ACTA UNIVERSITATIS WRATISLAVIENSIS

No 207
X-th WINTER SCHOOL OF THEORETICAL PHYSICS IN KARPACZ

NONLINEAR REALIZATIONS OF INTERNAL AND SPACE-TIME

SYMMETRIES1
by
V.I. Ogievetsky
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna

Wroclaw 1974
1
Original page numbering (117-141) has been modified.
Introduction
In field theory the symmetries are realized as field transformations under which
the theory has to be invariant. The good old fashioned symmetries are represented by
linear and homogeneous field transformations

ψ 0 (x) = S −1 (Λ)ψ(Λx + a) (The Poincaré group)

ψ 0 (x) = eieα ψ(x); A0µ = Aµ (Gauge invarince of the first kind)
~ ~
ψ 0 (x) = eiθ t ψ(x) (Charge independence of strong interactions)
etc. · · ·

These symmetries lead to conservation laws of energy-momentum, of total angular

momentum, of charge, of isotopic spin, etc. ..., and all fields and state vectors have
to be classified according to representations of the corresponding groups: particles of
spin 0, 1/2, 1 · · · for the Poincaré group, of isotopic spin 0, 1/2, 1 for the isotopic
symmetry, etc. They give restrictions on the S-matrix elements between states with
fixed number of particles. We shall call these symmetries the algebraic ones.
But in field theory symmetries of a different nature exist also, which are realized
nonhomogeneously and even nonlinearly in fields. For example, gauge invariance of
the second kind
ψ 0 (x) = eieα ψ(x); A0µ = Aµ + ∂µ α
The chiral symmetry transformations, e.g., the chiral transformations of π-mesons in
SU (2) × SU (2)
Fπ
δ~π = ~ (1 − ~π 2 ) + Fπ−1 (~π~ )~π
2
the invariance under the group of general transformations of coordinates in general
relativity and so on.
These groups of transformations do not give any new conservation laws beside
these implied by their algebraic subgroups. They do not lend to classification of the
particle states. Instead these symmetry groups have a strong influence on the possible
form of dynamics; the low energy theorems for photons and pions in the cases of
gauge invariance and chiral SU (2) × SU (2) correspondingly, the Adler-Weisberger
relation, the equivalence principle in general relativity and so on. Because of this
such symmetries are called the dynamical. The concepts of algebraic and dynamical
symmetries are brilliantly discussed in Weinberg’s Brandeis lectures [1] to which I refer.
I shall discuss in these lectures the method of constructing the nonlinear realiza-
tions for Internal and space-time symmetry groups with given, algebraic subgroups e.g.
the isotopic group, the Lorentz group, etc. This method uses extensively the Cartan
differential forms and its development in field theory is due to Coleman, Wess, Zumino
[2] and especially to D.V. Volkov [3, 4].
To illustrate the nonlinear realizations of space-time symmetries I shall discuss
the Klein affine group, with the Lorentz group as its algebraic subgroup and I will show
the importance of this group. In combination with the conformal group, this group
leads to Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

2
Nonlinear realizations. Internal symmetries
It would be instructive to begin with the simplest case, the case of internal sym-
metry. Let G be the dynamic symmetry group, U being its algebraic subgroup. We
denote the generators of U by Vi (i = 1, · · · , k) and the remaining generators of G by
Za (a = k + 1, · · · , n). The commutation relations are

[Vi , Vj ] = cijk Vk (1.a)

[Vi , Za ] = ciab Zb (1.b)
[Za , Zb ] = cabc Zc + cabi Vi (1.c)

where c are structure constants of the group G.

If second term in (1.c) is absent the algebra of G has an automorphism V →
V, Z → −Z. Note that this case corresponds to the symmetric group space. A general
group element of G can be represented in some vicinity of unity in the form

g = eiαa Za eiui Vi ∈ G (2)

In order to obtain the nonlinear realization of G/U we have to introduce the fields
ξa (x) corresponding to generators Za and having the same transformation properties
under U as Za ’s. These fields ξa (x) can be called preferred or Goldstone fields.
To define the action of the group G on ξa (x) we form eiξa Za . Note that this
expression is an element of G. Then
0
geiξa Za = eiξa (ξ,g)Za eiui (ξ,g)Vi (3)

In fact we are considering the coset space G/U . Now we define

g: ξa → ξa0 = ξa0 (ξ, g) (4)

This is a group transformation law:

0 0 00 (ξ 0 (ξ,g 00 (ξ 0 (ξ,g 0
g1 g2 eiξZ = g1 eiξ (ξ,g2 )Z eiu (ξ,g2 )V =eiξ 2 ),g1 )Z
eiu 2 ),g1 )V
eiu (ξ,g2 )V =
00 (ξ 0 (ξ,g
2 ),g1 )Z
=eiξ eiu(ξ,g1 g2 )V (5)

because the generators V belong to subgroup U . So we have

ξ 0 (ξ, g1 g2 ) = ξ 00 (ξ 0 (ξ, g2 ), g1 ) (6)

and this proves the group property of the transformation law (4). This transformation
law is nonlinear.
For all other fields one can define the transformation law as follows. Let ψ be the
arbitrary field belonging to some linear representation D of the algebraic subgroup U .
Then for any element g ∈ G we define

g : ψ → ψ 0 = D eiu(ξ,g)V ψ


(7)

3
However D is a representation of U and we have eq. (6). This proves that eq. (7)
defines the group transformation law, nonlinear in Goldstone fields ξ(x). If an element
G belongs to the subgroup U , the (4) and (7) become linear representations of U . In
fact, if g = eiuV (u are constant parameters), then

eiuV eiξZ = eiuV eiξZ e−iuV eiuV = exp iξa eiuV Za e−iuV eiuV = eiξa ϕab Zb eiuV



because due to eq. (1.b) the generators Z form some representation of the group
U : eiuV Za e−iuV = ϕab Zb . So for g = eiuV the transformation laws (4) and (7) are
reduced to linear ones independent of Goldstone fields:

ξa0 = ϕab ξb , ψ 0 = D eiuV ψ.

(8)

Note that in the case when there exists the automorphism R: V → V, Z → −Z

one can easily find the linearly transformed quantity. Taking the inverse of (3), applying
the automorphism and making product with (3) we obtain the linear transformation
law for e2iξZ :
0
ge2iξZ R g −1 = e2iξ Z


(9)
Duo to the dependence of transformation laws on the Goldstone fields one has to have
some special prescription for obtaining the covariant derivatives of fields, i.e. such
quantities, which transform under G as representations of the algebraic subgroup U
with ξ-depending parameters. The Cartan differential forms provide us a very powerful
tool. Let us consider e−iξZ deiξZ , where the differential d acts on ξ(x). Decomposing
this expression into the complete system of generators V and Z we have (∂ωaZ and ∂ωiV
are the Cartan differential forms.)

e−iξ(x)Z deiξ(x)Z = iZa ∂ωaZ + iVi ∂ωiV (10)

For the transformed fields we obtain using (3)

0 0
e−iξ Z deiξ Z =eiu(ξ,g)V e−iξZ g −1 d geiξZ e−iu(ξ,g)V =
=eiu(ξ,g)V e−iξZ deiξZ e−iu(ξ,g)V + eiu(ξ,g)V de−iu(ξ,g)V

because the element g is independent of ξ. For the Cartan differential forms it follows
that
0
Z∂ω Z = eiu(ξ,g)V Z∂ω Z e−iu(ξ,g)V
0
∂ωaZ = ϕab (ξ, g)∂ωbZ = DZ eiu(ξ,g)V ∂ω Z a



(11)
i.e. the form ∂ωaZ is transformed according to a linear representation of the algebraic
subgroup U with ξ-depending parameters, and
0
V ∂ω V = eiu(ξ,g)V V ∂ω V e−iu(ξ,g)V − ieiu(ξ,g)V de−iu(ξ,g)V (12)

Now we can define the covariant derivative of the Goldstone field ξa (x) in the
form
∂ωaZ (ξ)
∇µ ξ 0 = DZ eiu(ξ,g)V ∇µ ξ


∇µ ξ = ; (13)
∂xµ

4
For an arbitrary field ψ transforming under the algebraic subgroup U according to the
representation D(U ) we form the covariant differential

∆ψ = ∂ψ + iVj ∂ωjV ψ (14)

where V are the generators of U in the representation D(U ) appropriate to the field
ψ. Using eq. (12) one obtains

∆ψ 0 = D eiu(ξ,g)V ∆ψ


(15)

and one can define the covariant derivative of ψ in the form

∂ψ ∂ωjV
∇µ ψ = + iVj ψ (16)
∂xµ ∂xµ
The covariant derivatives ∇µ ψ transform under G in the same way as ψ itself
does eq. (8);
∇µ ψ 0 = D eiu(ξ,g)V ∇µ ψ


(17)
Since ψ, ∇µ ψ and ∇µ ξ all have the transformation rules (8), (17) and (13) any
Lagrangian constructed from just these quantities will be invariant under the full group
G if it is invariant under the algebraic subgroup U .
The Goldstone fields ξ(x) have to enter a Lagrangian only through their covariant
derivatives ∇µ ξ. At the same time the vacuum state and particle states are invariant
only under the algebraic subgroup U , so the full symmetry G is spontaneously broken.
We note however, that with additional requirements on the behaviour of the
tree diagrams at high energies, consistent with the Regge behaviour, some algebraic
properties of the full group G reappear [5–7].
Namely the one-particle states must form irreducible or reducible linear represen-
tations of the full group G. The mass-matrix m2 must belong to definite representa-
tions of G for all cases investigated; SU (2) × SU (2)/SU (2) [5], SU (3)/SU (2) × Y [6],
SU (3)×SU (3)/SU (2)×Y . The results are very good, they give the Gell-Mann-Okubo
mass-formula, Gell-Mann-Oakes-Renner formula and so on.

Nonlinear realizations. Combined space-time and internal

symmetries
Now we turn to the combined space-time and internal symmetries. We shall use
the coordinates xi (i = 1, · · · , 4) where x4 = ict. In this case the group G under
consideration must contain the translations represented by the generators Pµ . Let the
full set of generators of the group G consist of Pµ , the Lorentz group generators Lµν
the generators of some good internal symmetry group Vi (say, isotopic one) and let us
denote the remaining generators of G by Za . The subscript a may be some combination
of the Lorentz indices µ, ν and the internal symmetry indices. The Lorentz group is a
good one so it is necessarily contained in the algebraic subgroup U , which can contain
also come good internal symmetry, represented by the generators V .

5
 We have to find the nonlinear representation of some group G which become linear
on its algebraic subgroup U . To this end one can represent the action of G in a form
analogous to eq. (3)
0 0 0
geixP eiξ(x)Z = eix P eiξ (x )Z u(ξ(x), g) (18)
ξ(x) are Goldstone fields whose the transformation properties under the Lorentz and
a good Internal symmetry group are determined by the corresponding transformation
properties of the generators Z.

u(ξ(x), g) = eiui (ξ(x),g)Vi eiuµν (ξ(x),g)Lµν

is an algebraic subgroup element with ξ-depending parameters. Let us emphasize that

in the right hand side of eq. (18) in all places stands just the transformed coordinate
x0 and not x. It is easy to see quite analogously to the case of internal symmetry
considered above that if G belongs to the algebraic subgroup U , then the translation
of ξ become linear, e.g. the Lorentz transformation, under which x0 = Λx, ξ 0 (x0 ) =
S −1 (Λ)ξ(x). Also for a translation, due to the special place occupied by eixP in eq.
(18) we have for eiP a ; x0 = x + a; ξ 0 (x0 ) = ξ(x). For the general group element g eq.
(18) determines the nonlinear transformation law for ξα (x):

ξa0 (x0 ) = ξa0 (ξ(x), g) (19)

(Let us forget that the argument of ξ 0 (x0 ) is x0 not x!) Let ψ be an arbitrary field,
which is transformed under the algebraic subgroup according to representation D(u)
with the generators Lµν and Vi appropriate to ψ. The transformation law for ψ(x)
under the group G is given by

ψ 0 (x0 ) = D (u (ξ(x), g)) ψ(x) (20)

So ψ(x) transforms according to its representation D but with parameters depending

on the Goldstone fields ξ(x). This dependence disappears if g belongs to the algebraic
subgroup U . The proof of the group property of the transformation laws (19) and (20)
is quite analogous to that for the internal symmetry case (see above) and we omit it.
In order to obtain Cartan differential forms we consider now

e−iξ(x)Z e−ixP d eixP eiξ(x)Z = iPµ ∂ωµP (x)+iZa ∂ωaZ (x)+iVi ∂ωiV (x)+iLµν ∂ωµν
L
(x) (21)

Now just as above (see eq. (11)) we obtain the transformation laws for these
forms
0
Pµ ∂ωµP (x0 ) = u (ξ, g) Pµ ∂ωµP (x)u−1 (ξ, g) (22.a)
0
Za ∂ωaZ (x0 ) = u (ξ, g) Za ∂ωaZ (x)u−1 (ξ, g) (22.b)

 
0 L 0 0
Vi ∂ωiV (x0 ) + Lµν ∂ωµν (x ) =u (ξ, g) Vi ∂ωiV (x) + Lµν ∂ωµν
L
(x) u−1 (ξ, g) −
− iu (ξ, g) du−1 (ξ, g) . (22.c)

6
We see that the forms ∂ωµP (x) and ∂ωaZ (x) are transformed under G according to the
representations DP and DZ of the algebraic subgroup U with parameters depending
on the Goldstone fields ξα (x). E.g. ∂ωλP (x) transforms as a Lorentz vector
 
0
∂ωλP (x0 ) = eiuµλ (ξ,g)Lµν ∂ωσP (x) (23)
λσ

where Lµν -are matrices of the vector representation of the Lorentz group (because Pµ
is a Lorentz vector and a scalar under any internal symmetry). Now we can construct
out of these forms the covariant derivatives. The appropriate term is ∂ωP∂ (x) . (recall
µ
∂
that ∂xµ
has bad transformation properties).
The covariant derivatives of the Goldstone fields are defined as
∂ωaZ (x)
∇µ ξa (x) = (24)
∂ωµP (x)

The covariant differential ∆ψ of any other field ψ transforming according to a repre-

sentation D of the algebraic subgroup U is defined as

∆ψ(x) = ∂ψ(x) + iV ∂ω V ψ(x) + iL∂ω L ψ(x) (25)

where Vi and Lµν are the internal symmetry and Lorentz matrices appropriate to
representation D. Then
∆ψ 0 (x0 ) = D(u)∆ψ(x) (26)
Therefore the covariant derivative of ψ is

∂ψ(x) ∂ω V (x) ∂ω L (x)

∇µ ψ(x) = + iV ψ(x) + iL ψ(x) (27)
∂ωµP (x) ∂ωµP (x) ∂ωµP (x)

and it transforms under G according to some reducible representation of the algebraic

subgroup U with ξ -depending parameters. Now we can repeat the statement made
above (under eq. (17)):
Since ψ, ∇µ ψ and ∇µ ξ transform according to representations of the algebraic
subgroup U , any Lagrangian L will be invariant with regard to the full group G, if it
is invariant under the algebraic subgroup U .
However, the volume element −idx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 is non adequate. To obtain the
correct volume element we have to construct it out of the differential forms ∂ωµP (x) in
an invariant manner. Note that we can write

∂ωµP (x) = ωµν dxν (28)

Now the invariant volume ia given by the external product

dV = −i∂ω1P ∧ ∂ω2P ∧ ∂ω3P ∧ ∂ω4P = −i Det(ω)dx1 dx2 dx3 dx4 (29)

R
The action principle is δ LdV = 0. As in the case of internal symmetries below,
all these nonlinear realizations G/U correspond to spontaneously broken symmetries:

7
the Lagrangian and the equations of motion are invariant with respect to these nonlin-
ear transformations but the vacuum and particle states are invariant only with regard
to the algebraic subgroup.
Note that nonlinear realizations of conformal symmetries were considered in sev-
eral papers, e.g. by Isham, Salam, Strathdee [8, 9] and Volkov [4]. Volkov [4] described
also a general theory, of nonlinear realizations with the use of Cartan differential forms.
In a remarkable paper [10] he constructed a nonlinear realization of space-time algebra
which includes the spinor anticommuting generators.
Let us point that all formulas above determine the transformation laws and the
Lagrangian up to a change of field variables.

Examples. Affine group

Let us consider the very interesting case of the affine group of Klein. The affine
group is the group of transformations under which all straight lines transform into
straight lines. These transformations are general linear transformations of space-time:

x0µ = aµν xν + eµ . (30)

The corresponding group G is the semi-direct product

G ∼ P4 ⊗ GL(4, R)

Now we shall consider nonlinear realizations of this group which become linear
on an algebraic subgroup of it - the Lorentz group, so we deal with the symmetry
G/L. Here I follow the paper of A. Borisov and myself. The full set of generators of
G is: four translation generators Pµ , six Lorentz generators Lµν and ten symmetric
generators Rµν (the trace of Rµν gives dilatation). The commutation relations are:

1
[Lµν , Lρσ ] = δµρ Lνσ + δνσ Lµρ − (µ ↔ ν)
i
1
[Lµν , Rρσ ] = δµρ Rνσ + δνσ Rµρ − (µ ↔ ν)
i
1
[Rµν , Rρσ ] = δµρ Lνσ + δνσ Lµρ + (µ ↔ ν) (31)
i
1
[Lµν , Pσ ] = δµσ Pν − (µ ↔ ν)
i
1
[Rµν , Pσ ] = δµσ Pν + (µ ↔ ν)
i
In this case the Z, generators are Rµν and therefore the Goldstone field is a
symmetric tensor field hµν . The action of the group G is defined according to the
general prescription (18) which reads in one case as
0 0 0
geixP eih(x)R = eix P eih (x )R eiuµν (h,g)Lµν (32)

8
 Then one gets for infinitesimal special-linear transformations with parameters αµν
(i.e. g = exp (iαµν Rµν ))
X  
δhµν = h0µν (x0 ) − hµν (x) = bmn hm αhn (33)
µν
m,n

X  
m n
uµν = cmn h αh (34)
µν
m,n
 
where hm αhn is:
µν

hµσ1 hσ1 σ2 · · · hσm−1 σm ασm ρ1 hρ1 ρ2 · · · hρn ν

and coefficients bmn and cmn are given by generating functions:

X
σ1 (x, y) = bmn xm y n = 2(x − y) cth 2(x − y) (33’)
m,n
X
σ2 (x, y) = cmn xm y n = −th (x − y) (34’)
m,n

For calculations we can use the vector representation in which

   
Rµν = i δµλ δνσ + δµσ δνλ
λσ

Then     4hµσ hσν

eihαβ Rαβ = e−2h = δµν − 2hµν +
− ··· (35)
µν µν 2!
The automorphism L → L, R → −R gives (in matrix representation) the relation for
special linear transformations
0 0
e−2α e−4h(x) e−2α = e−4h (x ) (36)
 
which means that e−4h(x) is transformed linearly. Analogously the second linearly
 µν 
transformed quantity is e4h(x) :
µν

0 0
e2α e4h(x) e2α = e4h (x ) (36’)

Note also the useful matrix relations, for infinitesimal transformations which follow
from (32)  ±2h
= ± α, e±2h
 
u, e
δe±2h = ± α, e±2h + u, e±2h
  
(37)
Now we can write the general infinitesimal transformation law for any field ψ(x)
under P4 ⊗ GL(4, R)

δψ(x) = ψ 0 (x0 ) − ψ(x) = iuµν (h)Lµν ψ(x) (38)

9
where uµν is given by eq. (34) and Lµν are matrices representing the Lorentz group
generators on the field ψ. So for spinors Lµν = 21 σµν and we have
1
δψ(x) = iuµν (h) σµν ψ(x) (39)
2
Analogously for the four-vectors aµ :
   
Lαβ = −i δαµ δβν − δαν δβµ
µν

and we obtain
δaµ (x) = a0µ (x0 ) − aµ (x) = 2uµν (h)aν . (39’)
This quantity transforms nonlinearly in the Goldstone field hµν under a special
affine transformation being a four-vector with regard to the Lorentz transformation.
However, in the case of integer spins one can define some linearly transformed quantities
by means of a change of field variables. For any given aµ one can introduce a covariant
vector as  
Aµ = e2h aν (40)
µν

and a contravariant vector as

   
Aµ = e−2h aν = e−4h Aν (41)
µν µν

These quantities transform linearly. Using equations (37) one can easily see that under
special affine transformation these quantities transform according to

δAµ = 2αµν Aν

δAµ = −2αµν Aν (42)

Analogously one can introduce covariant and contravariant linearly transforming
tensors for any representations (p, q) (p + q = 0, 1, 2, · · · ) of the Lorentz group. We
wish to stress that this cannot be done if p + q = 12 , 32 , · · ·
According to the general prescriptions given above the Cartan differential form
(22.a)  
−ihµν Rµν
P
Pµ ∂ωµ (x) = e Pλ dxλ e ihµν Rµν
= Pµ e2h dxν
µν

Therefore  
∂ωµP (x) = e2h dxν (43)
µν

and
∂   ∂
= e−2h (44)
∂ωµP (x) µν ∂xν

For invariant volume we obtain (29)

  r  
2h
dv = Det e dx = Det e4h dx4
4
(45)

10
The covariant derivatives according to eqs. (24) and (27) can be written down as:
for the Goldstone fields
1  −2h  n 2h ∂ −2h o
∇λ hµν = − e e , e , (46)
4 λσ ∂xσ µν

for an arbitrary field ψ with Lorentz generators Lµν :

 
∇λ ψ(x) = e−2h · ∂σ ψ(x) + iLµν Vµν,λ (h)ψ(x) (47)
λσ

with
1  −2h  n 2h ∂ −2h o  
Vµν,λ (h) = e e , e − c ∇µ hλν − ∇ν hλµ (48)
4 λσ ∂xσ µν

where c is an arbitrary constant.

The first term here is given by the general procedure above and the second is a
non-minimal addition. Just as in the case of electrodynamics one can introduce Fµν
into the definition of covariant derivative ∂µ − ieAµ − cγµ Fµν and the last term gives
a nonminimal gauge invariant electromagnetic coupling.
Now the invariant action principle can be obtained by constructing out of all fields
ψ, ∇µ ψ and ∇λ hµν a Lorentz scalar and by integrating it over the invariant volume dv.
The strong resemblance of this theory to the Einstein general relativity theory is
observed on each step. The Goldstone field is the symmetric tensor field. The transfor-
mation laws for covariant and contravariant vectors (42) are just the same as in general
relativity (and also in all other tensor fields). Moreover the nonlinear spinor transfor-
mation law (39) coincides with that derived in gravitation theory by Polubarinov and
by myself[11,12] (up to the field variable change), if one identifies the metric tensor
gµν with e4h . This identification follows also from the form of the invariant vol-
µν
ume (43) and from the relation between covariant and contravariant vectors (41). The
covariant derivative (47) would coincide with that in general relativity if the constant
c in eq. (48) was equal to 1. It can be verified that with c = 1 the covariant derivative
(47) gives rise to affine connections for linearly transformed tensors and it coincides
with the covariant derivative for spinors derived in [11, 12]. The form (47) has some
advantages since it is written down in a unified manner for all the representations of
the Lorentz group.
The whole correspondance with the Einstein theory is achieved if one considers
simultaneously the P4 ⊗ GL(4, R) group and the conformal group, It is so because the
following statement is correct and can be proved: The closure of conformal and affine
algebra is just the algebra of general coordinate transformations.
The Einstein gravitation theory is deduced if one considers the nonlinear realization
of the affine group and the conformal group simultaneously. It is remarkable that
gravitons play a twofold role - they are Goldstone particles for the Klein group and
they are gauge particles according to the group of general coordinate transformations.

I am cordially indebted to Dr. W. Tybor for help in preparing this lecture.

11
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