being treated for cancer." respectively. These examples
demonstrate the importance of identity-first language or the importance of putting the
person or people first. Note the difference in the following sentences:

Disability first: The blind student used a special keyboard during the exam.

Person first: The student, who is visually impaired, used a special keyboard during the
exam.

Next. Arinto (2009) suggests considering the negative implications of usages such as
"confined to a wheelchair" and "AIDS victim." For the former, one should instead write or say
"uses a wheelchair" because wheelchairs enable people to escape confinement, while for the
latter one should use "person with AIDS" as someone who can acquire a disease without
being victimized by it. Arinto (2009) also notes that the word “abnormal” may be replaced
with “atypical” because “people who have disabilities are atypical but not necessarily
abnormal” Arinto (2009). These latter examples demonstrate the importance of not
representing people with disabilities as unfortunate, limited, and helpless victims.