INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

PSYCHOLOGY IS THE SCIENTIFIC OF THE relation to behaviors and psychological

MIND AND BEHAVIOR processes.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY  OCCUPATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - or
organizational psychologists are
 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY - integrates involved in assessing and making
science, theory, and practice in order to recommendations about the performance
understand, predict and relieve problems
of people at work and in training.
with adjustment, disability, and discomfort.
 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL - uses
It promotes adaption, adjustment, and
personal development.
scientific methods to understand how
social influences impact human
 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY -
behavior.
investigates internal mental processes,
such as problem solving, memory, CORTISOL is the primary stress hormone
learning, and language. PERSPECTIVES
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY -
this is the scientific study of systematic  BIOLOGICAL
- a way of looking at psychological issues
psychological changes that a person
by studying the physical basis for animal
experiences over the life span, often
and human behavior.
referred to as human development.  PSYCHOANALYTIC
 EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY - looks  According to Freud's psychoanalytic
at how human behavior, for example theory, the id is the primitive and
language, has been affected by instinctual part of the mind that contains
psychological adjustments during evolution. sexual and aggressive drives and hidden
 FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY - involves memories, the super-ego operates as a
applying psychology to criminal moral conscience, and the ego is the
investigation and the law. realistic part that mediates between the
 SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY -. is a desires of the id and the super-ego.
proficiency that uses psychological  Sublimation is a mature type of defense
knowledge and skills to address optimal mechanism, in which socially
performance and well-being of athletes, unacceptable impulses or idealizations
developmental and social aspects of are transformed into socially acceptable
sports participation, and systemic issues actions or behavior, possibly resulting in
associated with sports settings and a long-term conversion of the initial
impulse.
organizations.
 Projection refers to placing your own
 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY - is also called
negative traits or unwanted emotions
behavioral medicine or medical
onto others, usually without reason.
psychology; It observes how behavior,  Denial is one of the most common
biology, and social context influence defense mechanisms. It occurs when you
illness and health. refuse to accept reality or facts.
 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY - looks at the  Repression is instead of facing those
structure and function of the brain in thoughts, people may unconsciously
 choose to hide them in hopes of  It emphasizes the psychological health
forgetting them entirely. of human beings, through
 Regression is for people who feel psychotherapy, focusing on the
threatened or anxious may individual’s free will, values, and
unconsciously “escape” to an earlier goodness of people.
stage of development.  During the 1950s, a school of thought
 Displacement is you direct known as humanistic psychology
strong emotions and frustrations toward emerged. Influenced greatly by the work
a person or object that doesn’t feel of prominent humanists such as Carl
threatening. Rogers and Abraham Maslow, this
 Rationalization is for some people may perspective emphasizes the role of
attempt to explain undesirable behaviors motivation on thought and behavior.
with their own set of “facts.”  More on Philosophical aspects of human
 Reaction Formation is for people who life.
use this defense mechanism recognize
how they feel, but they choose to behave
in the opposite manner of their instincts.  COGNITIVE
 Compartmentalization is separating your  It focuses on the processing, organizing,
life into independent sectors may feel like a storing, and retrieving of information
way to protect many elements of it. and is concerned with the higher mental
 Intellectualization when you’re hit with processes such as thinking, memory, etc.
a trying situation, you may choose to This area of psychology focuses on
remove all emotion from your responses mental processes such as memory
and instead focus on quantitative facts. processes such as memory, thinking,
 BEHAVIORAL (WILLHELM WUNDT – problem solving, language and decision-
established the first psychology laboratory making
in Germany)  This approach often compares the
 IVAN PAVLOV (Classical human mind to that of a computer. It
Conditioning) Pavlov suggested that the states that human memory is comprised
salivation was a learned response. of three stages:
Pavlov's dog subjects were responding to
the sight of the research assistants' white Encoding: Information is received.
lab coats, which the animals had come to Storage: Information is retained.
associate with the presentation of food.
 BF SKINNER (Operant Conditioning Retrieval: Information is recalled.
also known as instrumental  SOCIAL CULTURAL
conditioning) is a process by which - The social-cultural perspective considers
humans and animals learn to behave in the way that different individuals
such a way as to obtain rewards and interact with their social groups and how
avoid punishments. these social groups influence different
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT – YOU GIVE individuals and how they develop
throughout their lives.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – YOU
REMOVE SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

 HUMANISTIC (CARL ROGERS – founder Structuralism - was the first school of psychology
of Humanistic Psychology) and focused on breaking down mental processes
into the most basic components.
Functionalism - An early approach to psychology Educational Psychologists: Are concerned with a
that is concerned with what the mind does; the range of activities from initial design through
functions of mental activity and the role of behavior development and evaluation of both materials and
in allowing people to adapt to their environment. procedures for education and training.
Gestalt Psychology - A school of thought that looks Clinical Psychologists: Are concerned with the
at the human mind and behavior as a whole. diagnosis and treatment of psychological
disturbances.
Psychodynamic Model - The approach based on the
belief that behavior is motivated by unconscious Counseling Psychologists: Are concerned with
inner forces which the individual has little control counseling, teaching, consulting research, and/or
administration.
- ID – pleasure principle
- EGO – reality principle Cross-cultural Psychology: Is a branch of
- SUPER EGO – moral principle psychology that looks at how cultural factors
influence human behavior.
Humanistic Model – Developed by Rogers and
Maslow in 1950s Forensic Psychology: It is defined as an intersection
between psychology and the criminal justice
Behaviorism - The approach that suggests that
system.
observable behavior should be the focus; this
perspective views behavior (except for genetically Environmental Psychology: Is an interdisciplinary
determined behavior) as the result of environmental field focused on the interplay between humans and
experience. their surroundings.
Cognitive Model - Studies mental processes Psychiatry:  is a medical specialty devoted to the
including how people think, perceive, remember treatment, study and prevention of mental disorders.
and learn.
Psychology of Women: This class explores the
FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY female experience within the world since women
have different experiences.
Experimental Psychology: a general title applied to
a variety of psychologists who are trained in METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
designing and conducting research in specific basic
Case History - An in-depth study of one person. In a
areas like learning, sensation and perception, human
case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life
performance, and motivation and emotion.
and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes
Biopsychology: Take a comparative and for behavior.
ontogenetic perspective in the experimental analysis
Naturalistic Observation - is a method of
of basic psychological processes as they relate to
observation, commonly used by psychologists,
the many ways in which animal species adapt,
behavioral scientists and social scientists, that
survive, reproduce and evolve.
involves observing subjects in their natural habitats.
Social Psychology: Study the ways in which the
Survey Method - is a method of scientific
social context affects the behavior of the individual
investigation in which a large sample of people
and groups in the real world and the laboratory.
answer questions about their attitudes or behavior.
Industrial/Organizational Psychologists: Are
Experimental Method - involves manipulating one
concerned with the relation between individuals and
variable to determine if changes in one variable
work. They are employed in business and industry,
cause changes in another variable.
in government, and in colleges and universities, and
may perform a variety of jobs. Correlation - Correlation studies are used to look for
relationships between variables. There are three
possible results of a co relational study: a positive - understanding and prior knowledge of
correlation, a negative correlation, and no the world
correlation. - Cognitive framework or concept that
helps organize and interpret information.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
ASSIMILATION - “is the integration of external
CHANGE – is a process involving five stages: pre-
elements into evolving or completed structures”
contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action,
and maintenance. ACCOMODATION – “the adjustment or
modification of schemas as new information is
GROWTH – focuses only on one aspect i.e increase
assimilated”
in a child's body size; an external process
EQUILIBRATION - “all human thought seeks order
DEVELOPMENT - focuses on various aspects like
and is uncomfortable with contradictions and
interpersonal skills, and intelligence; an internal
inconsistencies in knowledge structures”
process.
ERIK ERIKSON - maintained that personality
JOHN LOCKE – tabula rasa concept (mind is blank
develops in a predetermined order through eight
or in an empty state)
stages of psychosocial development, from infancy
JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU – believed in the to adulthood.
essential goodness of children
8 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
SIGMUND FREUD – deterministic DEVELOPMENT

ALFRED BINET – developed the first intelligence 1. HOPE (trust vs mistrust) – birth to 1 ½ years
test or children 2. WILL (autonomy vs shame/doubt) – 2-3
years
G. STANLEY HALL – drew attention to the need 3. PURPOSE (initiative vs guilt) – 3-5 years
for research into child development 4. COMPETENCE (industry vs inferiority) –
JEAN PIAGET – interested in how children learnt 6-11 years
and their increasing capacity to understand the 5. FIDELITY (identity vs role confusion) – 12-
world through the process of maturation (growing 18 years
up). 6. LOVE (intimacy vs isolation) – 18-35 years
7. CARE (generativity vs stagnation) – 35-65
- SENSORY-MOTOR STAGE (birth to 1 years
y/o) object permanence – reacts to 8. WISDOM (integrity vs despair) – over 65
sensory stimuli but little use of language years
- PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 y/o) 9. PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISES – older adults
primitive reasoning/intuitive revisits the previous 8 stages. (developed by
age/egocentrism/centration – develops his wife Joan Erikson)
language but lacks operations
- CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE SIGMUND FREUD - founded psychoanalysis as a
(7-11 y/o) inductive reasoning – way of listening to patients and better understanding
understands conservation but has trouble how their minds work. According to the famous
reasoning psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through
- FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the
(12+) thinking more rationally/deductive development of the adult personality. His theory
reasoning - can reason logically described how personality developed over the
course of childhood.
SCHEMA
5 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
1. ORAL STAGE (birth – 1 ½ years) – - PET SCAN (positron emission
erogenous zone: mouth tomography) is a visual display of brain
2. ANAL STAGE (2-3 years) – erogenous activity that detects a radioactive form of
zone: bowel and bladder control glucose while the brain performs a given
3. PHALLIC STAGE (3-5 years) – erogenous task.
zone: genitals  STRUCTURAL METHOD
4. LATENCY STAGE (6-puberty) – A. MRI SCAN (magnetic resonance
erogenous zone: sexual feelings are inactive imaging) uses magnetic fields and radio
5. GENITAL STAGE (puberty-death) – waves to produce computer-generated
erogenous zone: maturing sexual interests. images that distinguish among different
types of brain tissue. Similar to CAT
Libido - which means sex drive or the desire for
(computerized axial tomography).
sex
 COMBINATION METHOD
Oedipus complex - describes these feelings of B. fMRI (functional MRI) is a comparison
wanting to possess the mother and the desire to of shots before and during the
replace the father performance of mental functions to map
the parts of the brain that control those
Electra complex - used to describe a girl's sense
functions. It combines the elements of
of competition with her mother for the affections
the MRI (structure) and PET (function).
of her father
AREAS AND PARTS OF THE BRAIN
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR
 OLDER BRAIN STRUCTURES
DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL (Alcoholism) -
A. The Brainstem
the theory that mental and physical disorders
1. Medulla
develop from a genetic or biological
2. Pons
predisposition for that illness (diathesis)
3. Reticular Formation
combined with stressful conditions that play a
B. Thalamus
precipitating or facilitating role.
C. Cerebellum
Lesioning is the removal or destruction of part D. The Limbic System
of the brain. 1. Amygdala
2. Hypothalamus
precipitating factor – a trigger
3. Hippocampus
THE BRAINSTEM – is the oldest part of the brain,
beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters
the skull. It is responsible for automatic survival
functions.
PARTS OF BRAINSTEM
THE BRAIN
MEDULLA is the base of the brainstem that
TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING THE BRAIN controls heartbeat and breathing.

 FUNCTIONAL METHODS PONS helps with movement and facial expression.

- EEG (electroencephalogram) is an RETICULAR FORMATION is a nerve network in
amplified recording of the electrical the brainstem that plays an important role in
waves sweeping across the brain’s controlling arousal.
surface, measured by electrodes placed
on the scalp.
THALAMUS is the brain’s sensory switchboard, information from skin surface and sense
located on trop of the brainstem. It directs messages organs.
to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits C. VISUAL CORTEX is located in the
replies to the cerebellum and medulla. It receives occipital lobe of the brain.
information for all the senses except smell. D. AUDITORY CORTEX is located in the
temporal lobe of the brain.
CEREBELLUM is called the “little brain” and is
attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps Aphasia is an impairment of language, usually
coordinate voluntary movements and balance. It caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s
also plays a part in memory, emotion regulation, area (impaired speaking or to Wernicke’s area
timing, emotional modulation and sensory (impaired understanding).
discrimination.
THE BRAIN’S PLASTICITY – the brain is
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM is a doughnut-shaped sculpted by our genes but also by our experiences.
system of neural structures at the border of the
 PLASTICITY refers to the brain’s ability to
brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions
modify itself after some type of injury or
such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex.
illness.
It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and
hypothalamus. OUR DIVIDED BRAIN
HIPPOCAMPUS processes memories.  LEFT HEMISPHERE
AMYGDALA consists of two almond-shaped - Processes logical tasks (reading,
neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and writing, speaking, mathematical and
anger. comprehension skills)
 RIGHT HEMISPHERE
HYPOTHALAMUS lies below the thalamus. It - Processes non-verbal
directs several maintenance activities like eating, tasks/perceptual (spatial
drinking, body temperature, and control of relationships, musical/artistic ability
emotions. It helps control the endocrine system by and mental imagery)
giving directions to pituitary gland.  THE CORPUS CALLOSUM is a wide band
THE CEREBRAL CORTEX of axon fibers that connect the two
hemispheres and allow them to
CEREBRAL CORTEX is the intricate fabric of communicate.
interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral
hemispheres. It is the body’s ultimate control and ADRENALINE for FIGHT or FLIGHT
information processing center. Also known as “epinephrine”, releases in response
STRUCTURE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX to stress. It increases heart rate, blood pressure,
glucose metabolism to boost physical reflexes.
A. FRONTAL LOBE – judgement/reasoning
B. PARIETAL LOBE – sense NORADRENALINE for ATTENTION and
C. OCCIPITAL LOBE – vision FOCUS
D. TEMPORAL LOBE – hearing Also known as “norepinephrine”, affects brain
FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX activity, contracts blood vessels, controls blood
flow, regulates heartbeat and liver function.
A. MOTOR CORTEX is the area at the rear of
the frontal lobes that control voluntary ENDORPHIN for PAIN MANAGEMENT
movements. Releases during exercise, excitement, and sex.
B. SENSORY CORTEX is the area at the front Produces the feeling of well-being, euphoria, and
of the parietal lobes that receives involved in pain management.
ACETYLCHOLINE for MEMORY and information and instructions from one set of cells to
LEARNING another.
Linked with thought, learning, and memory. - HYPOSECRETION/HYPERSECRETION of any
Stimulates muscle function, contractions of the hormone can be harmful to the body.
digestive tract. Involved with focus and alertness.
- The endocrine system and nervous system work
HISTAMINE for IMMUNE PROTECTION together to help maintain homeostasis.
Controls vasodilation, inflammation, and immune SECRETIONS OF THE PINEAL GLAND
response. Regulates metabolism, body temperature,
HOMEOSTASIS refers to the ability of an
hormone function, and sleep-wake cycle.
organism to maintain the internal environment of
DOPAMINE for REPEAT BEHAVIOR the body within limits that allow it to survive.
Provides pleasure and motivation, motor control GROWTH HORMONE is essential for growth and
and movement. Responsible for any repeat behavior development of bones, muscles, and other organs.
such as addiction.
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN is essential for the
GABA for MOTOR CONTROL growth of the adrenal cortex.
High levels improve focus and low levels cause THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE is
anxiety. Calms the firing nerves and contributes to essential for the growth and development of the
motor control and vision. thyroid gland.
SEROTONIN for CALMING and SLEEP FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE is a
gonadotropic hormone that stimulates the growth
Helps in sleep, memory, mood, and relaxation.
ovarian follicles in the female and the production of
Affected by exercise and light exposure. Also
sperm in the male.
released in the digestive tract and regulates appetite.
LUTEINIZING HORMONE is a gonadotropic
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
hormone stimulating the development of corpus
The endocrine system is made up of glands and the luteum in the female ovarian follicles and the
hormones they secrete. Although the endocrine production of testosterone in the male; produces
glands are the primary hormone producers: the estrogen and progesterone.
brain, heart, lungs, liver, skin, thymus,
PROLACTIN stimulates the development and
gastrointestinal mucosa, and placenta.
growth of the mammary glands and milk production
PRIMARY ENDOCRINE GLANDS during pregnancy.

 PITUITARY (the master gland MELANOCYTE-STIMULATING HORMONE

 PINEAL regulates skin pigmentation and promotes the
 THYROID deposit of melanin in the skin after exposure to
 PARATHYROID sunlight.
 ISLETS OF LANGERHANS ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE stimulates the
 ADRENALS reabsorption of water by the renal tubules.
 OVARIES (for females) Hyposecretion of this hormone can result in
 TESTES (for males) diabetes insipidus.
HORMONE is a chemical transmitter. It is released OXYTOCIN stimulates the uterus to contract
in small amounts from glands, and is transported in during labor, delivery, and parturition. A synthetic
the bloodstream to target organs or other cells. version of this hormone is called Pitocin. It also
Hormones are chemical messengers, transferring stimulates the mammary glands to release milk.
MELATONIN communicates information about CORTISOL regulates carbohydrate, protein, and fat
environmental lighting to various parts of the body. metabolism; has an anti-inflammatory effect; helps
Has some effect on sleep/awake cycles and other the body cope during times of stress.
biological events connected to them, such as a
CORTICOSTERONE is a steroid that influences
lower production of gastric secretions at night.
potassium and sodium metabolism.
SEROTONIN a neurotransmitter that regulates
ALDOSTERONE is essential in regulating
intestinal movements and affects appetite, mood,
electrolyte and water balance by promoting sodium
sleep, anger, and metabolism.
and chloride retention and potassium excretion.
SECRETIONS OF THE THYROID GLAND
ANDROGENS are several hormones including
The THYROID GLAND plays a vital role in testosterone; they promote the development of
metabolism and regulates the body’s metabolic secondary sex characteristics in the male.
processes.
SECRETIONS FROM THE ADRENAL
CALCITONIN influences bone and calcium MEDULLA
metabolism; maintains a homeostasis of calcium in
EPINEPHRINE also called adrenaline. It elevates
the blood plasma.
blood pressure, increases heart rate and cardiac
THYROXINE and triiodothyronine essential to output, speeds up the release of glucose from the
BMR (basal metabolic rate) the rate at which a liver, giving spurt of energy, dilates the bronchial
person’s body burns calories while at rest); tubes and relaxes airways, and dilates the pupils to
influences physical/mental development and see more clearly.
growth.
NOREPINEPHRINE is released when the body is
SECRETIONS OF THE PARATHYROID GLAND under stress,
The two pairs of PARATHYROID GLANDS are SECRETIONS OF THE OVARIES
located on the dorsal or back side of the thyroid
The ovaries produce several ESTROGEN hormones
gland. They secrete PARATHYROID which plays a
and PROGESTERONE. These hormones prepare
role in the metabolism of phosphorus.
the uterus for pregnancy, promote the development
SECRETIONS FROM THE ISLETS OF of mammary glands, play role in sex drive, and
LANGERHANS develop secondary sex characteristics in the female.
 Alpha cells facilitate the breakdown of SECRETIONS OF THE TESTES
glycogen to glucose. This elevates the blood
The testes produce hormone called
sugar.
TESTOSTERONE. It is essential for normal growth
 Delta cells suppress the release of glucagon
and development of the male sex organs.
and insulin.
Testosterone is responsible for the erection of the
 Beta cells secrete hormone insulin, which is penis.
essential for the maintenance of normal
blood sugar levels. Inadequate levels result SECRETIONS OF PLACENTA
in diabetes mellitus.
The placenta serves as an endocrine gland during
THE ADRENAL GLANDS are triangular-shaped pregnancy. It produces CHORIONIC
that are located on the top of each kidney. The GONADOTROPIN HORMONE, ESTROGEN,
inside is called the medulla and the outside layer is AND PROGESTERONE.
called the cortex.
SECRETIONS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL
SECRETIONS FROM THE ADRENAL CORTEX MUCOSA
The mucosa of duodenum and jejunum secretes the
hormone SECRETIN, which stimulates pancreatic
juice, bile, and intestinal secretion.