M4 COMPONENT PARTS OF A RAILWAY RAILS • RAILS are unsymmetrical I sections, made

up of steel • Laid along two parallel lines over sleepers. Rails are joined longitudinally by
fishplates or by welding. • These are placed end to end to provide a continuous and level
surface for trains to move Functions of Rails: • Provide a continuous and level surface for
the movement of trains • provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction
•Lateral guide for the wheels • bear the stresses (due to vertical loads transmitted to
them through axles , due to braking and thermal forces) • Transmitting the load to a large
area of the SLEEPERS • Sleepers are members generally laid transverse to the rails. • Rails
are supported and fixed on to this, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and
subgrade below functions of sleepers • To hold the rails to proper gauge • To transfer
load from rails to wider area of ballast • To support and fix rails in correct position • To
maintain the alignment and gauge of the track correctly. • Acting as an elastic medium
between the rails and the ballast to absorb the blows and vibrations of moving loads. •
Providing lateral and longitudinal stability of permanent way. • BALLAST is a layer of
broken stone, gravel or any other granular material placed and packed below and around
sleepers • Distributing the load from the sleepers to the formation and for providing
drainage as well as given longitudinal and lateral stability of the truck. Functions ballast •
To provide a level and sound foundation for the sleepers to rest on. • To hold the sleepers
in position during the passage of trains. • To transfer and distribute the load from
sleepers to the large area of formation. • To provide elasticity and resilience to track for
getting proper riding comfort. • To provide necessary resistance to track for longitudinal
and lateral stability. • To provide effective drainage to track and keep the sleepers in dry
condition. FORMATION Subgrade is the naturally occuring soil which is prepared to
receive the ballast. • The prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast,
along with sleepers and rails, is called the formation. • The formation is an important
constituent of the track, as it supports the entire track structure. Functions of formation
(a) It provides a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track. (b) It bears the load
transmitted to it from the moving load through the ballast. (c) It facilitates drainage. (d) It
provides stability to the track. Gauges • minimum distance between two rails. •
measured as the clear minimum distance between the running faces of two rails influence
the choice of the gauge: • Cost considerations • Traffic considerations • Uniformity of
gauge • Physical features of the country types • Broad gauge or standard gauge (BG) •
Metre gauge (MG) • Narrow gauge CONING OF WHEEL • Wheels are shaped like a cone or
made as a conical segment.ie the tread or rim of wheels of railway vehicles is made in the
shape of a cone with the slope of about 1 in 20. • This shaping is known as coning of
wheels. • A gap is kept in between the wheel flange and running edge of the rail, nearly
equal to 1 cm on either side. If wheels are flat :- continuous connectivity of the flange of
wheel with the rail head at the side. ➢On straight track, portions of wheels running on
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track have same diameter ➢It maintains vehicle in the central position with respect to
the track. ➢On a curved path, due to centrifugal force the outer wheel is pulled outside
➢This causes an increase in diameter that helps outer wheel to travel a longer distance
than the inner wheel ➢Thus the portions of wheels running on track have different
diameters which help in smooth running of wheels. advantages: • Smooth riding • Help
vehicle to negotiate curves smoothly • Reduces wear and tear of wheel flanges
disadvantages• The pressure on the horizontal component of force near the inner edge of
outer rail has a tendency to wear the rail quickly • The horizontal component has to turn
the rail outwards and hence the gauge may be widened. • If no base plates are provided,
sleepers under the outer edge of the rail may be damaged. Cant deficiency Cant excess:
Cant excess occurs when a train travels on a curve at a speed lower than equilibrium
speed. It is the difference between actual cant and theoretical cant required for. such a
lower speed. • The equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of equilibrium speed (or
Average speed, or weighted Average speed) of different trains. But this equilibrium cant
or super elevation falls short of that required for the high speed trains. This shortage of
cant is called "Cant Deficiency • This cant deficiency is limited due to two reasons :
❖Higher cant deficiency gives rise to higher discomfort to passengers. ❖Higher cant
deficiency means higher would be the balanced centrifugal forces and hence extra
pressure and lateral forces on outer rails. This will require strong track and fastenings for
stability. Grade compensation of curve • Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient on a
particular section • But if a curve lies on the ruling gradient. • Resistance due to the
gradient is increased due to curvature. • So inorder to avoid the resistance beyond the
allowable limits, the gradients are reduced on curves. • This reduction in gradient is
known as Grade compensation for curves. • Curve resistance is expressed as a percentage
per degree of the curves. TUNNEL SECTIONS 1.Polycentric Shaped Tunnels • This sort of
tunnel shape has a number of centers and provides a sufficient flat base for traffic
movement. Advantages: 1. It can be used for road and railway traffic. 2. It can resist
external and internal pressure for their arch shape. Disadvantages: 1. The construction of
these tunnels is difficult. 2. The lining of this type of tunnel is difficult.  2.Circular Shaped
Tunnels • Circular tunnels are used to carry water under pressure and sewers. • These are
not appropriate for traffic tunnels because more filling is needed to make the base flat. •
Best in non cohesive soils. Advantages: •Best to resist the external or internal force. •It
provides the greatest cross-sectional area for the least perimeter. Disadvantages: •More
filling is required to form a flat base for designing a road or railway track. •In circular
tunnels, lining work is very difficult. 3.Rectangular Shaped Tunnels •For pedestrian
traffic, rectangular shapes of tunnels are appropriate. • These tunnels are sometimes
accepted if preconstructed R.C.C caissons are used. • This types of tunnels not suitable to

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resist external pressure due to their rectangular shape and these are not in use these
days. • Adopted in hard rocks but are costly.  4.Egg Shaped /semi circular tunnels • This
tunnel shape has a number of centers and radius length. • These are suitable as sewer
tunnels to carry sewage water. Advantages: • It is mostly adopted for carrying sewage
water. • Due to their small cross-section at the bottom, it can maintain the self-cleaning
velocity of flow of sewage in dry and rainy seasons. • It can resist external and internal
pressure due to their circular walls Disadvantages: • This type of tunnels are not suitable
as traffic tunnels • The construction process of these tunnels are very difficult  5.Horse
Shoe Type Tunnels • Horseshoe type tunnel shape is a combined shape of arches and
circular tunnel. • When lined, it gives resistance to external ground pressures. • These
type of tunnels shape is quite popular. • For soft rocks. • Used as highway and railway
tunnels. 6.Elliptical Shaped Tunnels •For carrying water, elliptical-shaped tunnels are
appropriate. • These are suitable in softer material. • For better resistance to external
pressure, the major axis of these tunnels is maintained vertically. 7.D sections /
segmental tunnels • Segmental tunnels are suitable for traffic tunnels. • It is a section
with an arched roof and straight sides. • These are generally used for subway or
navigation tunnels. Advantages: •It is the most suited in rock tunnels. •It is suitable to
resist external load due to their arch-shaped roof. •It has flat floor which is helpful during
driving and moving any equipment TUNNEL ALIGNMENT •Selected based on •
topography, • environmental constraints, • Alignment constraints, • points of entrance
and exit etc. • Straight alignment is best and economical. GRADES IN A TUNNEL •
Gradient in tunnel is provided lesser than surface gradient. • Nearly level or 0.2 % grade is
provided to drain water. • Underground surveying for tunnel construction. •
Investigations are carried out to analyse strata and other geotechnical parameters. •
Centre line of tunnel is aligned on the ground and transferred to underground. • Levelling
is then done on surface and inside of tunnel. • Has 4 steps, • Setting out of tunnel on
ground surface • Transferring centre line from surface to underground • Underground
setting out • Levelling 1.Setting out tunnel on ground surface • Run an open traverse
between 2 ends of proposed tunnel with theodolites for angular measurements and laser
pole units to define a thin visible vertical plane up to large height. • Lengths of survey
lines are measured by steel tapes using direct stepping method 2. Transfer of Centre line
from surface to underground 3.Underground setting out 4.Underground levelling
HARBOUR ◗ A basin or haven or roadstead of navigable waters ◗ well protected naturally
or artificially from action of wind and waves, ◗ situated along sea-shore or river estuary
or lake or canal connected to sea ◦ Basin- water reservoir of required area ◦ Navigable-
depth of water is greater than draft required for largest ship likely to visit the harbour ◦
Draft- vertical linear immersion of ship below water surfaceincludes a standard vertical

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clearence b/w bottom of ship and sea bed classification of harbour Classification
depending upon the protection needed • Natural harbour (Natural roadsteads) • Natural
formations affording safe discharge facilities for ships on the sea coast in the form of
creeks and basins . • An inlet protected from storms and waves by natural configuration
of land. • Eg: Bombay, Cochin • Semi natural harbour • Protected on sides by head lands
and requires man made protection only at the entrance. • Eg: Vishakapatnam Artificial
harbour Shelters constructed making use of engineering skill and methods. eg: Madras
Classification based on utility • Harbours of refuge including naval basins • Commercial
harbours • Fishing harbours • Marina harbours Requirements of a good harbour • The
ship channel which may either be natural or artificial must have sufficient depth for the
draft of the vessel visiting the harbour. • The bottom should furnish secured anchorage to
hold the ship against the force of high winds. • The land masses or breakwaters must be
provided to protect against the destructive wave action. • The harbour entrance should
be wide enough to permit ready passage for shipping and also narrow enough to restrict
the transmission of excessive amounts of wave energy BREAKWATERS ◗ Protective
barrier constructed to enclose harbours and to keep the harbour water undisturbed from
the effect of heavy and strong sea waves ◗ Reflect and dissipate the force of wind
generated waves and thereby prevent the incidence on a water area it is intended to
protect ◗ An artificial construction to break the force of incoming wind and waves. ◗ Safe
anchorage for ships and to facilitate loading and unloading of cargo in calm waters.
CLASSIFICATION OF BREAKWATERS • 4 types ➢Heap or mound breakwater (a)Rubble
mound breakwater (b)Concrete block mound breakwater (c) Rubble mound breakwater
supplemented by concrete blocks (d) Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by
patented blocks ➢Mound with superstructure or composite breakwater ➢Upright wall
breakwater ➢Special breakwaters Function of components of mound breakwater •
Mound breakwater is a heap of undressed stones or blocks of various sizes, thrown at site
without any bond and binding material. • The foundation for the same is never prepared
nor even observed. • Such construction is known as pell- mell construction or rip-rap
construction. i. Interior or hearth or core -Function is to increase the bulk or size of
breakwater - Usually quarry waste or washed dredged material, weighing 10 kg to 20 kg -
Core is less pervious as compared to armour and filter ii Filter or secondary armours -Size
of stones in filter layer is larger than stones in core layer - hence such layer is more
pervious -weight of stones ½ tonne to 1.5 tonnes. DOCKS • Docks are enclosed areas for
berthing ships, FUNCTIONS • to keep the vessels afloat at a uniform level, • to facilitate
loading and unloading for cargo and passengers and repair of vessels. • Provides safe
anchoring or mooring for ships

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DOCKS – TYPES Wet docks ➢Enclosed or partially enclosed areas ➢large areas of water
bounded by vertical solid walls against which vessels tie up. ➢provided with locks and
entrance gates to keep the water at fairly constant level ➢used for berthing of vessels to
make the transfer of cargo easier➢The walls must be impermeable to retain the water at
high tide level. ➢Locks are provided if entry to the dock is desired at times other than
high tide Dry Docks ➢Excavated chamber, having side walls, a semi- circular end wall and
a floor. ➢The open end of the chamber is provided with a gate and acts as the entrance
to the dock. ➢constructed of concrete or masonry and stepped stone sides are of granite
to withstand heavy wear.

M5 RUNWAY ORIENTATION • The direction of runway along its length and its positioning
with respect to the direction of wind prevailing at the airport site. • Depend on the wind
direction and extent area available for airport development. • Arrangement of runways
and taxiways should comply with the following conditions: • To cause the least
interference in landing, taxiing and takeoff operations to avoid delay. • To reduce the taxi
distance possible from the terminal area to the ends of runways. • To make provision for
adequate taxiways. • To provide adequate separation in the air traffic pattern. WIND
ROSE DIAGRAM ● Wind data of about 5 to 10 years are required. ● These wind data are
represented graphically in the form a chart known as wind rose. ● Based on these,
orientation of runway is determined. ● Wind rose diagram can be plot in the following
two ways: TYPE I WIND ROSE DIAGRAM ● The radial lines indicate the wind direction and
each circle represents the duration of wind to a certain scale. ● The total percentage of
wind blowing in each direction is marked on corresponding direction and then joined by
lines. ● Best direction of runway is indicated by longest line on the wind rose diagram. ●
In the given diagram WNW-ESE is the best orientation for the runway. ● This type does
not consider the effect of cross-wind component TYPE II WIND ROSE DIAGRAM • Each
circle represents the wind velocity. • The radial lines represents the wind direction. • The
percentage of wind duration is shown for each direction in the sector. • Example: wind
data for N direction, duration of wind for velocity 6-25, 25- 50 and 50-80 kmph are shown
in the sectors as 4.6, 1.4 and 0.10% DATA REQUIRED FOR ORIENTATION • Maps of area
and contours: to examine the flatness of areas and possible changes in the longitudinal
profile so as to keep them within permissible limits • Wind data: direction, duration and
intensity of the prevailing wind in the vicinity of the airport for development of wind rose
diagram. • Fog characteristics Head wind ● Wind from opposite direction of head of
aircraft during landing or take off ● Runway along head wind grants the following
advantages: ○ provide breaking effect during landing ○ provide uplift on wings during
take off Tail wind ● Wind blowing in the same direction as landing or take off of the
aircraft. ● It provides push from the back thus increasing stop distance or lift off distance
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Cross wind ● Component of inclined wind perpendicular to the runway. ● It should be
minimum for aircraft to manoeuvre safely on runway. ● It should not exceed 25 kmph for
light and medium weight aircrafts. Wind coverage ● Percentage of time in a year in which
the cross wind component remains within the limit of 25 kmph. ● Orientation of runway
should be such that the minimum wind coverage of about 95 % is obtained. Calm period
● Percentage time of year when the velocity is less than minimum value of 6 kmph
TAXIWAY • Taxiway : paths that provide access from the runway to the terminal area and
hangar, aprons etc. • Apron taxiway : taxiway located to the periphery of an apron. •
Dual parallel taxiway : 2 taxiways parallel to each other on which airplane can taxi in the
opposite direction. LAYOUT OF TAXIWAY 1. Arrangement – taxiway should be arranged
such that the aircraft just landed should not interfere with the aircraft taxiing to take off
2. Busy airports – locate taxiway at various points along the runway. It will then be
possible for the landing aircraft to leave the runway as early as possible for making it
clear for use by other aircrafts 3. Crossing – crossing or intersection of taxiway and
runway should be avoided 4. Higher turnoff speed – if the speed of aircraft is high, it
decrease the occupancy of aircraft in runway and increase the capacity of runway 5.
Route – shortest route from terminal to runway should be selected for taxiway. APRONS
It includes loading aprons and holding aprons (1)LOADING APRON • Paved area adjacent
and in front of the terminal area. • Used for loading and unloading as well as for fuelling
and minor servicing and checkup. • Provide cement concrete pavement for apron to resist
effect of jet blast and fuel spilling Dimension of loading apron depends on • Number of
loading position, Size of aircraft, Parking system adopted Generally a clearance of 7.5 m is
provided between the aircrafts parked on the adjacent stands (2) HOLDING APRON •
Paved area provided adjacent to the end of runway • The taking off aircraft is held on
holding apron for some time for checking instrument and engine operation prior to take
off. • Configuration: Should have sufficient area to accommodate three or four aircraft •
Entry to the runway: Holding apron should be located so as to enter the runway at an
angle less than 90o • Facility of bypass: Holding apron should be large enough so that if
an aircraft is unable to take off due engine failure, another aircraft can bypass it •
Location: Location of holding apron should be such that it will not be directed towards
the blast from the aircraft

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