FACTORS ALTERING

BEHAVIOR
CRIM 203 – HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY
EMOTION
Emotion refers to feelings affective responses as a result
of physiological arousal, thoughts and beliefs, subjective
evaluation and bodily expression.
The English word “emotion” dates back to 1579 and is
derived from the French word émouvoir which means
“to stir up”. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e-
(variant of ex-) means “out” and movere means “move”.
 EMOTION
 Emotions often called feelings, include experiences
such as love, hate, anger, trust, joy, panic, fear and
grief. Emotions are related to, but different from
mood. Emotions are specific reactions to a particular
event that are usually of fairly short duration. Mood
is a more general feeling such as happiness and
sadness that lasts for a longer duration.
SIX BASIC EMOTIONS ACCORDING TO PAUL EKMAN
SIX BASIC EMOTIONS ACCORDING TO
PAUL EKMAN
 During the 1970s, psychologist Paul Eckman
identified six basic emotions that he
suggested were universally experienced in all
human cultures. The emotions he identified
were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear,
surprise, and anger.
SIX BASIC EMOTIONS ACCORDING TO PAUL
EKMAN
 1. Happiness
 Happiness is the most positive emotion which we all experience. It has
association with satisfaction, contentment and joy. In addition, it has close
connection with our psychological well being, health and longevity.
 2. Sadness
 Sadness is characterized by feelings like disappointment, grief and
hopelessness. As we experience happiness, likewise, we also experience
sadness from time to time. Although it’s very normal and natural to be sad
at times, prolonged sadness can turn into depression. Of course there are
some coping strategies to deal with our sadness which will make us more
emotionally stable.
SIX BASIC EMOTIONS ACCORDING TO PAUL
EKMAN
 3. Anger
 Anger is a very powerful emotion which includes hostility, agitation
and frustration. It is often displayed through- facial expressions,
body language, tone of voice and aggressive behavior. Anger is a
two sided sword which can be good as well bad.
 4. Fear
 Fear is a powerful emotion which is closely related to our survival
from the evolutionary point of view. It is also associated with fight
or flight response because fear could indicate a threat.
SIX BASIC EMOTIONS ACCORDING TO PAUL
EKMAN
 5. Surprise
 Surprise is associated with a physiological state of response after
some unexpected event. It can be positive. However, it can be negative or
neutral also.
 6. Disgust
 Disgust is the state of disapproval for something unpleasant.
Evolutionarily disgust evolved as a reaction to foods that might be harmful
or fatal. So generally disgust is more common reaction to the taste or smell
of stuff gone bad.
 But some other unwanted situations may also give rise to disgust. People
may also experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging into
immoral behaviors.
Robert Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions
 Psychologist Robert Plutchik states that there are
eight basic emotions: joy, trust, fear, surprise, sadness,
anticipation, anger, and disgust. Each primary
emotion also has a polar opposite, so that:
Joy is the opposite of sadness.
Fear is the opposite of anger.
Anticipation is the opposite of surprise.
Disgust is the opposite of trust.
Robert Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions
Robert Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

 While Plutchik identifies only eight basic

emotions, you can see from the wheel that
there are many different degrees, creating a
wide spectrum of emotions. Plutchik states that
emotions are much more complex than most
people realize.
Elements of the Wheel
 Colors – The eight emotions are arranged by colors that
establish a set of similar emotions. Primary emotions are
located in the second circle.
 Layers – Moving to the center of the circle intensifies the
emotion, so the colors intensify as well. Moving to the outer
layers, the colors become less saturated, and the intensity of
the emotions lowers.
 Relations - The spaces between the emotions demonstrate
combinations when primary emotions mix. For example,
anticipation and joy combine to be optimism while joy and
trust combine to be love.
THEORIES OF EMOTION
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Schachter and Singer Theory
Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Lazarus Theory)
James-Lange Theory of William James and Carl Lange

 The James-Lange theory of emotion suggested that

people have a physiological response to
environmental stimuli and that their interpretation of
that physical response then results in an emotional
experience.
 James further claims that “we feel sad because we
cry, angry because we strike; afraid because we
tremble and neither have we cried, strike, nor tremble
because we are sorry, angry or fearful, as the case
may be”.
 How Does the James-Lange Theory Work?

 According to this theory, witnessing an external

stimulus leads to a physiological response. Your
emotional reaction depends on how you interpret those
physical reactions.
 For example, imagine that you are walking through a
dark parking garage toward your car. You notice a dark
figure trailing behind you and your heart begins to
race. According to the James-Lange theory, you then
interpret your physical reactions to the stimulus as
fear.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory by Walter Cannon
and Philip Bard
This is a theory that emotion and physiological reactions
occur simultaneously. This theory was established as an
alternative to the James-Lange theory of emotion. Walter
Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory of emotion
on several different grounds. First, he suggested, people
can experience physiological reactions linked to emotions
without actually feeling those emotions. For example, your
heart might race because you have been exercising, not
because you are afraid.
Cannon-Bard Theory by Walter Cannon and
Philip Bard
 Cannon first proposed his theory in the 1920s, and
his work was later expanded on by physiologist
Philip Bard during the 1930s. Cannon-Bard
suggests that both of these reactions occur
simultaneously and independently. In other words,
the physical reaction isn’t dependent on the
emotional reaction, and vice versa.
Cannon-Bard Theory by Walter Cannon
and Philip Bard
 For example:
 Imagine you have a job interview tomorrow
morning for a position you really want. Thinking
about the interview might leave you feeling
nervous or worried. You might also feel physical
sensations such as tremors and rapid heartbeat,
especially as the interview approaches.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Schachter and Singer Theory (Two Factor
Theory)
 Like the James-Lange theory of emotion, Schachter and
Singer felt that physical arousal played a primary role in
emotions.
 The two-factor theory of emotion focuses on the interaction
between physical arousal and how we cognitively label that
arousal. This theory suggests that the physiological arousal
occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason
for this arousal to experience, resulting in an emotion.
Schachter and Singer Theory (Two Factor
Theory)
Examples

Say you hear scratching at the door and you open the door to see a large
growling pitbull. In response, your heart starts racing, and you start
sweating.

However, a racing heart and sweating can happen in other contexts, right?
So how do you know that in front of this growling dog, your racing heart is
actually fear and not something like excitement? Well, the answer is
cognitive labelling. When it sees the pitbull, your brain labels the situation
as something that should cause fear. In short, this cognitive labelling is
responsible for experiencing the correct emotion.
Illustration of the Schachter and Singer Theory
Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Lazarus Theory)
 Richard Lazarus was a pioneer in this area of emotion. This
theory builds on the Schachter-Singer theory, taking it into
another level. According to this theory, thinking must occur
first before experiencing emotion. The sequence of events
first involves a stimulus, followed by thought, which then
leads to the simultaneous experience of a physiological
response and the emotion. For example, if you encounter a
bear in the woods, you might immediately begin to think that
you are in great danger. This then leads to the emotional
experience of fear and the physical reactions associated with
the fight-or-flight response.
Cognitive Appraisal Theory
CONFLICT
 Conflict is a stressful condition that occurs when a
person must choose between incompatible or
contradictory alternatives. It is a negative emotional
state caused by an inability to choose between two or
more incompatible goals or impulse (Uriarte, 2009).
 Conflict is the state in which two or more motives
cannot be satisfied because they interfere with one
another. (Lahey, 2001).
TYPES OF CONFLICT
1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict)
2. Social Conflict
3. Approach-Avoidance
 Approach-Approach Conflict
 Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
 Approach – Avoidance Conflict
 Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Types of Conflict
1. Psychological Conflict (Internal Conflict) – psychological conflict could
be going on inside the person and no one would know. Freud would say
unconscious id battling superego and further claimed that our personalities
are always in conflict.
2. Social Conflict – the different kinds of social conflict are:
a. interpersonal conflict
b. two individuals me against you
c. Inter-group struggles – Us against them
d. Individual Opposing a Group – me against them, them against me
e. Intra-Group Conflict – members of group all against each other on a
task
Types of Conflict
3. Approach-Avoidance – Conflict can be
described as having features of “approach and
avoidance”. Approach speaks to the things
that we want while avoidance refers to things
that we do not want.
Kinds of Approach-Avoidance Conflict
a. Approach-Approach Conflict – in approach-approach
conflict, the individual must choose between two
positive goals of approximately equal value. In this,
two pleasing things are wanted but only one option
should be chosen.
Example: choosing between two preferred colleges
Kinds of Approach-Avoidance Conflict
b. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict – Avoidance-
Avoidance conflict involves more obvious sources of
stress. The individual must choose between two or
more negative outcomes.
Example: a woman with unwanted pregnancy may be
morally opposed by abortion
Kinds of Approach-Avoidance Conflict
c. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – Approach-
Avoidance conflict exists when there is an attractive
and unattractive part to both sides. It arises when
obtaining a positive goal necessitates a negative
outcome as well.
Example: Student who is offered a stolen copy of an
important final exam.
Kinds of Approach-Avoidance Conflict
d. Multiple-Approach Avoidance Conflict – refers to
conflict with complex combinations of approach and
avoidance conflicts. It requires individual to choose
between alternatives that contain both positive and
negative consequences (Lahey, 2001).
Functional vs Dysfunctional Conflict
a. Dysfunctional Conflict – there is dysfunctional
conflict if conflict disrupts, hinders job
performance and upsets personal psychological
functioning.
b. Functional Conflict – there is functional
conflict if conflict is responsive and innovative
aiding creativity and viability.
DEPRESSION
 Depressionis an illness that causes a person to feel
sad and hopeless much of the time. It is different
from normal feelings of sadness, grief, or low energy.
Anyone can have depression. It often runs in
families. But it can also happen to someone who
doesn’t have a family history of depression. You can
have depression one time or many times.
Symptoms of Depression
People who are depressed may:

 a. Think and speak more slowly than normal

 b.Have trouble concentrating, remembering and
making decisions.
 c. Have changes in their eating and sleeping habits.
 d.Lose interest in things they enjoyed before they
were depressed
Symptoms of Depression
People who are depressed may:

e. Have feelings of guilt and hopelessness, wondering

if life is worth living
f. Think a lot about death or suicide
g. Complain about problems that don’t have a
physical cause, such as headache and stomach ache
(Zemla, 2012)
Different Forms of Depression
(Depressive Disorders)
1. Major Depressive Disorders (clinical depression) – It is
characterized by a combination of symptoms that interferes a
person from functioning normally. People with MDD often
lose interest in activities they once enjoyed and have trouble
performing everyday activities. Occasionally, they may also
feel as if life isn’t worth living. An episode of major depression
may occur only once in a person’s lifetime but more often, it
recurs throughout a person’s life..
 To be diagnosed with MDD, you need to meet the symptom criteria listed in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). This manual helps
medical professionals diagnose mental health conditions. According to its criteria, you
must have 5 or more of the following symptoms, and experience them at least once a
day for a period of more than 2 weeks:
a) You feel sad or irritable most of the day, nearly every day.
b) You are less interested in most activities you once enjoyed.
c) You suddenly lose or gain weight or have a change in appetite.
d) You have trouble falling asleep or want to sleep more than usual.
e) You experience feelings of restlessness.
f) You feel unusually tired and have a lack of energy.
g) You feel worthless or guilty, often about things that wouldn’t normally make you feel
that way.
h) You have difficulty concentrating, thinking, or making decisions.
i) You think about harming yourself or committing suicide.
Different Forms of Depression
(Depressive Disorders)
2. Dysthymic Disorder (or also referred to as Dysthymia) –Generally, this
type of depression is described as having persistent but less severe
depressive symptoms than Major Depression. Manifest nearly constant
depressed mood for at least 2 years accompanied by at least two or more
of the following:
a. decrease or increase in eating
b. difficulty sleeping or increase in sleeping
c. low energy or fatigue
d. low self-esteem
e. difficulty concentrating or making decisions
f. feeling hopeless
Dysthymic Disorder (or also referred to as Dysthymia)

 Although dysthymia was traditionally considered

less severe than major depression, the
consequences of dysthymia are increasingly
recognized as grave; they include severe functional
impairment, increased morbidity from physical
disease, and increased risk of suicide.
Different Forms of Depression
(Depressive Disorders)
3. Psychotic Depression – this occurs when a severe depressive illness
is accompanied by some form of psychosis such as a break with
reality, hallucinations and delusions.
4. Postpartum Depression – this is a major depressive episode that
occurs after having a baby. A new mother develops a major
depressive episode within one month after delivery. It is estimated
that 10 to 15 percent of women experience postpartum depression
after giving birth. In rare cases, a woman may have a severe form of
depression called postpartum psychosis. She may act strangely, see or
hear things that aren’t there and be a danger o herself and her baby.
Different Forms of Depression
(Depressive Disorders)
5. Bipolar Disorder – this is also called manic-depressive
illness, is not as common as major depression or
dysthymia. Bipolar disorder is characterized by cyclical
mood changes – from extreme highs (e.g., mania) to
extreme lows (e,g. depression).
6. Endogenous Depression – endogenous means from
within the body. This type of depression is defined as
feeling depressed for no apparent reason.
Different Forms of Depression
(Depressive Disorders)
8. Situational Depression or Reactive Depression (also
known as adjustment disorder with depressed mood) –
depressive symptoms develop in response to a specific
stressful situation or event (e.g job loss, relationship ending).
These symptoms occur within 3 months of the stressor and
lasts no longer than 6 months after the stressor (or its
consequences) has ended. Depression symptoms cause
significant distress or impairs usual functioning (e.g.
relationships, work, schools) and do not meet the criteria for
major depressive disorder.
Different Forms of Depression
(Depressive Disorders)
9. Agitated Depression –characterized by agitation
such as physical and emotional restlessness,
irritability and insomnia which is the opposite of
many depressed individuals who have low energy
and feel slowed down physically and mentally
inappropriate social behavior (Dryden-Edwards,
2013).
How to battle depression?
a. Socializing – eating out, movies, ballgames with
family or friends.
b. Helping others in need = volunteer work, feeding
the homeless, etc.
c. Praying – works for all moods, especially
depression (Kahayon and Aquino, 1999).
STRESS
 At the most basic level, stress is our body’s response to
pressures from a situation or life event. Some common
features of things that can make us feel stress include
experiencing something new or unexpected, something
that threatens your feeling of self, or feeling you have
little control over a situation.
 Stressis a normal reaction the body has when changes
occur. It can respond to these changes physically,
mentally, or emotionally.
STRESS
 Stress is a normal part of life. You can experience
stress from your environment, your body, and your
thoughts. Even positive life changes such as a
promotion, a mortgage, or the birth of a child
produce stress.
What is Stressor?
 Stressor is anything that produces stress. For
example, getting a promotion is a positive
event, but may also produce a great deal of
stress with all the new responsibilities, work
load, etc.
Two Types of Stressors
 1. Eustress (Positive) – eustress is a word consisting of two
parts. The prefix derives from the Greek eu meaning either
“well” or “good”. When attached to the word “stress”, it
literally means “good stress”.
 It is a stress that is healthy, or gives one a feeling of
fulfillment or other positive feelings. Eustress is a process of
exploring potential gains. A stress that enhances function
(physical or mental, such as through strength training or
challenging work) is considered eustress.
EXAMPLES OF EUSTRESS

 Receiving a promotion or raise at work.

 Starting a new job.
 Marriage.
 Buying a home.
 Having a child.
Two Types of Stress
 2. Distress (Negative) – distress is known as the
negative stress. Persistent stress that is not resolved
through coping or adaptation, deemed distress,
may lead to anxiety or withdrawal (depression)
behavior (Lazarus, 1974).
EXAMPLES OF DISTRESS
• The death of a spouse.
• Filing for divorce.
• Losing contact with loved ones.
• The death of a family member.
• Hospitalization (oneself or a family member).
• Injury or illness (oneself or a family member).
• Being abused or neglected.
Effects of Distress
 A. ineffectiveness at tasks
 B. self-defeating behavior
 C. transitional suicidal behavior
 D. anxiety and fear
 E. loss of interest and initiative
 F. poor decision-making
 G, dangerous action
 H. accidents
 I. apathy and cynicism.
Frustration
 Frustration is a negative emotional state that occurs when
one is prevented from reaching a goal. Frustration is an
unpleasant state of tension and heightened sympathetic
activity, resulting from a blocked goal. It is associated with
motivation since we won’t be frustrated if we were not
motivated to achieve the goal. Frustration may be external
or personal.
External Frustration
 External frustration is a distress caused by outwardly
perceivable conditions that impedes progress towards
a goal.

Personal Frustration
 Personal frustration is a distress caused by the
individual’s inner characteristic that impedes
progress towards a goal (Uriarte, 2009)
Sources of Frustration
 1. Physical Obstacles such as: drought,
typhoons, flat tire, etc. that prevents a person
from doing his plans or fulfilling his wishes.
 2. Social Circumstances such as: obstacles
through the restrictions imposed by other
people and customs and laws of social being.
Sources of Frustration
 3. Personal Shortcomings such as: handicapped
by diseases, blindness, deafness, etc.
 4. Conflicts between Motives such as: wanting
to leave college for a year to try painting, but
also wanting to please one’s parents by
remaining in school.
Common Responses to Frustration
 1. Aggression – refers to any response made with
the intent of harming some person or objects. The
intentional infliction may be a physical or
psychological harm.
 2. Displaced Aggression – it refers to the
redirecting of aggression to a target other than the
actual source of one’s frustration.
Common Responses to Frustration
 3. Scapegoating – it refers to the act of blaming a
person or group of people for conditions not of their
making.
 4. Escape – it is the act or reducing discomfort by
leaving frustrating situation or by psychologically
withdrawing from them such as apathy (pretending
not to care) or illegal drug use.
REFERENCES

 Cherry, K. (2021). Types of Basic Emotions and Their Effect

on Human Behavior. https://www.verywellmind.com/an-
overview-of-the-types-of-emotions-4163976
 Niwlikar, B. (2022). Popular Theory of the 6 Basic Emotions
by Paul Ekman. https://www.careershodh.com/popular-
theory-of-the-6-basic-emotions-by-paul-ekman/
 Eduardo, J & Panganoron, C (2015). Human Behavior &
Crisis Management. Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.