Lab #1

SOLAR ENERGY LAB

BACKGROUND

Energy is a basic human necessity, without which lighting, cooking, transportation, communication,
refrigeration, etc. would not be possible. Before the Industrial Revolution and advent of steam power
and electricity, people met their energy needs in simpler ways. Most forms of physical energy were
simple machines comprised of pulleys, wheels, and gears. Fuels were not energy dense, meaning that
abundant volumes were required to be effective. Biomass, such as wood, charcoal, and grass, was the
primary fuel for fire and heat. The Industrial Revolution however, saw the transition from low-energy
biomass to high-density fossil fuels. During this period, coal and petroleum became the most important
energy sources for industry and agriculture.

Figure 1. Trends in the amount and use of energy over the past million years. Source: Pearson.

Today, as the demand for fossil fuels continues to grow, concerns about the availability of non-
renewable resources as well as environmental impacts have led us to explore other options to meet our
energy needs. To diversify our energy portfolio, renewable energy sources such as solar and wind are
being explored.

The sun emits staggering amounts of energy through nuclear fusion. During the process, hydrogen is
converted to helium and large amounts of energy are released. Only a small quantity of this emitted
energy reaches Earth’s surface, however each day it is enough to power human consumption for
approximately 25 years. On average every day, Earth’s surface receives 1 kilowatt (kW) of solar energy
per square meter.

Photovoltaic (PV) cells are an example of an active solar energy collection technology which can be
used to harness the sun’s energy. PV cells make use of the photovoltaic effect. This effect occurs when
light strikes one of a pair of plates primarily made of the semi-conductor, silicon. Silicon crystals have
all four valence electrons bound with other silicon valence electrons. However, when silicon is “doped”
with atoms having fewer valence electrons and is brought into contact with silicon doped with atoms
ENVT 0845/0945: The Environment Lab #1: Solar Energy

having extra valence electrons, an electric field is created. The electrons from atoms with extra valence
electrons fill “holes” created by atoms with fewer electrons. When sunlight strikes the PV cell, the light
has enough energy to separate an electron from an atom and the electric field helps move the electrons
to charge collecting areas. The electrons gather on the surface of the solar cell by a grid of metal
connected to a circuit. The circuit allows the electrons to flow to the electron-poor back of the cell from
the electron-rich front of the cell. Check out this video for more information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UJ8XW9AgUrw

Figure 2. Two layers of a PV cell. Source: Pearson.

PV cells produce direct current (DC) electricity and an inverter can be used to change this to alternating
current (AC) electricity, which is the form used for residential and commercial electrical power. With
the rise of decentralized, intermittent, renewable energy sources such as solar, storage of generated
electricity has become an important research challenge. At a small scale (single home), generated
electricity can be stored in a series of batteries. However, at a larger scale this becomes impractical.
Current ideas to store large amounts of electricity include pumped hydroelectric power, molten salt,
and compressed air. See the following link for more ideas on electricity storage options:
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/03/business/energy-environment/biggest-batteries.html.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this lab experiment is to demonstrate the effect of several variables (distance, filters,
and shading) on the output of photovoltaic cells. The power that is generated by the PV cell can be
determined with the following equation:

𝑃 = 𝑖𝑉

where P is power (Watt), i is current (Ampere), and V is voltage (Volt).

MATERIALS REQUIRED
• Photovoltaic cell • Direct sunlight (or ceiling lights)
• Multimeter • Electrical wire with alligator clips
• Color filters
• Yard stick (or a measuring tape)

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ENVT 0845/0945: The Environment Lab #1: Solar Energy

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Step 1: Constructing the PV Cell System

• Connect the PV cell to the Multimeter

o Attach the red and black alligator clips to the red and black wires of the PV cell
o Connect the red wire to VΏMA terminal on the Multimeter
o Connect the black wire to COM terminal on the Multimeter
• Expose the PV cell to light to see if you are getting a current and voltage reading. If the Multimeter
shows no current or negative voltages, check the wire connections

Step 2: Effect of Distance from the source

Hypothesis: The farther the PV cell is from the light source, the less power it will produce. This is because the
greater the distance that light travels, the more it will scatter. Therefore, less solar energy will strike the surface of
the PV cell.

Set up the cell at desired distance from the light source and record the voltage and current readings.
Calculate the power output and create the following three graphs:

Graph # X Axis Y Axis

1 Distance Voltage
2 Distance Current
3 Distance Power
Table 1: Effect of Distance

Distance Voltage Current Power

(in) (V) (A) (W)

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ENVT 0845/0945: The Environment Lab #1: Solar Energy

Step 3: Effect of Light Filters

Hypothesis: In this series of experiments, different light filters applied to the light source will change the power
output of the PV cell. This is due to the fact that each filter absorbs waves of its own frequency, which means the
light that exits the filter will have slightly different energy levels depending on the color of the filter.

In this set of experiments, place the cell directly below the light source (make sure the distance remains
same for all the filters). Place a colored filter on the cell (completely covering the PV panel) and record
the current and voltage. Repeat the procedure for all the colored filters. Calculate the power output and
plot a bar graph showing the effect of color.

Table 2: Effect of Light Filters

Voltage Current Power

Filter color
(V) (A) (W)
Red
Blue
Green
Pink
Yellow
Orange
Figure 3: Sample bar graph
Purple

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ENVT 0845/0945: The Environment Lab #1: Solar Energy

Step 4: Effect of Shading

In this set of experiments, place the cell directly below the light source (make sure the distance remains
same for all the shade %). Place a piece of cardboard, completely covering one of the 10 cells and record
the current and voltage. Repeat the procedure until all the cells on the panel are covered. Calculate the
power output and plot a graph showing the effect of shading (power vs. % shading).

Table 3: Effect of shading

Voltage Current Power

Amount of Shade
(V) (A) (W)
No shade
10% shade
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%

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ENVT 0845/0945: The Environment Lab #1: Solar Energy

QUESTIONS

1. In your own words:

• Describe two economic advantages and two environmental advantages of solar power.
• Explain an economic disadvantage and environmental disadvantage of solar power.
2. Research the following and provide sources:
• What percentage of the US energy portfolio do renewable energy sources comprise?
• Which form of renewable energy is used most to generate electricity?
• What is the most prevalent form of renewable energy used today?
3. In your own words:
• Describe what the term “peak sun-hour” means.
• Solar panels are rated by their theoretical maximum output capacity. A 2-kW PV panel
would theoretically produce 2 kW of electricity at its maximum output (during peak solar
radiance). If the average daily peak sun-hours in Philadelphia are approximately 4.0 hr and
a rowhome is outfitted with 10 PV panels each having a capacity of 260 W, how much
energy (kilowatt x hours) would be generated in one year (in units of kWh/year)?
4. Describe two ways in which generated electricity can be stored.
5. In your own words:
• What is “energy poverty”?
• What are the social costs of energy poverty?
• How can PV cells help alleviate energy poverty?